Metrology

A scientific paper reports information regarding an experimental or theoretical work. Experimental works involve measurements. Theoretical works include parameters obtained experimentally, and most often, they are validated through experimental work. Hence, measurements are essential for a scientific work, which is essential in a scientific paper.

General procedure for the scientific method

Metrology
Metrology: field of knowledge concerned with measurement. Measurement: Process of experimentally obtaining one or more quantities that can reasonably be attributed to another quantity.
Measurement implies comparison of quantities or counting of entities. Measurement presupposes description of the quantity commensurate with the intended use of the measurement result. Measurement presupposes a measurement procedure. Measurement presupposes a calibrated measuring system operating according to a specified measurement procedure.

Metrology
A measurement includes:
A numeric value. An unit associated to the numeric value. An uncertainty associated to the numeric value.

We use sensors to measure

Sensor: A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand

A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical) Common sensors convert measurement of physical phenomena into an electrical signal Active element of a sensor is called transducer

The Transducer
A device that converts one form of energy to another When input is a physical quantity and output electrical Sensor When input is electrical and output a physical quantity Actuator

Sensors Physical parameter Electrical Output

Actuators Electrical Input Physical Output

e.g. Piezoelectric: Force -> voltage Voltage-> Force

Commonly Measured Quantities

Stimulus
Acoustic Biological & Chemical

Quantity
Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave Velocity Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Electric

Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity

Magnetic

Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux, Permeability

Optical

Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal

Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical

Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress, Pressure, Torque

Spatial Variables Measurement

Displacement Measurement, Linear and Angular Thickness Measurement Distance Position, Location, Altitude Measurement Level Measurement Area Measurement Volume Measurement Angle Measurement Tilt Measurement Velocity and Acceleration Measurement Vibration and Shock Measurement

Time and Frequency Measurement

Time Measurement Frequency Measurement

Mechanical Variables Measurement (Solid)

Mass and Weight Measurement Density measurement Strain Measurement Force Measurement Torque Measurement

Mechanical Variables Measurement (Fluid)

Pressure and Sound Measurement Flow Measurement Point Velocity Measurement Viscosity Measurement Surface Tension Measurement

Thermal Variables Measurement

Temperature Measurement Thermal Conductivity Measurement Heat Flux Calorimetry Measurement

Electromagnetic Variables Measurement

Voltage Measurement Current Measurement Power Measurement Power Factor Measurement Phase Measurement Energy Measurement Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity Charge Measurement Capacitance and Capacitance Measurements

Electromagnetic Variables Measurement

Permittivity Measurement Electric Field Strength Magnetic Field Measurement Permeability and Hysteresis Measurement Inductance Measurement Immittance Measurement Q Factor Measurement Distortion Measurement Noise Measurement Microwave Measurement

Optical Variables Measurement

Photometry and Radiometry Densitometry Measurement Colorimetry Optical Loss Polarization Measurement Refractive Index Measurement Turbidity Measurement Laser Output Measurement Vision and Image Sensors

Radiation Measurement
Radioactivity Measurement Charged Particle Measurement Neutron Measurement Dosimetry Measurement

Chemical Variables Measurement

Composition Measurement pH Measurement Humidity and Moisture Measurement

Selection of a Sensor

Selection of a Sensor
Accuracy The degree of agreement of the measured dimension with its true magnitude. Precision Repeatability. Resolution The smallest dimension that can be read on an instruments. Sensitivity The input required to produce a response in an measuring device, expressed as the ratio of the response to the magnitude of the input quantity. Stability Capability to maintain calibrated status.

Precision vs. Accuracy

Metrology
Calibration: the act of checking or adjusting (by comparison with a standard) the accuracy of a measuring instrument. No instrument can properly operate for long periods.
Periodic calibration.

Displacement Measurement
Linear and Angular
Resistive Displacement Sensors Inductive Displacement Sensors Capacitive Displacement Sensors Piezoelectric Transducers and Sensors Laser Interferometer Displacement Sensors Bore Gaging Displacement Sensors Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Displacement Sensors Optical Encoder Displacement Sensors Magnetic Displacement Sensors Synchro/Resolver Displacement Sensors Optical Fiber Displacement Sensors Optical Beam Deflection Sensing

10

Displacement Measurement
Key Selection Criteria:
Define clearly what you need to measure and why? What type of environment will the sensor operate in (harsh, vacuum, high pressure, dusty, etc.)? Are there space restrictions? Compromising on resolution and accuracy may save you time and money, but will the sensor perform well enough in the application?

