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Lecture 1 The Subject Matter of Grammar

Grammar - is the study of the structure of human language. Grammar studies the formal properties of words and sentences. It cosists of morphology and syntax. Morphology describes how words are structured and formed, how their constituents (morphemes) are classified and combined. Syntax describes how words are arranged and combined into phrases and sentences, how phrases and sentences are classified and combined into larger structures.

The Evolution of English Grammars

In the de elopment of !nglish grammars there ha e been se eral grammars" prescientific normati e (from the #$I-th century till the beginning of the ## - th century) grammar% &. scientific explanatory grammar. (from the turn-of-the century up to the middle of the &'th century) . (rescripti e )ormati e grammars prescribed and proscribed. *hey prohibited wrong, improper constructions and forms. *hey set up (postulated) standards of correctness. *hey made use of the rules of ancient +atin grammars which ser ed as a model for almost all !uropean grammars. *hey used the same terminology and distinguished the same word classes" nouns, erbs, ad,ecti es, ad erbs, etc. -./- can be counted as the beginning of the classical scientific grammar, which is represented by the names of 0enry Sweet and 1tto 2espersen (-.3'--/45), *he Great 6ane. My 7air +ady, *here is a motion-picture musical My 7air +ady about a linguist who wagers that he can transform the diction of a 8oc9ney-accented flower seller to that of an upper-class lady, from the play (ygmalion by George :ernard Shaw. (rofessor 0enry Sweet ser ed as the prototype for :. Shaw;s (rofessor 0iggins . Scientific grammars did not proscribe anything. *hat was a new approach. *his grammar defined general grammatical categories. It anticipated 7erdinand de Saussure;s synchronic approach. It proposed new techni<ues of linguistic description. *he epoch of these scholars is now called *raditional grammar.

The XX th Century Linguistic Schools

*raditional grammar is critici=ed by newer grammars for" -. its obscuring (ignoring) language itself as an intra-linguistic phenomenon% &.its focusing on logical and psychological (extra-linguistic) considerations% that is, for its being meaning-oriented% 5. its being atomistic. )ewer grammars of the ## century came to describe language as a system. *his approach was initiated by 7erdinand de Saussure (-.>?--/-5), a Swiss linguist, a pioneer in structuralism and semiotics. 0e profoundly contributed to the theoretical foundations of language studies. 0is great wor9 @*he General 8ourse of +inguisticsA (-/-3) is the starting point for the ## th century linguistics. *he most important structural and semiotic postulates which underlie the leading linguistic theories of the ## th century" -. +anguage is a social phenomenon% &. +anguage is a structured system of linguistic signs, which are interdependent and interconnected. 5. +anguage has two aspects" the system of language @la langueA and the actual linguistic beha iour or manifestation of this system @la paroleA (speech). *he system of language is a paradigmatic, ertical aspect. B paradigm is a ertical set of all possible forms of a word ( a girl, girls, a girl;s hat, girls; hats). *he relations between these forms are in ariable. Speech is a hori=ontal linear syntagmatic aspect of language. B syntagm is a linear se<uence of elements (0e disli9ed the enthusiasms of Bmerican girls).. *he relations wthin a syntagm are ariable. (aradigmatic relations are based on substitution, syntagmatic relations are based on co-occurrence (CDEFGCHIJK ECHLGMJGFDCHN.) 4. B study of language (la langue) can be diachronic or historical, focusing on historic change or synchronic (descripti e) treating language as a self-contained system at a gi en moment

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of its existence. 7. 6e Saussure preferred the synchronic descripti e approach to the historic study of language. >. B linguistic sign is bilateral, that is, it has two aspects" form and meaning. *he relations between them are asymmetrical. 3. +anguage is a system, the elements of which are related by means of similarities and differences, i.e. (id est lat. O HD GCHN) oppositions. Pe find oppositions on all linguistic le els. So, language can be studied on the basis of oppositions. 1n the phonological le el" long owels are opposed to short owels, oiced consonants are opposed to oiceless consonants. 1n the morphological le el" the plural number of nouns is opposed to the singular 1n the syntactical le el" composite sentences are opposed to simple ones. 1n the lexico-semantic le el words are opposed to each other" male"" female% man "" woman% God "" Satan, angel "" de il, etc. 7. de Saussure re olutionised linguistics. 0e introduced structuralism as a method of analysis which was broadly used in the ##th century humanities (linguistics, literary studies, sociology, philosophy), arts, etc. *he ideas of 7. de Saussure affected highly the (rague linguistic school, which created functional linguistics. Qnder his influence Bmerican linguists introduced Structural descripti e grammar, *ransformational and *ransformational generati e grammar. Prague Linguistic School !unctional Linguistics" *he (rague school of linguistics is represented by the names of $ilem Mathesius, Roman 2a9obson, )i9olai *rubets9oy, et al. *he group fa ored the synchronic, or descripti e, approach to linguistics. *he basic contributions of this linguistic school are -. *he theory of the phoneme, &.*he theory of oppositions and the oppositional method ().*rubets9oy), 5. *he functional sentence perspecti e (or the theory of communicati e dynamism), 4. *he theory of the asymmetry of a linguistic sign ( S. SarTe s9y).

The #symmetry of a Linguistic Sign

Qnder it we understand the absence of one-to-one relationship between meaning and form. 1ne form can express se eral meanings, one meaning can be expressed by se eral forms. *his asymmetry of the relations between form and meaning manifests itself in synonymy, polysemy, homonymy, syncretism, ambiguity, different semantic complications on the syntagmatic le el. (olysemy" to speculate - -. to think over the idea without having reliable facts; 2. to sell smth hoping to receive more. 0omonymy" -.8atholic - referring to Catholic church; learned, knowledgeable. Bmbiguity" He left the car with the girl ( Pe can put se eral <uestions to the element underlined" Phom did he lea e the car withU Phat car did he lea eU 0ow did he lea e the carU). Syncretism means combining two or more functions or meanings in one form. It was raining and foggy again (was combines the properties of the past continuous auxiliary and of the lin9 erb). Semantic complications arise syntagmatically, in discourse. Bffected by the context, grammatical forms de elop newer, connotational meanings ( of emoti eness, expressi eness, intensi eness, positi e or negati e e aluation)"He disliked the girls. He disliked the enthusiasms of American girls (*he former plural is customary. *he latter plural indicates the character;s ironic (negati e) attitude to the girlsV. #merican $escri%tive Linguistics Its main representati es are +eonard :loomfield (the head), 8harles 7ries, Welic 0arris, 8harles 0oc9ett, etc. *hey re,ected the traditional techni<ues of linguistic analysis. *hey studied the non-alphabetical incorporati e languages of Indian tribes which differ considerably from Indo!uropean languages. *hese linguists offered new procedures of description (arrangement, position, co-occurrence of linguistic elements) without resorting to meaning. 0ence this school is called, at times, :eha iorist Structural Grammar (+. :loomfield). Bccording to beha iorists, language is ,ust a form of beha ior. +inguistics should focus on linguistic performance, it should study the beha ior,

