Title: Basic Fundamentals of Orifice Meter Measurement by Ken Kendall

BASIC FUNDAMENTALS OF ORIFICE METER MEASUREMENT by Ken Kendall Fluid meters are divided into two functional groups One measures primarily quantity (Positive Displacement); the other measures primarily rate of flow (Inferential.) All fluid meters, however, consist of two distinct parts, each of which has different functions to perform. The first is the primary element, which is in contact with the fluid, resulting in some form of interaction. This interaction may be that of imparting motion to the primary element; the fluid may be accelerated etc. The second or secondary element translates the interaction between fluid and primary element into volumes, weights or rates of flow and indicates or records the results. For example, a weigher will be weighing tanks as its primary element and a counter for recording the number of fillings and dumpings as its secondary element. In an orifice meter, the orifice together with the adjacent part of the pipe and the pressure connections, constitute the primary element, while the secondary element consists of a differential pressure gage together with some sort of mechanism for translating a pressure difference into a rate of flow and indicating the result, in some cases also recording it graphically and integrating with respect to the time. This same sort of combination will be observed in almost all other types of meters.

PRIMARY DEVICE Positive Displacement (Quantity Meters) - Some of the more common positive displacement meters are: Weighers, Reciprocating Piston, Rotating Piston, Nutating Disk, Sliding and Rotating Vanes, Gear and Lobed Impeller, and the meter most commonly used to sell small quantities of gas at relatively low flow rates, the Bellows meter. Inferential (Rate Meters) - (a) Orifice Plates - The most commonly used rate or inferential meter is the thin-plate, concentric orifice; a detailed discussion will be in later paragraphs. (b) Flow Nozzles & Venturi Tubes - Flow Nozzles and Venturi Tubes are a primary rate device which will handle about 60% more flow than an orifice plate under the same conditions, and can therefore handle higher velocity flows. They are usually more expensive to install and do not lend themselves to as easy size change or inspection as orifice plates. (c) Pitot Tubes - A Pitot or impact tube makes use of the difference between the static and kinetic pressures at a single point. A recent device, which is in effect a multiple Pitot tube, averages the flow profile; its commercial name is Annubar. (d) Turbine Meters - A element is some device of the stream in which makes is approximately turbine or velocity meter is one in which the primary that is kept in continual rotation by the linear motion it is immersed. The number of revolutions the device proportional to the rate of flow.

(e) Swirlmeters, Vortex Shedding Meters, Rotometers, Mass Flow Meters, etc.

What is an Orifice Meter? An orifice meter is a conduit and a restriction to create a pressure drop. An hourglass is a form of orifice meter. A nozzle, venturi or thin sharp edged orifice can be used as the flow restriction. In order to use any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to empirically calibrate them. That is, pass a known volume through the meter and note the reading in order to provide a standard for measuring other quantities. Due to the ease of duplicating and the simple construction, the thin sharp edged orifice has been adopted as a standard and extensive calibration work has been done so that it is widely accepted as a standard means of measuring fluids. An orifice in a pipeline is shown in figure 1 with a manometer for measuring the drop in pressure (differential) as the fluid passes thru the orifice. The minimum cross sectional area of the jet is known as the "vena contracta."

How does it work? As the fluid approaches the orifice the pressure increases slightly and then drops suddenly as the orifice is passed. It continues to drop until the "vena contracta" is reached and then gradually increases until at approximately 8 diameters downstream another maximum pressure point is reached. The decrease in pressure as the fluid passes thru the orifice is a result of the increased velocity of the gas passing thru the reduced area of the orifice. When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the orifice the pres-sure increases and tends to return to its original level. All of the pressure loss is not recovered because of friction and turbulence losses in the stream. The pressure drop across the orifice (h in Fig. 1) increases when the rate of flow increases. When there is no flow there is no differential. The differential pressure is proportional to the square of the velocity, it therefore follows that if all other factors remain constant, and then the differential is proportional to the square of the rate of flow.