Displacement Measurement
Key Selection Criteria:
Custom versus standard off-the-shelf sensors? When considering standard versus custom sensors, improved sensor accuracy often comes from recalibration, intelligent integrated sensor software, improving the mechanical mounting or by manufacturing the sensor from better components or materials. http://www.micro-epsilon.co.uk/download/products/cat-Micro-Epsilon--products--en.pdf http://www.microepsilon.co.uk/download/products/T001--en--precise-noncontact-sensors.pdf

11

Potentiometer sensors (resistive)

Potentiometer consists of wire wound around a rod with fixed resistor R Movement of wiper change the resistance of the potentiometer

Potentiometer sensors (resistive)

12

Potentiometer sensors (resistive)

WEBSTER, J. G. The Measurement, Instrumentation, and Sensors Handbook. 1a ed. Boca Raton:CRC Press, 1999.

Inductive Displacement Sensors

The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is the most used variableinductance transducer in industry. It is an electro-mechanical device designed to produce an AC voltage output proportional to the relative displacement of the transformer and the armature, as illustrated in the figure below.

13

LVDT: Inductive Displacement Sensors Pros:

Relative low cost due to its popularity. Solid and robust, capable of working in a wide variety of environments. No friction resistance, since the iron core does not contact the transformer coils, resulting in an infinite (very long) service life. High signal to noise ratio and low output impedance.

LVDT: Inductive Displacement Sensors Pros:

Negligible hysteresis. Infinitesimal resolution (theoretically).
In reality, displacement resolution is limited by the resolution of the amplifiers and voltage meters used to process the output signal.

Short response time. No permanent damage to the LVDT if measurements exceed the designed range.

14

LVDT: Inductive Displacement Sensors

Cons:
The core must contact directly or indirectly with the measured surface which is not always possible or desirable. Dynamic measurements are limited to no more than 1/10 of the LVDT resonant frequency.

Mechanical Variables Measurement (Fluid) Pressure

Absolute or manometric (gage) Above or below atmosferic (vacuum)

15

Pressure sensing elements

Pressure

Detection methods
Required to convert the deformation of the sensing element into a pressure readout. In the simplest approach, the displacements of a sensing element can be amplified mechanically by lever and flexure linkages to drive a pointer over a graduated scale. Some pressure sensors employed a Bourdon tube to drive the wiper arm over a potentiometric resistance element. In piezoelectric pressure sensors, the strains associated with the deformation of a sensing element are converted into an electrical charge output by a piezoelectric crystal.
Piezoelectric pressure sensors are useful for measuring high-pressure transient events, for example, explosive pressures. Not suitable for static pressure measurement (continuous discharge of the crystal).

16

Example: Capacitive Pressure Transducer

The sensing diaphragm and capacitor form a differential variable separation capacitor. When the two input pressures are equal the diaphragm is positioned centrally and the capacitance are equal. A difference in the two input pressure causes displacement of the sensing diaphragm and is sensed as a difference between the two capacitances

Capacitive Pressure Transducer

Large application range:

high-pressure sensors with full-scale pressures above 10 MPa vacuum sensors (commonly referred to as capacitive manometers) for pressure measurements < 10 mPa Accurate within 0.1 % of reading or 0.01 % of full scale. Corrosion resistant

17

Pressure range

Pressure

Mechanical Variables Measurement (Fluid) Flow

What is the fluid being measured by the flowmeter: liquid or gas? Do you require rate measurement and/or totalization from the flow meter? What viscosity is the liquid? Is the fluid clean? What is the minimum and maximum flowrate for the flow meter?

18

Mechanical Variables Measurement (Fluid) Flow

What is the minimum and maximum process pressure? What is the minimum and maximum process temperature? Is the fluid chemically compatible with the flowmeter wetted parts? If this is a process application, what is the size of the pipe?

Mechanical Variables Measurement (Fluid)

Flow
Types of flow meters
Differential Pressure (DP) Flowmeters Variable Area (VA) Flowmeters Positive Displacement (PD) Flowmeters Turbine and Vane Flowmeters Impeller Flowmeters Electromagnetic Flowmeters Ultrasonic Flowmeters Vortex Shedding Flowmeters Thermal Mass Flow Sensors Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters Drag Force Flowmeters

19

Measuring volume or mass rate?