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distribution, arrangement, co-occurrence, structural characteristics of elements disregarding their meaning. Transformational an& Transformational Generative Grammar *here are two periods in the de elopment of transformational grammar" *ransformational Grammar and *ransformational Generati e Grammar. *ransformational grammar (Welic 0arris, 8harles 0oc9ett) distinguishes 9ernels and transformational rules for expansion and rearrangement of 9ernels. Sernels are simple na9ed sentences" he sun shines; !he is beautiful; I have a car; I read a book; here is a book on the table, etc. Bll possible sentences are deri ed from 9ernels *ransformational Generati e Grammar is primarily associated with the name of ). 8homs9y, QSB, -/&. , linguist, philosopher and intellectualist, professor of Massachusetts Institute of *echnology (MI*). 8homs9y holds that humans are e<uipped at birth with innate language faculty to ac<uire language, which is a specific neurological system. :abies easily de elop speech. *hese are rules that go ern se<uencing sounds into words and words into sentences. 0e initiated the shift from beha iorism and empiricism that dominated Bmerican linguistics to in estigation into language and uni ersal grammar. 0e critici=ed beha iorists. Bccording to him, language is not a form of beha ior. Generati e grammar deri es a surface structure from an abstract deep (underlying) structure. Surface are obser able structures, deep are underlying structures, they are logical structures of our brain O sub,ect and predicate structures. 0arris and 8homs9y de eloped ideas of transformation in different contexts and for different purposes. 7or 0arris transformation relates to surface structure sentence forms" "im drinks beer #$ %eer is drunk by "im. *his transformation relates both structures, passi e and acti e. 7or 8homs9y transformation is a de ice to transform a deep structure into a surface structure, to show the generation of infinite li ing structures out of a finite set of deep structures ( I ha e a car. She is nice.., etc,). *he theory of deep structures can ser e as a method of analy=ing and explaining the generation of surface structures. He married young is a surface structure with a double predicate, the nature of which can be explained transformationally XYHe marries and #$He is young. *he sentence with a simple nominal predicate can be analy=ed as comprising two deep structures " !he a beauty&' #$ !he is a beauty. #$It is not true. Semantic Synta' Semantic Syntax is represented by the names of 8harles Mc8awley, P. 8hafe, Russian linguists 1.I.Mos9als9aya and $.$.:ogdano . Semantic syntax describes sentences in terms of propositions, semantic structures (X deep structures), predicates and arguments. Relations between predicates and arguments are analysed in terms of deep cases" agenti e case, ob,ecti e case, instrumental case, locati e case, beneficiary case, etc. I open the door is a proposition. It;s semantic structure is as follows " the predicate is open% arguments are I and the door. I and open are connected by the agenti e case% open the door by ob,ecti e case as the door is an ob,ect. In the proposition *he door opened. the door is logically an ob,ect, though grammatically it;s a sub,ect, so that is an ob,ecti e case. In the proposition *he hammer bro9e the window the hammer logically is an instrument, bro9e is the predicate, the window is an ob,ect. *he present day trend is textual linguistics and intertextual linguistics. *hey describe discourse, its generation and relations between sentences and texts *he linguistic scene is dominated by traditionalism, structuralism, beha iorism, functionalism, transformationalism, generati ism, poststructuralism, cogniti ism. 1n the e e of the ##I- st century linguistics is flourishing throughout the world, but much is in flux to predict newer theories with any confidence.

Metho&s of Linguistic #nalysis

Modern grammar operates with a whole in entory of methods.

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Parsing Tra&itional Syntactic #nalysis" (arsing means di iding a sentence into the main and secondary parts by putting <uestions. *his long-standing procedure pro es at times inade<uate (powerless, ineffecti e). (utting <uestions to the sentence (eople hate unreasonably we recei e the following analysis PhoU O people (the sub,ect),Phat do they doU O hate Zthe predicate[, 0owU - unreasonably (an ad erbial modifier of manner). $ery often, in the structures carrying ambiguous parts or elements of ambiguous reference we can put more than one <uestion to one and the same element. In the sentence 0e left the car with the girl. Pe can put 5 <uestions to the element underlined ( Phom did he leave the car with& (hat car did he leave& How did he leave the car& The (%%ositional Metho& *he oppositional method was de eloped by ).*rubets9oy to in estigate phonology. 8omparing owels and consonants in Russian and !nglish, we see that they are contrasted to each other as to their length. 0ence they can be classified into short and long ones. *his opposition within owels does not exist in Russian, so Russian and !nglish owels do not correlate as to length. *he oppositional method is based on discrepancy, antinomy or ob,ecti e contrasts which are to be distinguished in ob,ecti e reality between phenomena. *hings contrasted to each other always ha e something in common, they are comparable and ha e some basic li9eness. 8hinese philosophers before 8hristianity, 2ordano :runo \ - they all belie ed that @Contraria sunt complementaA, i.e. contrary notions complete each other. *his idea is aptly expressed by the Bmerican poet Pallace Ste ens (-.?/ O -/>>)" *hings of opposite nature seem to depend on one another as a man depends on a woman, day on night, the imagined on the real. *he 8=ech scholars understand language as a system of elements which are interrelated on the basis of their similarities and differences, that is oppositions. *he main notions of the method are " opposition, the root of opposition, the mar9ed member of the opposition, the unmar9ed member of the opposition, a distincti e feature, neutrali=ation. 1pposition is a relationship of partial differences between partially similar elements. *he root of opposition is the basis of an opposition. *he distincti e feature distinguishes the mar9ed member of the opposition from the unmar9ed one. In the opposition table "" tables (-s is a distincti e element) Bs to the number of constituents oppositions differ into binary, ternary , multi-element ones. Bs to relations between constituents there are pri ati e oppositions read )) is read (binary)% e<uipollent oppositions (LJEID]GII^G) - both elements are mar9ed went )) go )) shall go (ternary), man "" woman% gradual oppositions (ternary) fine * finer * the finest+ternary)%blac9 "" grey "" dim "" ague "" clear "" bright "" radiant "" white (multi-element), which can be reduced to a binary pri ati e opposition blac9 "" white. *he distinction between the mar9ed and unmar9ed elements can be neutrali=ed when the unmar9ed element signifies what is meant by the mar9ed element" I hear that he came"" I have heard that he came. (here have you been, what have you done, what brings you her.). He left which shocked everybody )) He left and that shocked everybody (subordination "" coordination). ).*rubets9oy was right stressing that the oppositional method can be applied to all fields of linguistics, but that it is especially suitable for the description of morphological categories. :inary relations are especially e ident on the morphological le el. (rinciples of pri ati e opposition are easily applied to !nglish morphology" common case "" geniti e case% perfect "" non perfect % acti e "" passi e, etc. Grammatical categories in !nglish are represented by at least & forms standing in opposition" read "" is read ( oice)% read "" is reading (aspect)% read "" has read (correlation, perfect)% boy "" boys (number)% boy "" boy;s (case)% fine "" finer "" the finest (degrees of comparison).