Orifice Flow Measurement - History The first record of the use of orifices for the measurement of fluids was by Giovanni B. Venturi, an Italian Physicist, who in 1797 did some work that led to the development of the Venturi Meter by Clemons Herschel in 1886. It has been reported that an orifice meter, designed by Professor Robinson of Ohio State University was used to measure gas near Columbus, Ohio, about 1890. About 1903 Mr. T. B. Weymouth began a series of tests in Pennsylvania leading to the publication of coefficients for orifice meters with flange taps. At the same time Mr. E. 0. Hickstein made a similar series of tests at Joplin, Missouri, from which he developed data for orifice meters with pipe taps. A great deal of research and experimental work was conducted by the American Gas Association and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers between 1924 and 1935 in developing orifice meter coefficients and standards of construction for orifice meters. In 1935 a joint A.G.A. - A.S.M.E. report was issued titled "History of Orifice Meters and The Calibration, Construction, and Operation of Orifices For Metering." This report is the basis for almost all-present day orifice meter measurement. Several additional publications are available to simplify measurement by orifice meters. These are: A.G.A. "Gas Measurement

Committee Report No. 3; C.N.G.A. (now Pacific Energy Assoc.) Bulletins TS-561 (Natural Gas) and TS-621 (Liquids), ASME Fluid Meters 6th Edition, ASME Power Test Code, Chapter 4 on Flow Measurement and Principles and Practice of Flow Meter Engineering by L. K. Spink (Published by Foxbord).

Fundamental Gas Laws - BASIS OF MEASUREMENT All matter is composed of exceedingly tiny particles called molecules. A molecule is defined as the smallest particle, which can exist in the free and un-decomposed state; i.e., natural gas is composed of molecules of methane, ethane, etc. These molecules are in constant motion and it is the impact of these molecules on the sides of a container, which is measured as pressure. Temperature regulates the speed of the molecules and therefore, an increase in temperature increases the motion of the molecules, which in turn increases the pressure. As decreased temperature and pressure causes decreased motion of the molecules, it follows there must be some point where there is no molecular activity. The points where there is no molecular activity are absolute zero temperature (approximately -460F) and absolute zero pressure (approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch below atmospheric pressure). Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure (14.7 p.s.i.). Absolute temperature is equal to degrees Fahrenheit (F) plus 460 and is called degrees Rankin. Boyles Law states that in a perfect gas the volume is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure. If a cylinder has a volume of gas at an absolute pressure of 14.7 p.s.i. and a piston was to displace the volume in the cylinder until the pressure reached 29.4 p.s.i., then the cylinder would contain one-half of its original volume. Charles Law states that the volume of a perfect gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. If a cylinder has a volume of gas at 60F or 520 Rankin (absolute) and a piston was used to displace the volume so as to maintain a constant pressure while the temperature was doubled to the 580F or 1040 Rankin (absolute) the cylinder would contain twice its original volume. The combined Boyle's and Charle's Law is commonly written in the form of the equation:

When discussing a quantity of gas it is necessary to define it. We could use weight such as pounds or ounces but it is difficult for most laymen to think of gas as having weight. So, the most common definition is a cubic foot at some base pressure and base temperature. The bases used by most areas of the country are 14.73 p.s.i.a.and 60F. (See USEFUL FORMULAS on page 16.)

FACTORS USED IN ORIFICE MEASUREMENT

a. Specific Gravity (Fg) With a given force being applied on a gas, a larger quantity of a light weight gas can be pushed through an orifice than a heavy gas. Since the flow varies