PD flowmeters are the only ones that directly measure volumetric flow.
Although techniques like turbine, ultrasonic and vortex measure the velocity of the gas stream in order to determine volumetric flow.

Inferential flowmeters, such as DP and variable rea (VA) sensors, measure neither volumetric nor mass flow, but infer its rate from other parameters, like a drop in pressure or the displacement of a float. Coriolis and thermal instruments are the only ones that measure the mass flow of gases.

Measuring volume or mass rate?

Volumetric and mass measurements can be converted between one another if the fluid density is known Density of gases is equally sensitive to pressure and temperature, unlike liquids that are less susceptible to changing conditions. Volumetric flow measurement still has its place in many processes, however it is more convenient to measure mass flow in gases and steam than volumetric flow.

20

Flow sensors
Coriolis
Use the Coriolis effect, in which a vibrating tube is caused to distort, for measuring the flow rate directly, eliminating the need to compensate for temperature, pressure and density. Can measure a mixture of gases, unknown gases, and fluids moving between gaseous and liquid states. High measuring accuracy, which is unaffected by flow profile, even down to very low flow rates.

Pros:

Coriolis

Higher accuracy than most flowmeters. Can be used in a wide range of liquid flow conditions. Capable of measuring hot (e.g., molten sulphur, liquid toffee) and cold (e.g., cryogenic helium, liquid nitrogen) fluid flow. Low pressure drop. Suitable for bi-directional flow.

Cons:
High initial set up cost. Clogging may occur and difficult to clean. Larger in over-all size compared to other flowmeters. Limited line size availability (6 ~ 200 mm ).

21

Coriolis

Flow sensors
Differential pressure
The most common type of flowmeter. DP measures the flow of gases inferentially, employing the Bernoulli equation that interprets the relationship between pressure and flow rate. These flowmeters introduce a constriction or obstruction in the pipeline, creating a pressure drop from which velocity and volumetric flow can be calculated. Various types of DP flowmeters are used, the most popular being the orifice plate, which can be subject to wear.

22

Differential pressure sensor

Orifice Meters

Venturi Meters

Flow Nozzles

Differential pressure sensor

Flow Rate Q = A2 v2 = A2 1 A2 1 A 1 1 A2 1 A 1
2 2

2 P

Ideal

For Re al Flow Q = YCA2 2 P

Y = Compressibility Factor = 1 for incompressible flow or when P<< Pabs C = Discharge Coefficient = f(Re) and type of flow meter

23

Differential pressure sensor

Differential pressure sensor

24

Differential pressure sensor

Flow sensors
Positive displacement
PD flowmeters measure volumes of fluid by repeatedly filling and discharging compartments of known volume, with fluid from the flowstream. There are various types of PD meter, using vanes, gears, pistons, paddles or diaphragms to separate the fluid. They provide high accuracy, but cannot handle dirty fluids, and they incorporate moving parts that are subject to wear.

25

Flow sensors
Positive displacement

Flow sensors
Thermal
Thermal flowmeters measure the mass flow of gases, employing a combination of heated elements and temperature sensors, with thermodynamic principles used to derive actual mass flow. They do not require correction for changes in gas temperature, pressure or density and are extremely accurate, especially when measuring low and very low flow rates.

26

Flow sensors
Turbine
Fluid passing through a turbine flowmeter spins an axial rotor, the rotational speed of which indicates flow velocity. They have a wide flow range and offer a reasonable level of accuracy at an affordable price, although they are restricted in use to clean, non-corrosive fluids. Similar comments apply to paddle wheel and pin wheel flowmeters, which translate the mechanical action of paddles/wheels into volumetric flow.

Flow sensors
Variable Area
VA flowmeters typically comprise a tapered glass or plastic tube and an internal metering float, with the volumetric flow rate proportional to the displacement of the float. Among the oldest flow technologies, it is inexpensive and easy to install, although historically had to be fitted vertically, and is sensitive to changes in temperature, pressure and density. Recently introduced a digital alternative, which offers greatly improved accuracy, electronic output signals and no fragile glass components in the flow path.

27

Flow sensors
http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/Flowmeter Selection.pdf

Common temperature sensors

Liquid-in-glass thermometres (normally used for calibration of other temperature sensors). Thermocouple (cheap, small size, resistant). Thermoresistance (more accurate).