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1ppositions can be paradigmatic and syntagmatic. (aradigmatic oppositions on the lexicosemantic le el are represented by synonyms and antonyms which belong to the same semantic field (dawn )) sunset; left))right, etc.). Semantic fields can be subdi ided into microfields (bedroom furniture and office furniture are microfields of the semantic field of furniture). ).B. She9htman elaborated the method of syntagmatic oppositions studying semantic relations between semantically reduplicated words in a context. ,lease )) delight is a semantic reiteration based on the gradual semantic opposition. Syntagmatically opposed can be words which refer to antonymous semantic fields on the paradigmatic le el + Her hideous face was unutterably beautiful with grief). 8ontextually opposed can be words which belong to absolutely different semantic fields (How frail poems are in a world burning with flowers). *he oppositional method can be amply used to analy=e linguistic facts paradigmatically and syntagmatically on all linguistic le els.1n the phonological le el oiced consonants are opposed to de oiced consonants. 1n the morphological le el the nouns in the singular are opposed to the nouns in the plural ( table)) tables). 1n the syntactical le el one-member sentences are opposed to twomember sentences, coordination (parataxis) is opposed to subordination (hypotaxis), etc. The $istributional metho& 6istributional method describes en ironments of linguistic units ( morphemes, words, phrases), representing them symbolically" ) O noun, BO ad,ecti e,* O article,$ O erb, 6 O ad erb. 6istribution is the total of all the en ironments in which an element can occur% all occurrences can be symboli=ed. *he distribution of the erb to make can be presented in the following way" He makes me do it ()$)$to)), He makes up for smth () up for )), I make a present ()$*)), I make a bed ()$*)), etc. *here are a number of postulates here to be obser ed" if two or more distributional formulas are identical their meanings are identical% if two or more distributional formulas are different their meanings are different. :ut in actual usage this method turns out to be too formali=ed, as one and the same distributional formula conceals different meanings. Semantically different structures I make a bed, I make a basket, I make a road, I make a promise are symboli=ed by one and the same formula )$*). *he 6istributional method doesn;t re eal any difference between the structures -apoleon.s victory and -apoleon.s defeat, though we feel intuiti ely that they are semantically different. The )C Metho& metho& of imme&iate constituents" *his method was elaborated by the head of Bmerican 6escripti e +inguistics +eonard :loomfield.*he I8 method aims at describing any complex form ranging from long sentences to multi-element words in terms of their constituents. *he form is di ided into two parts, the remaining parts are also di ided into parts until ultimate indi isible pieces are arri ed at" un/0gent/le/0man/0ly.*he main re<uirement on the morphological le el is that ultimate constituents (or at least one of them) should be recogni=able as morphemes" book11let% let is a diminuti e suffix. *he word ham11let +a small village2 can also be di ided into & parts , though we do not 9now what ham here means. (roceeding from the intuition of a nati e spea9er, +.:loomfield analy=ed the sentence ,oor "ohn ran away in the following way (oor /0 "ohn33 ran /0 away. *he main re<uirement of the method on the syntactical le el is that ultimate constituents should be words. *here are se eral arieties of diagramming of this analysis. Pe can represent the candelabra di ision (-) and the deri ation tree di ision (&). ,oor "ohn ran away (-) (candelabra diagram) _---------` _------` _--------` S a b

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)( $( (&) *his is a deri ation tree di ision. a b a b B ) $ 6 ,oor "ohn runs away ! a b )( $( a b a b * ) $ 6 he rain falls greyly *he word greyly semantically refers to the noun rain, but the diagram doesn;t show it.. *he method shows the deri ation of a sentence, but it;s formali=ed, mechanistic, it disregards meanings and can;t be employed to analy=e polysemy, homonymy, ambiguity, implicit syntactic relations, syncretism. The Transformational Metho& *his method is based on the notions of a 9ernel , which is the simplest elementary sub,ectpredicate structure with explicit grammatical relations, transformation which is a process of rearranging elements in syntactic structures with meanings being 9ept unchanged, transformation rules (addition is adding elements, deletion is cutting elements out, substitution is replacing one element by another one in the same position , permutation is replacing elements (putting from the beginning into the end and ice ersa) " "ohn drank his beer #$ the beer was drunk by "ohn. Recategori=ation consists in changing the category of an element ( erbali=ation of a noun, nominali=ation of a erb, etc). *he transformational method rearranges syntactic structures 9eeping their meanings unchanged. Its postulates are " if two or more structures are transformed identically, their meanings are identical% if two or more structures are transformed differently, their meanings are different. *his method has a broad sphere of application. Pe can clarify relations between structures, re eal semantic similarities and differences between structures disambiguate ambiguous structures, re eal co ert information from implicit relations, etc. *ransforming identical Geniti es we re eal their internal differences" -apoleon.s victory #$ -apoleon won a victory over someone + sub,ecti e geniti e2. -apoleon.s defeat #$ !omebody has won the victory over -apoleon +ob,ecti e Geniti e2. A !oldier.s uniform #$ a uniform habitually worn by a soldier + descripti e geniti e2. Children.s bedroom #$ the room for children (destination Geniti e). "ohn.s arrival #$ "ohn arrives, "ohn arrived, will arrive (temporary Geniti e) *ransformational method is more powerful as it re eals hidden implicit relations between the constituents of a sentence ( he rain falls greyly #$ the rain is falling and it is grey2. :y this method we can interpret double predicates" he moon rose red #$ the moon rose and it was red. 4ose is an explicit predicate and is red is an implicit one. Pe can also describe a predicate of double orientation" He is said to have come; he to have come is a Sub,ecti e with the infiniti e construction, he is a sub,ect% is said to have come is a predicate of double orientation as to have come refers to the sub,ect and is said refers to a sub,ect beyond the border of the sentence XY they say that he has come. :y means of this method we can analy=e neutrali=ation between coordination and subordination" He married early which surprised everybody XY Him married early and that surprised everybody (a complex sentence with an attributi e clause is transformed into a compound sentence, the semantic difference between them being neutrali=ed). :y means of this method we can analy=e predicati e constructions with infiniti es, gerunds, participles. B simple sentence carrying a predicati e construction with a non-finite form of the erb can be analy=ed into a complex sentence with a subordinate clause where the formerly non-finite form

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is presented as a finite form functioning as a simple erbal predicate" He heard music coming from the room inside #$ he heard that the music was coming from the room inside. The Metho& of $ee% an& Surface Structures *his method is primarily associated with the name of ). 8homs9y. It is based on the notions of deep and surface structures. B surface structure is obser able, while a deep structure is unobser able. It is a purely logical structure, underlying a surface structure. 6eep structures are re ealed transformationally. *hese are simple, sub,ect- and- predicate structures, roughly comparable with 9ernels. Qnderlying surface structures, they con ey semantic relations which are deeply hidden. *he sphere of the application of the method is as large as that of the transformational method. 1ne surface structure can be analy=ed in terms of se eral deep structures to re eal explicit and implicit predicati e lines. ( he invisible 5ot has created the visible world #$ he 5od is invisible. he world is visible. he 5od created the world2. Pith the help of it we can analy=e -. Identical structures, feeling their semantic differences ("ohn is eager to please #$ "ohn pleases somebody; "ohn is easy to please #$ !omebody pleases "ohn)% &. the nature of the double predicate ( he moon rose red XY he moon rises. he moon is red. In the second transform the formerly implicit predicate red is made explicit% 5. the nature of the predicate of double orientation ( He is said to come #$ hey say. He comes. Pe see that the two parts of this predicate refer to different sub,ects, one of which being beyond the borders of the sentence under analysis)% 4. semantic and syntactic syncretism (It is dark and raining #$ It is dark. It is raining . *he former is is an explicit lin9- erb and the latter is is an implicit auxiliary, forming a continuous form)% >. the mechanism of ambiguity +6lying planes can be dangerous #$A plane flies. It is dangerous. I fly a plane. It is dangerous; he king.s portrait #$ he king has a portrait of somebody, he king has a portrait of himself, he 7ing draws a portrait of somebody , !omebody draws a portrait of the king, etc.2. The !unctional Sentence Pers%ective Metho& !SP" *he syntactic structure of a sentence is in part determined by the communicati e function of its constituents, that is the 7S(. *he 7S( method studies an ob,ecti e distribution of information among the elements of the sentence, the actual di ision of a sentence (JcHdJeNIDG MeGIGIfG gLGheDiGIfK) into the theme and the rheme. *he Gree9 terms @the themeA and @the rhemeA, which replaced the earlier terms @the logical sub,ectA and @the logical predicateA, allow scholars to a oid wrong associations. *he 7S( method also describes the interrelations between the grammatical structure of a sentence and its functional organi=ation, its communicati e dynamism. *his method also distinguishes the system of means to themati=e and rhemati=e sentence elements and arieties of word order. *he first element of a sentence, which is usually the sub,ect, carries thematic, i.e. 9nown, familiar information, the final elements (predicates, ob,ects, ad erbial modifiers, carry rhematic, i.e. new or important information. In other words, the thematic elements tend to the beginning of the sentence, while the rhematic elements stri e to the end. Pe distinguish se eral communicati e arieties of word order" -. thematic word order, which can be rendered by the model theme * transition * rheme +"ohn has written a letter , where 2ohn is the theme and a letter is the rheme)% &. rhematic non-emoti e word order , rendered by the model rheme * transition 8 theme (A woman entered the room2. *he indefinite article is a signal of new information)% 5. rhematic emoti e word order, also rendered by the model rheme *transition * theme (!trange his wife was to him2. )ormally the predicate and predicati es do not precede the sub,ect, but if they do, they become rhematic. Pe can rhemati=e the sub,ect -. by putting it in the final position by in ersion +6ollowed a complete silence.2;&. by turning an acti e construction into a passi e one ( A letter was written by "ohn)% 5. by ttransforming a simple sentence into a complex one with a complement clause( It.s "ohn who has written a letter2. The Com%onential Metho&