according to the square root law, twice as much gas having a specific gravity of .25 will flow through the orifice as will a gas having a specific gravity of 1.0. b. Pressure (P) and (Ftb) Flowing pressure has a double effect on volume. The higher pressure makes the gas heavier so less volume flows through the orifice, but when this volume is expanded to the base pressure (standard cubic foot) the volume is doubled. Therefore, by doubling the absolute pressure, the flow can be increased to 141% of the original. c. Temperature (Ftf) and (Ftb) Flowing temperature also has two effects on the volume. First, a higher temperature means a lighter gas so more flow will exist, but when this higher flow is corrected to base temperature (standard cubic foot), the volume is decreased by the first power. As a result of doubling the absolute temperature the flow is reduced to 70.7% of the original. d. Supercompressibility (for gases only) (Fpv) Boyle's Law states that when pressure is applied to a perfect gas, the volume decreases proportionally. For actual gases the volume will decrease more than this amount because as the gas molecules get closer together, there is an attraction set up between them which will create more force to bring them even closer together. If a spring has a force of 14.4 pounds acting on it and the length is "d," it can be so designed that a force of 28.8 pounds would decrease this length to "d/2." Now if the top and bottom had plates which were changed to magnets which have an attraction for each other, then when the force of 28.8 pounds is applied, and the length will be less than "d/2" because of the extra force obtained from the magnets. Supercompressibility then, is the measure of this deviation from Boyle's Law. e. Expansion Factor (for gases only) (Y) In gas flows a part of the observed pressure drop is expended in the expansion of the gas as it passes thru the orifice. Expansion factors are, in effect, a density correc-tion; correcting for the difference in density between the gas as it is measured at the tap hole and as it actually is at the orifice. The expansion factor, when the static pressure is taken from the upstream flange tap (Y1), is different than when it is taken from the downstream flange tap (Y2). The (Y2) corrections are smaller than the (Y1), so are most often used. f. Reynold's Number (Fr) A dimensionless number which is a combination of viscosity, pipe diameter, velocity and density and is used to provide a common basis on which the actual conditions of measurement can be related to those under which the basic factors were determined. The actual ratio is the result of dividing the product of the velocity, the diameter and the density, by the viscosity of the fluid. Since Reynold's number is often the most difficult to comprehend we might try to put it in every day terms. Let's assume we have a hallway (pipeline) wide enough (diameter) for men weighing 200 pounds each (density) to walk three abreast. As long as they are

walking slowly (velocity), all three will move along in file, but if they try to move faster (increase in velocity) the two outside men will be bumping into the wall. The center man, one third of the stream, is the only one very effective in increasing the rate of delivery. Now suppose that the hallway was wide enough for these same men to be five abreast (larger diameter). Again at slow rates, all five move along without difficulty. As they are required to move faster, the three in the center can accelerate without much trouble. Three-fifths of the stream, instead of one-third, is now effective in speeding up delivery. All of this was with a constant density and a constant viscosity. If we want to find the effect of increasing viscosity, we might put a long rubber rain coat on each man, and then cover the coats with some sticky material: the results are quite clear. Increasing viscosity slows down the flow, but it has less effect as the diameter increases. The effect of density on Reynold's number is more apparent when the fluid has to change either velocity or direction. It is much the same as the difference between a 250 pound plunging fullback and a 160 pound "scatback." The "scatback" (the lighter density) can change pace or direction much more readily than the plunging fullback (heavy density). g. Basic Orifice Flow Factor (Fb) This is the empirical data obtained by many hundreds of readings using the test equipment assembled according to the limits and conditions of inside finish, inside diameter, length of pipe run, etc. In most tables it is actually the amount of air per hour that would flow through a given orifice in a given line when the pressure in the line was one pound per square inch absolute, when the differential pressure across the given orifice was one inch of water pressure, and when the flowing temperature of the air was 60F, all reported as cubic feet at a standard pressure of 14.73 psia and at a standard temperature of 60F. h. The Orifice Flow Constant (coefficient C') By combining the above factors Fg x Ftf x Ftb x Fpb X Fpv x Y x Fr x Fb = C' we arrive at a practical method of computing flow thru an orifice meter. The new formula is Q = C' hp where Q is quantity, h is differential pressure in inches of water, p is the static line pressure in pounds per square inch absolute and C' is the coefficient computed for the particular installation and flowing conditions. Since liquids, for all intents and purposes, are incompressible there is no need to compensate for changes in pressure. Therefore, the liquid formula is: Critical Flow The above square root flow formula applies to subsonic flow only. Sonic or critical flow occurs when the velocity of the gas or vapor reaches the speed of sound (approx. 700 miles per hour). A gas cannot be made to travel any faster and remain in the same state. A rule of thumb to use in gas flow is that critical flow is reached when the downstream pipe tap registers an absolute pressure of approximately 50% or less than the upstream pipe tap.

Major Advantage of Orifice Meter Measurement Flow can be accurately determined without the need for actual fluid flow calibration. Well-established procedures convert the differential pressure into flow rate, using empirically derived coefficients. These coefficients are based on accurately measurable dimensions of the orifice plate and pipe diameters, combined with easily measurable characteristics of the fluid, rather than on fluid flow calibrations. With the exception of the orifice meter, almost all flow meters require a fluid flow calibration at flow and temperature conditions closely approximating service operation in order to establish accuracy. In addition to not requiring direct fluid flow calibration, orifice meters are simple, rugged, reliable and relatively inexpensive.