28

Liquid-in-glass thermometres

Liquid-in-glass thermometres
The traditional thermometres Measurement scale from -190 C to +600 C Used mainly in calibration

29

Causes of inaccuraties
Temperature differences in the liquid Glass temperature also affects The amount of immersion (vs. calibration)

Thermocouples
Seebeck effect
If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one end is heated, current will flow. If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit voltage across the wires. Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types. For small Ts, the relationship with temperature is linear V = T For larger Ts, non-linearities may occur.

30

Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
Self Powered (does not require a current or voltage source) Rugged Inexpensive Simple

Disadvantages:
Extremely Low Voltage output (mV) Not very stable Needs a reference point

Thermocouple

31

Thermocouple

One wire cannot form a thermocouple: Net voltage = 0

Thermocouple

32

Thermocouple

Thermocouple

33

Measuring the Thermocouple Voltage

If you attach the thermocouple directly to a voltmeter, you may have problem.

6.5 T13 ( 35 T12 + 6.5 T23 )

6.5 (T13 T23 ) ( 35 T12 ) 6.5 (T1 T2 ) + 35(T1 T2 ) 41.5 (T1 T2 )

You have just created another junction! Your displayed voltage will be proportional to the difference between J1 and J2 (and hence T1 and T2). Note that this is Type T thermocouple.

External Reference Junction

A solution is to put J2 in an ice-bath; then you know T2, and your output voltage will be proportional to T1-T2.

6.5 T13 ( 35 T12 + 6.5 T23 )

6.5 (T13 T23 ) ( 35 T12 ) 6.5 (T1 T2 ) + 35(T1 T2 ) 41.5 (T1 T2 )

34

Thermocouple

Other types of thermocouples

Many thermocouples dont have one copper wire. Shown below is a Type J thermocouple.

35

A T13 + C T3C (C T4C + A T24 + B T12 )

A (T1 T3 ) + C (T3 TC ) [C (T4 TC ) + A (T2 T4 ) + B (T1 T2 )] A (T1 T3 ) + C (T3 TC ) C (T4 TC ) A (T2 T4 ) B (T1 T2 )

( A B ) (T1 T2 ) + (C A) (T3 T4 )

Isothermal Block
The block is an electrical insulator but good heat conductor. This way the voltages for J3 and J4 cancel out. Thermocouple data acquisition set-ups include these isothermal blocks.

Fe T13 + Cu T34 Fe T24 C T12

(Fe C ) (T1 T2 )

Fe T1I Fe T2 I C T12

Fe T13 + Cu T34 C T14

(Fe C ) (T1 TI )

Fe T1I C T1I

36

Thermocouple

Fe T13 + Cu T34 C T14

(Fe C ) (T1 TI )

Fe T1I C T1I

Typically cold junction temperature is sensed by a precision thermistor in good thermal contact with the input connectors of the measuring instrument.

Software Compensation
How can we find the temperature of the block? Use a thermister or RTD. Once the temperature is known, the voltage associated with that temperature can be subtracted off. Then why use thermocouples at all?
Thermocouples are cheaper, smaller, more flexible and rugged, and operate over a wider temperature range.

Most data acquisition systems have software compensation built in.

37

Hardware Compensation
With hardware compensation, the temperature of the isothermal block again is measured, and then a battery is used to cancel out the voltage of the reference junction. This is also called an electronic ice point reference.

Thermocouple types
Type E: Chromel + leg (nickel/10% chromium) and constantan - leg (nickel/45% copper). 200<T< 900C. Good for low temperatures since dV/dT is high( highest milivolt output of all thermocouple types. Can be used in sub-zero, oxidizing or inert applications but should not be used in sulfurous, vacuum or low oxygen atmospheres. Color code: purple for + and red for -. Type J: Iron + leg and a constantan - leg. 0 <T< 750C. Cheap because one wire is iron; high sensitivity but also high uncertainty (iron impurities cause inaccuracy). Can be used in vacuum, oxidizing, reducing and inert atmospheres. Due to the oxidation (rusting) in the iron leg, care when using in oxidizing environments above 500C. Color code: white for + and red for -.

38

Thermocouple types
Type K: Chromel + leg and Alumel (nickel/5% aluminum and silicon) - leg. Low cost, most popular. 200<T< 1250C. Popular type since it has decent accuracy and a wide temperature range; some instability (drift) over time. Recommended for use in oxidizing or completely inert environments. Should not be used in sulfurous environments. Better oxidation resistance then types E, J and T. Vacuum and low oxygen conditions should be avoided. Color code: yellow for + and red for -. Type N: Nicrosil (nickel 14% chromium 1.5 % silicon) + leg and a Nisil (nickel 4.5% silicon - .1% magnesium) - leg. 270<T<1300C. Color code: orange for + and red for -. Similar to Type K except that it is less susceptible to selective oxidation. Should not be used in vacuum and or reducing environments in an unsheathed design. Most stable over time when exposed to elevated temperatures for long periods.