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It a logico-linguistic method of decomposing the semantic content of a word or a grammatical form into the smallest units of sense (semantic components, semantic mar9ers, semes, or S8s). B semantic component is the smallest indi isible unit of sense comparable to elementary particles in physics. *he content of the word @bachelorA can be described in terms of such semantic components as a human being, a male, maturity, in a state of being unmarried. *he content of the erb @to giggleA can be described in such semes as an action, a female, young, a concrete emotional reaction associated with young females. *he 8omponential analysis is not <uite ade<uate by itself and should be superimposed upon other methods, Superimposing it upon the *ransformational method and the contextual analysis we can distinguish the following semantic arieties of the geniti e case"-. (ossessi e Geniti e (9ary.s hat #$ +9ary has a hat2; &.Sub,ecti e Geniti e (-apoleon.s victory #$ -apoleon is a victor)% 5. 1b,ecti e Geniti e ()apoleon;s defeat #$ !omebody has won a victory over -apoleon; :. Geniti e of 6estination + he women.s maga;ine #$ he maga;ine is for women; < . Bmbiguous Geniti e (It can be interpreted as a Sub,ecti e or an 1b,ecti e Geniti e (A mother.s love), etc. The Conte'tual Metho& *his method is associated with the names of professors $.$. $inogrado , I.$. Brnold, I.R. Galperin, ). Bmoso a, ).B. She9htman, M. 0alliday. B context is an immediate en ironment of a linguistic unit, which actuali=es, semanti=es, desemanti=es, hypersemanti=es or disambiguates it. Bctuali=ation can come from an immediate context or from a distant context. Scholars distinguish different types of context" extralinguistic (situational) and linguistic contexts, the latter being subdi ided according to their structure into phrasal, sentential, supraphrasal, the context of discourse% according to the character of constituents into lexical, lexicosemantic, lexico-grammatical% according their length into macrocontext and microcontext. Ma9ing use of the contextual analysis, we are to ta9e into consideration semantic agreement a disagreement of semantic components between the semantic structures of the words combined, or the semantic content of a word and that of its form. Semantic agreement a disagreement is based on logical agreement a disagreement. Semantic agreement a disagreement expresses itself in the presence or absence of similar semantic components in the contents of the words or forms combined or ,uxtaposed. )one of the methods, ta9en isolatedly, is sufficient to produce an ade<uate linguistic analysis. Bll the methods co ered complement each other. 1nly a synthesis of them can result in a reliable analysis of linguistic units.

The Levels of Language

+anguage is a structure, a hierarchy of le els. !ach le el has a basic unit. *he lowest is the phonemic (phonological) le el. Its basic unit is a phoneme. It is the smallest meaningless distincti e unit. (honemes, constituting morphemes, differentiate them (ship O sheep" jiV"" ji"V ). B morpheme is the basic unit of the morphemic (morphological) unit. B morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit. *he classifications and combinations of morphemes are studied by morphology. )ext comes the lexemic le el. Its basic unit is a lexeme, the smallest meaningful unit on this le el. +exemes reali=e themsel es in words, which constitute phrases (a beautiful girl, to run =uickly, very fast2. B phrase is the basic unit of the phrasemic le el. B phrase is a non-predicati e unit, made up of words. )ext comes the syntaxemic le el, the basic unit of the le el is a syntaxeme. B syntaxeme is a monopredicati e unit. Syntaxemes reali=e themsel es in sentences. Sentences, constituted by words and phrases, are united into composite sentences (compound and complex), which are polypredicati e units. Sentences, monopredicati e and polypredicati e, are united into supraphrasal units. B supra-phrasal unit is the basic unit of the supra-phrasal le el. Sentences of arious structure and supra-phrasal units constitute texts. *he basic unit of the textual le el, which is the highest le el of language structure, is a texteme.

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*his hierarchy of linguistic units can be shown in the following way. A problem is a word. A comple> problem is a phrase (a word combination). It is a comple> problem is a simple sentence. It is a comple> problem and it can.t be sold is a compound sentence. It is a comple> problem which can.t be sold is a complex sentence. It is a comple> problem. It can.t be sold by outdated techni=ues is a supra-phrasal unit. *here is no impassable borderline between language le els. 1ne and the same unit can refer to se eral le els. each is a lexical morpheme and a word. In It is a trial8 and *error procedure the element underlined is a phrase and a word (an attribute). In a do8good ?udge the element underlined is a sentence and a word (an attribute).

The Mor%hological Structure of ME

*o understand what the morphological structure of a language is we are to 9now what a morphological type is. It is a set of pre alent features characteri=ing a group of languages. Bt present linguists distinguish the following morphological types of languages. " isolated, synthetical, agglutinati e, analytical and incorporati e. Grammatical relations are expressed differently in them. In isolated languages grammatical relations are expressed without inflexions" by ad,oinment, word order, composition ()), )B). In synthetical languages grammatical relations are expressed by means of inflexions (Sla ic, +atin, 1ld !nglish, etc.). Bnalysis finds its expression in auxiliaries and prepositions, in notional words turning into semantically empty words. In agglutinati e languages unchangeable monosemantic suffixes are glued to the preceding elements to express grammatical relations j(*ur9ish and Qgra-7innish languages, 0ungarian" kertemben * kertedben (in my garden * in your garden)[. In incorporati e languages (the languages of )orthern, 8entral and Southern Bmerican Indians, of the peoples inhabiting the coasts of the Brctic 1cean) whole syntactic complexes (phrases and sentences) function as words. !nglish is pre alently analytical. Grammatical relations are expressed by such auxiliaries as shall, will, do, have, should, would, more, most . Bnalytical are degrees of comparison of polysyllabic ad,ecti es, passi e forms, 7uture tense forms, continuous forms, perfect forms, *he 8onditional mood and *he Suppositional mood forms.. Qnder certain contextual circumstances some erbs (go, get, come, stand) are coming to lose their meaning ( He went mad, @et us get going, he house got burnt, I am coming to understand you, we are finished ), turning into newer auxiliaries. (repositions are also ery important to express different relations within a sentence ( to rely upon, to arrive at, to refer to, etc.2. Still, we find in M! the features of other morphological types (synthesis, agglutination, isolation and incorporation). Isolation in !nglish is expressed by the formation of phrases on the model )) ( college education, a computer specialist, a burn center )% the formation of composite words on the models )), )B (finger8width, spine-chills, !hakespeare8mad, theatre8mad, chalk8white2; conversion +-A, -A, An) =ueer * a =ueer, patienta patient, I bank no more, etc.2; word order +9other loves her children. *here is no external difference between the sub,ect and the ob,ect). Isolation is progressing in different genres. Synthesis is extremely important in !nglish. 0istorically !nglish had a synthetical structure. *here were external and internal inflexions, sound alternation, etc. Much of it got preser ed. Pe do find inflexions, ocalic and consonantal interchange, suppleti ity (9nife O 9ni es, man-men, gowent, I O me, mine, etc).*he categories of number and case in nouns, the category of degrees of comparison of monosyllabic ad,ecti es, the present and the past forms of regular erbs, participle I, participle II, the gerund are expressed inflexionally ( a boy ) ) boys, a boy)) a boy.s hat; fine))finer))finest; goes, ?umped; writing, written, writing). Bgglutination is insignificant (o>en.s hooves, the children.s room, giantesses, etc2. Incorporation, though being exotic, is progressing in different genres (newspapers, ,ournals and maga=ines, fiction)" a father8 to * son talk, mouth * to * mouth propaganda, a don.t care appearance, the do8nothing cops, a name8your *own * price contract, It was a from8 the moment8 I8saw * you * I * understood * that8 there * could8 be * nobody8 but8 you syndrome,

-'
etc.2..Incorporati e complexes are structurally ariable (from a phrase to a supra-phrasal unit). *hey function ariously in a sentence, their most fre<uent function is that of an attribute.