THE ORIFICE PLATE a. The thin - plate, concentric orifice In the design and use of orifice plates, several basic factors must be followed, to assure accurate and reliable measurement. The upstream edge of the orifice must be sharp and square. Minimum plate thickness based on pipe I.D., orifice bore, and etc. is regulated. The plate should not depart from flatness along any diameter by more than 0.01 inch per inch of pipe radius. To conform with recommended practices, the orifice-to-pipe diameter ratio d/D (called Beta ratio), must not exceed recommended limits.

b. Eccentric Orifice Plates The eccentric plate has a round opening (bore) tangent to the inside wall of pipe. This type of plate is most commonly used to measure fluids which carry small amount of non-abrasive solids, since with the opening at the bottom of pipe, the solids will carry through, rather than be deposited on the back of orifice plate. the a the the

c. Segmental Orifice Plates The opening in a segmental orifice plate is comparable to a partially opened gate valve. This plate is generally used for measuring liquids or gases which carry non-abrasive impurities such as light slurries or exceptionally dirty gases. Predictable accuracy of both the eccentric and segmental plate is not as good as that of the concentric plate.

d. Quadrant Edge Plate Most recent of the new innovations is the quarter-circle or quadrant orifice developed for fluids of high viscosity. The orifice incorporates a rounded edge of definite radius, which is a particular function of the orifice diameter.

METER TAP LOCATIONS

a. Flange Taps These taps are located one inch from the upstream face of the orifice plate and one inch from the downstream face.

b. Pipe Taps These taps are located 2-pipe diameters upstream and 8 pipe diameters downstream (point of maximum pressure recovery). Pipe taps and Flange taps are universally used in the United States.

c. Vena - Contracta Taps These taps are located one pipe diameter upstream and at the point of minimum pressure downstream (this point is called the vena-contracta). This point, however, varies with the Beta ratio and exact dimensions are given in appropriate tables.

d. Corner Taps These taps are located immediately adjacent to the plate faces, upstream and down-stream. Corner taps are most widely used in Europe.

ORIFICE FITTINGS (Primary Element)

Orifice Flanges The most elementary device used to hold an orifice plate in place is the orifice flange union. Orifice Flanges have been used for a great many years but gained in importance during the 1920's, when the petroleum industry began making extensive use of orifice measurement. It did not take many years to discover that the orifice flange, in spite of simplicity, had many shortcomings in certain applications. It was apparent that it could not be conveniently used for wide variations of flow or in services where flow interruptions are expensive. Therefore, it was often necessary to by-pass the flow so that the orifice plate could be changed as conditions warranted.

The Senior Orifice Fitting Changing plates in orifice flanges was time consuming and expensive. It became evident that operating personnel were in need of some device, which would make the operation of plate changing or inspection less tedious. Therefore, the first significant type of orifice fitting is known as the Senior type, having a design permitting the change or the removal of a plate under actual flowing conditions. The Senior Orifice Fitting is a two-chambered fitting, having the lower chamber, which is really the line, bolted to an upper chamber or bonnet. Separating the two chambers is a valve. The valve is opened and closed with a shaft and pinion gear assembly. The plate carrier and the orifice plate are elevated out of the

fitting by iden-tical shaft and pinion assemblies. The Senior Fitting is currently manufactured in line sizes of 2" through 42", and in pressure ranges up to 10,000 pounds working pressure.

The Junior Orifice Fitting Some time after the development of the Senior Orifice Fitting, attention was given to the problem of changing orifice plates when a by-pass was in existence, or where two or more meter tubes were joined by common headers. Since orifice flanges are unhandy and do require a considerable amount of time when used, thought was turned to developing a simple fitting for speedy operation. The result was the Junior type fitting. The Junior Fitting is much like the Senior, except the Junior does not have a top chamber. The Junior Fitting requires only the following steps to remove an orifice plate from the line: 1. Depressure the meter tube. 2. Loosen set screws; remove top clamping bar, sealing bar, and gasket. 3. Turn shaft, elevating orifice plate out of the fitting.