Thermocouple types
Type T: Copper + leg and constantan - leg. 200<T<350C. Color code: blue for + and red for -. Can be used in oxidizing, reducing or inert applications. Good accuracy but low max temperature (400 C). One leg is copper, making connections easier. Watch for heat being conducted along the copper wire, changing the surface temp

39

Sheathing and SLE

Special Limits of Error wire can be used to improve accuracy. Sheathing of wires protects them from the environment (fracture, oxidation, etc.) and shields them from electrical interference. The sheath should extend completely through the medium of interest. Outside the medium of interest it can be reduced. Sometimes the bead is exposed and only the wire is covered by the sheath. In harsher environments, the bead is also covered. This will increase the time constant

Thermocouple errors

Any error in the measurement of cold junction temperature will lead to the same error in the measured temperature from the thermocouple tip.

If you do your own calibration, you can usually improve on the listed uncertainties.

40

Precautions and Considerations for Using Thermocouples

Most measurement problems and errors with thermocouples are due to a lack of understanding of how thermocouples work. Thermocouples can suffer from ageing and accuracy may vary consequently especially after prolonged exposure to temperatures at the extremities of their useful operating range.

Potential Problems
Poor bead construction
Weld changed material characteristics because the weld temperature was too high. Large solder bead with temperature gradient across it

Decalibration
Process of unintentionally altering the properties of the thermocouple wire. The usual cause is the diffusion of atmospheric particles into the metal at the extremes of operating temperature. Another cause is impurities and chemicals from the insulation diffusing into the thermocouple wire. Inhomogeneities in the wire; these are especially bad in applications with large temperature gradients. Common in iron wires.

41

Potential Problems
Connection problems
Errors caused by unintentional thermocouple junctions. Any junction of two different metals will cause a junction. Use the correct type of thermocouple extension wire to increase the length of the leads from your thermocouple. Any connectors used must be made of the correct thermocouple material and correct polarity must be observed.

Potential Problems
Noise
The output from a thermocouple is a small signal, so it is prone to electrical noise pick up. Most measuring instruments reject any common mode noise (signals that are the same on both wires) so noise can be minimized by twisting the cable together to help ensure both wires pick up the same noise signal. If operating in an extremely noisy environment, (such as near a large motor) it is worthwhile considering using a screened extension cable. If noise pickup is suspected first switch off all suspect equipment and see if the reading changes.

42

Potential Problems
Thermal Shunting
All thermocouples have some mass. Heating this mass takes energy so will affect the temperature that you are trying to measure. Consider for example measuring the temperature of liquid in a test tube: the heat will travel up the thermocouple wire and dissipate to the atmosphere so reducing the temperature of the liquid around the wires. If the thermocouple is not sufficiently immersed in the liquid, due to the cooler ambient air temperature on the wires, thermal conduction may cause the thermocouple junction to be a different temperature to the liquid itself. Thermocouple with thinner wires may help avoiding this problem, but attention to lead resistance.

Potential Problems
Lead Resistance
Thermocouples are made of thin wire to minimize thermal shunting and improve response times. Thus, thermocouple may have high resistance which can make it sensitive to noise and can also cause errors due to the input impedance of the measuring instrument. If thermocouples with thin leads or long cables are needed, it is worth keeping the thermocouple leads short and then using thermocouple extension wire (which is much thicker, so has a lower resistance) to run between the thermocouple and measuring instrument.

43

Potential Problems
Linearization
The measuring instrument must allow for the fact that the thermocouple output is non linear. The relationship between temperature and output voltage is a complex polynomial equation (5th to 9th order depending on thermocouple type). Analogue methods of linearization are used in low cost thermocouple meters. High accuracy instruments store thermocouple tables in computer memory to eliminate this source of error.