The Classifications of Mor%hemes

B morpheme is the smallest meaningful ultimate unit which can;t be further analy=ed into immediate constituents. Morphologically words are monomorphic and polymorphic ( table; un / 0gent / 0 le / 0 man / 0 ly2. B morpheme is an abstract unit comparable with a deep structure, which is unobser able. It reali=es itself in allomorphs. *he morpheme of plurality, for example, manifests itself in the following allomorphs) tables, crises, phenomena, children, knives, termini, formulae, sheer (a morphemic =ero). Phen analy=ing words morphologically, we roughly identify allomorphs with morphemes. Morphemes are classified according to different criteria. Bccording to meaning, morphemes are di ided into lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical ones (table; table V j s; teach / 0 er). Bccording to position, morphemes are di ided into opening, and closing, internal and external. Bccording to function, morphemes are di ided into root, deri ational (affixal) and inflexional. Bccording to self-dependence, morphemes are di ided into free (lexical), which build up words, bound (inflexional and deri ational), which ne er occur in isolation, and semi-bound (wordmorphemes), which loo9 li9e words (be, ha e, shall, will, should, would), but function as inflexions. *he morphemic model of an !nglish word is prefix O root O suffix O inflexion.

Para&igmatics an& Syntagmatics

*he domain of morphology is the paradigmatics of a word. Morphology studies the forms of words and their paradigms. B paradigm is a set of forms of a word ( a boy8boys8a boy.s8boys.).*he term @paradigmA is used to designate sets of forms on different linguistic le els . B paradigm on the lexico-semantic le el is a set of primarily and secondarily nominati e lexico-semantic ariants of a word, which constitute its semantic structure (a head is the top part of your body; your mind; the leader or person in charge ; the top or front of something, etc.2. 1n the le el of word-building it is a set of deri ati es +psyche8psychedelic8psychiatric8psychiatrist8psychiatry8psychic88 psychoanalysis8psychoanalyst8psychoanaly;e8psychological8psychologist8psychology8psychosis, etc.2. 1n the syntactic le el it is a set of transformations of 9ernel sentences +I have a car8I had a car, I shall have a car8Bo you have a car8 I don.t have a car8my having a car8for me to have a car, etc.2. *he domain of syntax is the syntagmatics of a word. B syntagm is a linear se<uence of elements (He is a fine boy). In a paradigm words are in paradigmatic relations, they ha e paradigmatic meanings which are constant, in ariable, sub,ect to no change. In a syntagm the once paradigmatic meanings are complicated by syntagmatic meanings which are ariable, sub,ect to contextual change. In the syntagm @ovely spring flowers under %ritish bleak skies'( 4. Aldington. Beath of a Hero) the morpheme Os along with the paradigmatic meaning of plurality ac<uires contextual (syntagmatic) meanings of emoti eness, expressi eness, intensi eness, and e aluation.

Parts of S%eech
Classifications of Parts of S%eech. Scholars belie e that it is impossible to describe a language without describing word classes. Bs language is a structure, words are to be structurally organised. 7or centuries the writers of grammars distinguished classes of words which they referred to as parts of speech. *he term @parts of speechA was introduced in Bncient Greece. *he ancient scholars saw no difference between a word as a ocabulary unit and a word as a functional element of a sentence. *he con entional term, being ob iously inade<uate, still remains in use, as no better term has been proposed.

-Bt present there exist different lines of approach" traditional, functional ((rague linguistic school), descripti e (Bmerican descripti e linguistics), onomaseological approach ( the theory of nomination). !ach linguistic trend ad ances its own criteria of classifying words and the number of these classes. *raditionalists rely upon meaning as the essential criterion. *his criterion is sub,ecti e and cannot be absolutely relied upon. In some grammars an ad,ecti e is defined as an attribute of substance. :ut in the following examples attributes of substances are expressed by an ad erb( he then director. he now president), an infiniti e (!he is not a woman to drop ), a noun (a space pilot), etc. So this definition doesn;t wor9. Phen this approach is not reliable, traditionalists refer to form or function. Pords were di ided dichotomically into declinables ( nouns, erbs, ad,ecti es, ad erbs) and indeclinables ( articles, particles, prepositions, con,unctions). It is the criterion of form. *his criterion underlies the following definition @B noun is a word which forms the plural by adding -s or its e<ui alentsA. *he following definition of an ad erb is based on the functional criterion @Bn ad erb is a word which modifies a erb, an ad,ecti e or another ad erbA. (rague linguistic school called parts of speech as bundles of morphologically rele ant features and described words in terms of their paradigms (sets of all possible forms of a word). It;s a purely formal approach. 7orm, ta9en alone, is seldom helpful in !nglish because of the scantiness of inflexions. It results in the fre<uency of homonymy and polysemy ( !hip sails today. 6lying can be dangerous). 7orm alone is inade<uate as a criterion in !nglish. Pords are not easily identifiable as nouns, erbs, ad,ecti es, ad erbs" -. is a regular (a substanti i=ed ad,ecti e is used as a noun). *he compromising solution was offered by 0. Sweet and 1. 2espersen, a synthetic approach, combining meaning, form and function. B word is described as belonging to this or that class on the basis of its semantic meaning ( e.g. table names a thing, it denotes thingness), as ha ing some morphological form (table is inflected for the plural by adding Os) and as ha ing peculiar syntactical properties (table occurs in typically n- positions in a sentence). Structuralists (descripti ists) re,ected the traditional approach, they preferred to rely only upon the positional arrangement of words and their structural characteristics (types of inflexions and deri ational suffixes). *his interpretation is represented by 8h. 7rees. 0e operated with the artificial structure (oggles ugged diggles +compare it with he !tudents attended lectures). Intuiti ely we feel that woggles positionaly and structurally can be li9ened to a thing word (a noun)% ugged can be compared with an action word (a erb)% diggles with a noun. So, he wanted to pro e that meanings should be disregarded in classifying words, as it is the arrangements of words and their structural characteristics which are most important for referring words to classes. Relying upon the transformational procedure of substitution, 8h. 7ries classifies words into 4 form classes, designated by numbers (I, II, III, I$) and -> function groups of functional words designated by letters (a, b, c,\) 0e groups words with the help of the diagnostic frames" he concert is good and he team went there (I II III, I II I$), where I is li9e a noun, II is li9e a erb, III is li9e an ad,ecti e, I$ is li9e an ad erb. 8lass I includes all words which can be used in this frame (!mth is good; o dance is good)., etc. *he positional criterion is supplemented by ? other criteria( the plural inflection, the use of the apostrophe ks, the use of determiners (articles), etc. Groups of function words are defined by listing. 8h. 7ries was not afraid to set up ery small groups of words, such as a group comprising articles, groups carrying pronouns, con,unctions, prepositions, etc. 0e distinguished ->4 functional words in !nglish. *otionals an& !unctionals :oth traditionalists and descripti ists di ide parts of speech into notionals (ma,or , autosemantic words, ariables, semantically full words) and functionals (synsemantic words, in ariables, semantically empty words). )otionals are open classes, indefinitely extendable. It;s impossible to in entory all the nouns, erbs, ad,ecti es, etc. It is transposition (con ersion) which ma9es nouns and erbs limitlessly open (I.m wifed, aunted and cousined. here.s no one manning or womaning the camera. I.ve been anniversaried several times2. )ouns can be limitlessly erbali=ed, erbs,