The Junior Fitting is currently available in line sizes 8" through 34" and for special applications, has been manufactured in larger sizes up to 48".

The Simplex Orifice Plate Holder The Simplex Orifice Plate Holder is the third basic type of orifice fitting, and was developed specifically to provide an economical, accurate replacement for conventional orifice flanges where the frequency of plate changing is slight so that a Senior is not considered. The Simplex is basically the same as the Junior except you do not elevate the orifice plate with a shaft and pinion gear. Since the Simplex is made in sizes 1" thru 6" only, the plate and plate carrier can easily be removed by hand.

Meter Tubes In recent years may companies have joined with industry to study the effects of the upstream and the downstream pipe immediately adjacent to the orifice plate. These lengths of pipe are known as meter tubes, meter runs, flow sections, meter sections, etc., however, the most generally accepted terminology is meter tubes. It has been clearly demonstrated that the length and the condition of the pipe used in meter tubes has a very important bearing on the overall accuracy of the measurement. In keeping with the care of manufacture of orifice meters and orifice fittings, today the manufacture of meter tubes has become a considerable science.

DIFFERENTIAL METERS (Secondary Element)

Visual Manometers A manometer in its simplest form is a glass tube bent in the form of the letter "U" and partially filled with some liquid. If both ends of the "U" tube are open to the atmosphere, the pressure on each side would be alike, and the column of

liquid on the one side of the "U" tube will exactly balance the column of liquid on the other side and the surface of the two levels will be on the same level. If one leg of the "U" tube is connected to a supply pipe in which the pressure is a little greater than the other leg, then the column of liquid will go down on the one side and up on the other, and the difference becomes a true measure of the difference in pressure (pressure drop) in the two legs of the manometer. Because the visual manometer is basic in calibration, friction-free, and simple, it is used in most field and laboratory calibrations of primary devices.

Mercury Float Type Differential Meters The mercury-recording meter utilizes the basic "U" tube manometer principal by placing a steel float on one side of the manometer, filled with mercury. The movement of the float is carried via a linkage through a pressure-tight bearing to the atmosphere to indicate, record or control. For a period of over 35 years, it has been widely used, particularly in the gas industry.

Bellows or Dry Type Differential Meter This type meter uses concentrically corrugated diaphragms or bellows. Modern designs use two bellows with the intervening space filled with liquid. This liquid prevents deformation at high over-range conditions and makes it possible to install an adjustable damping device between the two bellows. The Bellows meter eliminates problems inherent to mercury meters such as mercury loss when over-range an decontamination of mercury with the line fluids, etc.

RECORDING CHARTS

Most orifice meter recording charts are circular and will revolve one revolution every 1 hour, 24 hours, 7 days or any other pre-determined length of time. The important thing is that the chart be replaced before the second revolution takes place. This is done either manually or by automatic chart changes. Recording orifice meters come equipped with one, two or three pens. For liquid measurement a single pen for differential pressure is all that is required. For gas two pens are required in order to account for changes in static pressure. If significant temper-ature changes are anticipated, a third pen or a separate recorder is used. In order to know which pen line is which, Red ink is normally used for differential pressure and Blue or Black for static pressure. There is no normal color for temperature. To facilitate the determination of flow at any point in time, orifice charts are graphed on a square root scale rather than a linear scale. The following comparison graph shows the relationship of these two scales.

Orifice Meter Manifold Piping

General installation recommendations: 1. Meter manifold piping should always be installed to enable calibration as well as to protect the differential element against over-range.

2. The meter should be installed as close as possible to the orifice fitting. 3. Always slope the manifold lines gently from the orifice fitting to the meter to eliminate any high or low points in the manifold lines. 4. Use condensate chambers or air traps to remove either liquid from a gas system or gas from a liquid system if lows or highs in the manifold piping cannot be avoided. It is important when pressurizing or depressurizing differential measuring devices to apply or release pressure to or from the high and low meter chambers uniformly, so as not to impose excessive over-range.

Useful Formulas

Pressure correction Absolute pressure = gage pressure + 14.73 = psia

Temperature correction Absolute temperature = F + 460 = R (Rankin)