Thermoresistance sensors
The resistance of several materials changes with the temperature. In general, the resistance of metallic materials increase with T, whereas that of semiconductor decreases Thermistor: Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) and positive temperature coefficient (PTC) are small, very sensitive and used in a small range of temperature Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs): Wire wound or a thin film. Platinum is the most used material. International standard temperature sensor for laboratory applications between -270< T<660 C Popular Pt100

44

Thermoresistance
In the USA, ASTM Specification E1137 "Standards Specification for Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers" gives many details and specifications for them over the range from -200 C to 650C. Two RTD grades: A and B with a resistance-temperature relationship that has the following tolerances: Grade A Tolerance = [0.13 +0.0017 *|t|] C Grade B tolerance =[0.25 +0.0042 *|t|] C where |t| is the absolute value of the RTD's temperature in C. DIN Standard (German) recognizes three different tolerance classes: Class A tolerance: [0.15 + 0.002*|t|] C Class B tolerance: [0.30 + 0.005*|t|] C Class C tolerance: [1.20 + 0.005*|t|] C

Thermoresistance
Temperature vs resistance equation (Callendar-Van Dusen equation)

Here, RT is the resistance at T, R0 is the resistance at 0 C, and the constants (for =0.00385 platinum RTD) are:

= R

R0 100. R 0
1 oo

Since the B and C coefficients are relatively small, the resistance changes almost linearly with T.

45

Advantages of RTDs

Thermoresistance

Stable output for long period of time. Accurate readings over relatively narrow temperature spans. No need of special wire. Change in resistance linear.

Disadvantages, compared to the thermocouples:

Smaller overall temperature range. Higher initial cost. More sensible in high vibration environments. Higher response time. Current source required. Small change in resistance. Self heating. Less rugged than thermocouples.

46

RTD geometry

Sheathing: stainless steel or iconel, glass, alumina, quartz Metal sheath can cause contamination at high temperatures and are best below 250C. At very high temperatures, quartz and high-purity alumina are best to prevent contamination.

Thermoresistance

47

Thermoresistance
Require an electrical current to produce a voltage drop across the sensor that can be then measured by a calibrated read-out device.

Wheatstone bridge: R4.R2 = R3.R1 VAB=0, no current passing through the voltmeter OR
R4 R2 VAB = R +R R +R VS 4 1 2 3

Thermoresistance
Two wires connection

(R4+RL1+RL2).R2 = R3.R1

48

Thermoresistance
Three wires connection

(R4+RL2).R2 = (R3+RL1).R1 R4.R2 +RL2.R2= R3.R1+RL1.R1 R2=R1=R, and if RL2=RL1 R4= R3

Thermoresistance
Four wires connection

A power source A supplies a stable current S throught the thermoresistance, and the voltage drop is measured with a voltmeter. Negligeble effect of the conduction wires.

49

Thermoresistance
Three wires sensor measure through a 4 wires connection measure

Error caused by RL; thus, create the forth wire, as close as possible to the RTD. When a 4 wires connection is available, a two wires sensor can be used as 4 wires to reduce wire errors.

Potential Problems
RTDs are more fragile than thermocouples. An external current must be supplied to the RTD. This current can heat the RTD, altering the results. For situations with high heat transfer coefficients, this error is small since the heat is dissipated to air. For small diameter thermocouples and still air this error may become large. When the platinum is connected to copper connectors, a voltage difference will occur (as in thermocouples). This voltage must be subtracted off.

50

Thermistors
Thermistors also measure the change in resistance with temperature. Thermistors are very sensitive (up to 100 times more than RTDs and 1000 times more than thermocouples) and can detect very small changes in temperature. They are also very fast. Due to their speed, they are used for precision temperature control and any time very small temperature differences must be detected. They are made of ceramic semiconductor material (metal oxides). The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is very non-linear.

Thermistor Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
Very sensitive (has the largest output change from input temperature) Quick response More accurate than RTD and Thermocouples

Disadvantages:
Output is a nonlinear function Limited temperature range. Require a current source Self heating Fragile

51

Thermistor Non-Linearity

Resistance/Temperature Conversion
Standard thermistors curves are not provided as much as with thermocouples or RTDs. You often need a curve for a specific batch of thermistors. No 4-wire bridge is required as with an RTD. Thermistors do not do well at high temperatures and show instability with time (but for the best ones, this instability is only a few millikelvin per year)

52

Choice Between RTDs, Thermocouples, Thermisters

Cost thermocouples are cheapest by far, followed by RTDs Accuracy RTDs or thermisters Sensitivity thermisters Speed - thermisters Stability at high temperatures not thermisters Size thermocouples and thermisters can be made quite small Temperature range thermocouples have the highest range, followed by RTDs Ruggedness thermocouples are best if your system will be taking a lot of abuse

53