-&
ad,ecti es, ad erbs, forms of erbs, whole phrases, prefixes and suffixes can be nominali=ed ( His life was all blacks and whites. here was smth on itCtwo somethings actually) a white something and a dark something. (hat time is it now& * It.s half past now). +exically full words ha e a paradigm. *hey are communicati ely important, ser e as members of a sentence. 7unctionals are closed classes, we cannot in ent new prepositions and con,unctions. *hey can be easily listed. :ut in reality the situation is not that rigid. *here appear new functionals. Such is the con,unction li9e, deri ed from the ad,ecti e li9e(-ever do like he has done). Such is the intensifiers bloody, that ((hy bloody not& It was not that good2.*he form given of the erb to give is often used as a preposition, meaning considering, provided, on account of +5iven the circumstances, we could not ask for better treatment2. 7unctionals ha e no paradigm. *hey are communicati ely unimportant, they are ne er members of a sentence. *heir meaning is generali=ed, contextually dependent. +eterogeneity (arts of speech in traditional interpretation are heterogeneous. )ouns can be distinguished into those with a de eloped paradigm (the plural, the geniti e case, articles, any function in a sentence), but still there are nouns used only in the singular or only in the plural, nouns singular in form but plural in combinability( ,olice are; he -ew Dork police is one of the best polices in the world2. Pe find notionals with a de eloped paradigm, auxiliaries and modals with a defecti e paradigm, substitutes (do), lin9 erbs, erbs with a double syntactic capacity ( 6lying can be dangerous% he chicken eats well2. (ronouns are heterogeneous" there are pronouns with nounal and ad,ecti al properties, etc. (ronouns do not name anything, they only represent. Some pronouns are declinable, but some of them are indeclinable. *hey possess properties of both notional and functional words. Bccording to ). 8homs9y, ad erbs are most heterogeneous. *hough a greater homogeneity was achie ed by 8h. 7ries;s classification as compared with traditional classifications, his classes of words are still ery heterogeneous. )ouns and pronouns are analysed together as they often function in the same way. Substitution is a mechanistic procedure, it can;t be relied upon. *here;s much illogical and paradoxical in each class, but each class is communicati ely uni<ue and specific. It;s <uite natural as a natural language is not a rigid inflexible system. *here should be hybrid formations, syncretical phenomena, transitions from class to class. !iel& an& Peri%hery Some scholars hold that ma,or parts of speech ha e a field-li9e structure with the nucleus and the periphery. *he nucleus embraces constituents with regular features, that is, notional words with full paradigms ( the plural form, the singular form, the geniti e case form, the categorical forms of tense, aspect, correlation, oice, mood, etc). *he periphery comprises de iated words, ha ing defecti e paradigms. Subcategori,ation *he trend among linguists is towards subdi ision of ma,or parts of speech. :y the method of oppositions and the componential analysis classes of words are di ided into binary groups. )ouns are di ided into concrete a concreteaabstract, animate a inanimate, countable a uncountable, human a nonhuman, person a nonperson, maleafemale,etc. $erbs indicate actions, processes, states% each of these classes can be di ided into binary groups" concrete a abstract actions, processes, states). :y subcategori=ing words we can impro e the 6istributional analysis ( He reminds me of his father +EFGHIJEFKL HLMF2. He reminds me of his party +EFGHIJEFKL H GFNLJJ). *hese are homonymous structures. Semantically they are different, as father is an animate noun ()a), while party is an inanimate noun ()l). (nomaseological a%%roach 1nomaseology is concerned with the problems of nomination. *his approach is based on the nominati e peculiarities of words. )ominati ely, words are di ided into the following classes. Identifying words (names) are those which refer to ob,ects or <ualities they name. 8haracteri=ing ( predicate, <ualifying) words are ad,ecti es, ad erbs, erbs. *hey ha e no reference, they are

-5
dependent on identifying words. 1n the syntagmatic le el they de elop the meanings of emoti eness, expressi eness, intensi eness, e aluation. 6eictic words (pronouns and ad erbs) are used anaphorically, they represent something. *echnical words ( functionals) are prepositions and con,unctions, they are semantically empty.

The *oun
The General Pro%erties of a *oun )ouns constitute the most open class. *hey ha e the meaning of thingness as they denote substances, beings, phenomena, abstract concepts. Pords of other classes can be easily nominali=ed (substanti i=ed), e en functional words can be nominali=ed for the gi en occasion ( here are too many ifs and buts in your answer). Bnalytical forms can also be substanti i=ed ( here are too many might8have8beens). )ouns are declinable words" they ha e inflexions of number and case. *hey function di ersely, e en as attributes( He is a space pilot2. The Category of Gen&er. In Sla ic languages it is a full-fledged category which finds its expression in the inflexioned feminine, masculine and neuter. Inflexions are supported by sound interchange (CHJLfc"" CHJLdmJ).In German it is expressed by articles and suffixes, in 7rench it is the articles which are the mar9ers of the masculine and the feminine. Gender distinctions in the corresponding languages are illogical. In 1! gender was a morphological category. In present day !nglish it is a purely lexicosemantic category, as there are no grammatical means to express gender distinctions here. *here exists a whole system of lexical and semantic de ices to express gender. Pord-building processes (deri ation, composition) are in ol ed here. Gender distinctions are expressed by compositional models( a he8cat, a she8cat, a tom8cat, a pussy8cat, a he8wolf, a she8wolf, a man8servant, a lady8 driver, etc.), by the deri ati e model with the producti e suffix - ess (poetess, huntress, lioness, actress, empress, benefactress, etc. ), by semantic oppositions ( king )) =ueen, nephew)) niece, husband)) wife, stallion)) mare, etc.2, by gender-sensiti e pronouns he, she, it +@ove is mightier than ,hilosophy, though He is might. 1.Pilde). Gender, expressed by gender-sensiti e pronouns he, she, it, di ides the class of !nglish nouns into non-human (mountain , lake, house, street ), common human (person, child, parent" he is an artist; she is an artist ), male human ( man, boy, youth, husband, father, uncle2, female human + woman, girl, wife, mother, lady, aunt2. *raditionally some nouns are referred to as feminine" ships, cars, seas, oceans, the names of countries and cities+ !an 6rancisco was lying on her seven hills). (oets and writers are free to ascribe words to any gender ( he soul selects her own society and shuts the door. !. 6ic9inson. he sun is a huntress young. $.+indsay). In St.Sing;s writings we see two moons" a he8moon +a demon8moon) and a she8moon. :eing a lexico-semantic category, gender tends to be grammaticali=ed. *he suffix -ess seems to be on the way to turning into a regular grammatical inflexion. Pe can predict that with the course of time !nglish gender can ac<uire a new life as a grammatical category. The Category of *umber *he category of number is represented by the opposition of the singular and the plural (table)) tables). (aradigmatically the singular expresses oneness, the plural expresses more-thanoneness (multitude, <uantity, numerosity). Some scholars belie e that the meaning of the singular form is that of indiscreteness (IGLJCMeGInIIDCHN), while the meaning of the plural form is that of discreteness. It is a debated problem as most scholars find the meanings of indiscreteness and discreteness to be syntagmatic meanings of the plural form.

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)ouns are di ided into countables and uncountables. 8ountable nouns ha e se eral ways of building the plural form. *he morpheme of plurality manifests itself in a number of allomorphs+ cat)) cats, boy )) boys, brush )) brushes, man )) men, tooth)) teeth, wife)) wives, passer8 by)) passers8by, deer )) deer, child )) children , phenomenon))phenomena, datum))data, terminus))termini, etc. ). Pords of foreign origin are mar9ed for the singular and the plural( phenomenon )) phenomena2, but some of them ha e got assimilated into !nglish( formula )) formulae * formulas2. Qncountable nouns are subdi ided according to their meaning and form into singularia tantum and pluralia tantum. *he former are the words which are outside the sphere of number ( material, collecti e, abstract nouns). (luralia tantum nouns indicate more than oneness. *here are se eral arieties of such words" abstract nouns( the beginnings of the world), financial terms ( belongings, savings), ob,ects consisting of two parts(shorts, trousers, scissors2, names of games( billiards, darts), diseases (blues, measles, hysterics), proper and geographical names( he %rowns, the Orals, he Apennines, he Alps, etc.). *he di ision of nouns into singularia tantum and pluralia tantum is ,ustified by meaning, form, and the combinability of nouns. :ut meaning and form can be at ariance. B noun, singular in form, can be plural in meaning. In !nglish logical agreement pre ails o er formal agreement, while in Russian it is <uite the opposite. B singular noun, functioning as a sub,ect, may combine with a plural predicate ( he police are in the yard. he happy pair were seated opposite each other. he big fish eat the small fish, but the ocean doesn.t care2. B plural noun combines with a singular erb, functioning as a predicate (,hysics is a science). *he distinction into countables and uncountables is relati e in !nglish. 8ountables, contextually, can turn into uncountables and ice ersa ( Pur cheeses are the best in the world. !he has more hair than wit and more faults than hairs. !he possessed certain beauties, like her hair). *he parallel existence of the words grass * a grass ma9es some scholars interpret this phenomenon as internal con ersion (transition from subclass to subclass, whereas external con ersion means transition from class to class" nouns XY erbs, etc.). In syntagmatics (contextually) distinctions between the singular form and the plural form can be neutrali=ed when both forms come to designate generali=ation" I am a poet of the woman the same as the man + the underlined form represents the generali=ed singular). Blong with the paradigmatic meaning of more than oneness the plural form de elops syntagmatic meanings. In the words tables, behaviours, enthusiasms the morpheme -s is an allomorph of the morpheme of plurality, it;s paradigmatic meaning is that of more than oneness. *his meaning remains unchanged in any context + Bifferent situations re=uire different behaviours). :ut when this morpheme ( the term morpheme is used roughly here, ,ust for the sa9e of con enience) is attached to a word in a sentence or a phrase, it can de elop additional syntagmatic meanings. It depends on the context (the immediate en ironment of the word to which it is attached). It appears along with the paradigmatic meaning which is always preser ed in any context. *hese additional meanings can be re ealed by means of the componential analysis, which is superimposed upon the contextual analysis, and described in terms of semantic components of discreteness, emoti eness, intensi eness, expressi eness and e aluation (negati e or positi e) (He was full of attentions to his wife, for a fortnight at least. P. M.*hac9eray). In the gi en sentence we can trace the mechanism of irony" the additional connotati e component of negati e e aluation in the meaning of the word attentions is in conflict with the positi e meaning of this word, registered in the dictionary. Pe 9now that when words are combined or ,uxtaposed there arises between a word and a word, a word and its form semantic agreement or disagreement. B grammatical metaphor is based on the semantic disagreement of the words combined. Semantic agreement is based on the presence of identical semantic components (semes) in the words combined or ,uxtaposed. Bccordingly, semantic disagreement is based upon the absence of identical semantic components (semes). Semantic disagreement of the words combined or ,uxtaposed creates a grammatical metaphor ( He

->
disliked the enthusiasms of American girls). *he morpheme of plurality and the word enthusiasm88s ha e nothing in common, this word is beyond the category of number, as it is uncountable. *he additional meanings of emoti eness, intensi eness, expressi eness and e aluation complicate the paradigmatic meaning of @more than onenessA in any artistic text. *his syntagnmatic plural is called Athe hyperbolic pluralA + !he walks in %eauty, like the night of cloudless climes and starry skies. G.:yron). In some instances the morpheme 8s of plurality changes a bit the semantic meaning of the word it is attached to, so this inflexion is on the way to becoming a suffix Z How does 4ussian colours look like& +#flag)[. In tables 8s is a classical inflexion, in enthusiasms it is partially lexicali=ed, in colours it is already a suffix. *he semantic structure of a grammatical form ( now it is the form of the plural of nouns) contains all the paradigmatic and syntagmatic components. *he de elopment of syntagmatic meanings is a manifestation of the global linguistic law of the asymmetry of a linguistic sign. The Category of Case Qnder the category of case we understand the change of form of a noun to denote its grammatical relations to other parts of communication. *he number of cases aries in different languages Z two in !nglish (common and Geniti e), ? (including the $ocati e case) in Russian). It depends upon the morphological structure of the language and its de elopment. In 1ld !nglish cases corresponded to the syntactical positions of nouns. *he )ominati e represented a sub,ect or a predicati e, the Bccusati e represented direct ob,ect, the 6ati e stood for a indirect ob,ect, the Geniti e stood for an attribute, the $ocati e denoted a direct address. In the course of time the number of cases got reduced , the inflexions died out, and the relations of nouns to other parts of communication came to be expressed by word order, prepositions and two cases O the 8ommon and the Geniti e. $ebate& Problems -ithin the Category of Case *o the debated problems within the category of case there refer -. the existence of this category in !nglish ( 1tto 2espersen ridiculed the ery idea of case in !nglish as a morphological category, but he recognised it as a logical category)% &. the nature of this category (morphological, syntactical, morphologico-syntactical, logical) *he pre alent iew is the one that treats case as a morphological category, which is based upon the opposition of two cases" the common case and the geniti e case% 5. the number of cases Z absence of cases, two cases (the common and the geneti e case), many cases. Semantic syntax operates with the notion of deep cases while describing semantic relations within a sentence. 8harles 7illmore distinguished a proposition, a predicate and arguments when analysing the semantic structure of a proposition. Brguments perform different semantic roles in the sentence, they are associated with cases. 8h. 7illmore suggests such a set of cases" agenti e, ob,ecti e, locati e, instrumental, that of goal, that of patient, that of source, that of result, etc. 1ne and the same argument may express different rolesZ he teacher e>plains the new rule +the agent or the sourceQ2. P. 8hafe adds the cases of experience and beneficiary( I have seen the world. I have been given flowers )% [% 4. the nature of the element Ok s. It is an uncommon inflexion which cannot be li9ened to possessi e inflexions in Sla ic languages ( , , , - , , etc). In Russian case inflexions are attached to nouns. In !nglish the element 8Rs can be attached to all 9inds of nouns, numerals, ad erbs, ad,ecti es, pronouns, composite words, phrases and e en sentences ( omorrow.s newspaper. He.ll come in an hour or two.s time. !omebody else.s phrase. he blond I was dancing with.s name was something like Alison2. Bll these peculiarities ma9e the scholars (profs. Ilyish, Aorontsova, ,almer, 5leason) consider-Rs to be a postposition or e en a form- word, li9e an auxiliary or a particle, ser ing to con ey the meaning of possession, a sign of syntactical dependence. :ut most scholars

-3
belie e -Rs to be a typical case inflexion because it comes from 1! geniti e case% it expresses relations of a noun to other words% it is phonetically dependent, whereas postpositions are phonetically independent% most often it is attached to nouns. Still it is more peculiar and independent than other !nglish grammatical morphemes. Genitive Constructions *.s *" *here are a number of geniti e constructions in !nglish which are classified according to different criteria" -. dependence Z6ependent and Independent (Bbsolute) Geniti e ( a student.s answer, his student.s was the best answer)% &. the number of the constituents ( a single word Geniti e" a boy.s bike, a double Geniti e( my father.s friend.s pipe), a triple Geniti e( my brother.s friend.s bride.s hat), a group Geniti e( ,rince of Benmark.s tragedy)% 5. semantic relations between );s and )" there are semantic arieties of dependent Geniti es which are re ealed transformationally and can be interpreted by means of componential method " a possessi e Geniti e( my son.s bike XY my son has a bike), an agenti e (sub,ecti e) Geniti e( the boy.s application #$ the boy applied), an ob,ecti e Geniti e( the boy.s e>pulsion #$ the boy was e>pelled), an ambiguous Geniti e (the writer.s invitation #$ the writer invites somebody (a sub,ecti e Geniti e), XY somebody invited the writer (an ob,ecti e Geniti e), the Geniti e of origin( the girl.s story #$ the story told by the girl ), descripti e Geniti e (a mother.s love , a dog.s devotedness), Geniti e of destination (the children.s room, the women.s maga=ine), Geniti e of extension (a day.s work), temporal Geniti e( a minute.s success, etc.). Bll these synthetic Geniti es can be replaced by analytical Geniti es as there is semantic and structural similarity between the two ( 6rance.s wines # the wines of 6rance. It is the geniti e of source). Bnalytical Geniti e can be as ambiguous as a synthetic one ( the soldier.s shooting # the shooting of the soldiers #$the soldier shot or the soldier was shot). Pe can distinguish the same arieties of analytical Geniti e as they are e<ual and can be encountered in the same en ironment (the Geniti e of measure" the absence of two days# two days. absence). Bs to an Bbsolute Geniti e, it is used independently. It is structurally and functionally di erse. Most fre<uent is the anaphorical Geniti e which is used instead of a noun and represents the noun pre iously used to a oid its repetition. In a sentence it can perform the functions of a direct ob,ect, an attribute, a predicati e, a detached element of a sentence ( 4ender to Caesar those things which are Caesar.s and render to 5od those things which are 5od.s). *he cataphorical Geniti e anticipates a noun which is to come("ohn.s married the woman her father had loved). *he partiti e (LJohGefHGeNI^p) Geniti e( an opera of AerdiSs #$ one of AerdiSs operas). *he locati e Geniti e( I met him at my aunt.s #$ at my aunt.s place). Syntagmatically the absolute Geniti e structure this - of -.s can express negati e or positi e e aluation (How naive was that picture of Birk !troeve.s. here was a silence threatened for a moment by that laughter of 5iovanni.s. !o your wife is a great friend of 9r %ossini.s2. *raditionally inanimate nouns are apt not to be used in the Geniti e case , but in poetry and artistic texts there are no limitations to any noun being used in the Geniti e, which is a mar9er of personification ( a ariety of metaphor). (ersonification is a trope. Its effect consists in imparting the property of animate things to inanimate ob,ects ( the ocean.s wave; reason.s voice; twilight.s silence, etc. !oldiers are citi;ens of death.s grey land2. Bt present in media (newspapers and maga=ines) of arious circulation and orientation we encounter the spreading tendency to use any noun in the Geniti e( the room.s silence; his book.s success, etc.) In this case nothing is personified. *he Geniti e loses its meaning of possession and ac<uires a <ualifying function. *he morpheme -Rs comes to be lexicali=ed and turns into a deri ational element, a suffix which changes the meaning of the word it is attached to ( !t ,aul.s looks like a giant ship in the darkness # !t ,aul.s Cathedral. In an electrician.s he ac=uired a T volt transistor battery, in a stationer.s he was supplied with paper2.

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The #rticle
$ebate& Problems -. 6ebated is the status of the article in the morphological system of M!. Some scholars treat it as a separate word, a separate part of speech Za pronoun (indefinite , demonstrati e) or a pronominal ad,ecti e. *he definite or the indefinite article, combining with nouns, forms word combinations (a table, the table) which are to be studied by syntax. 1ther linguists (:.B.Ilyish, for instance) treat these articles as functional words, auxiliary elements, building analytical forms of nouns, which represent the morphological category of definitenessa indefiniteness. *he distinction of this category expands the paradigm of the noun. Bccording to M.q. :lo9h, the article is a halfnotional, determining word. &. 6ebated is the number of articles in M!. Some scholars distinguish two articles (the definite and the indefinite article). 1thers belie e in the existence of the third article, the =ero article, which denotes extreme generali=ation (8ompare it with the =ero morphemes of the singular form of nouns and erbs, which are meaningful). So, a three-member opposition a table))the table))table can be distinguished, which, according to M.q. :lo9h, underlies the category of article determination. The !unctions of #rticles in a Sentence Brticles are peculiar, semantically, syntactically and communicati ely. *he indefinite article, as a rule, expresses a classifying generali=ation (An elephant is a big animal). *he definite article expresses identification or indi iduality of the referent of the noun ( his is the book I.ve seen at the e>hibition).*he =ero article de elops the meaning of absolute generali=ation ((oman has not yet come into her own). Syntactically, the indefinite article is placed before a descripti e attribute, while the definite article is placed before a limiting attribute. 8ommunicati ely, the indefinite article is a signal of new, or important information, hence, fre<uent is its rhematic function. *he definite article is a signal of the starting point of communication, of 9nown or old, insignificant information, hence, fre<uent is its thematic function. *he indefinite article de elops the following functions in a sentence (simple, composite), a supra-phrasal structure, larger discourse" -. *he classifying function (It is a table). &. *he descripti e function (with any 9ind of nouns) ( he was a coolness in the woods and a twilight. 6. 0. +awrence. He saw an Italy of romantic ruins. !uch a huge ,aris. I saw a new "ane2. 5. *he generali=ing function (A young and presentable female always attracted him. 2.Galsworthy2. 4. *he rhematic cataphorical function (A lady in a velvet ?acket was sitting on the bench. 2.Galworthy2. >. *he petrified usage (in set expressions) (It happened all of a sudden). *he definite article de elops the following functions" -. *he demonstrati e function (5ive me the +this, that2 book). &. *he particulari=ing (limiting) function ( he poetry of earth is never dead. 2. Seats). 5. *he generic function( he beautiful always moved him. Beath is the loser, and life is the winner. !.!.8ummings2. 4. *he thematic anaphorical function (A lady in a velvet ?acket was sitting on the bench. He recogni;ed the lady. he stop8and8go light went down abruptly2. >. *he correlati e function ( he more we study the more we know. he more we know the more we forget). *he =ero article is a mar9er of generali=ation and demateriali=ation ( (oman has not yet come into her own. P.S.Maugham. He crouched by a piece of broken house. R. Bldington). Brticles are extremely important compositionally, communicati ely and psychologically. *hey participate in the communicati e organi=ation of simple and composite sentences, supraphrasal units and texts. Brticles can artistically alternate ( He gathered a great bunch of flowers for

-.
Uthe lady in greyV. @ady in grey' Bid she e>ist& Had she ever come at all& Pr was she but the emanation of all the beauty he had loved and must leave so soonU 2.Galsworthy). *he initial placement of the indefinite article is characteristic of traditional literature (8h. 6ic9ens, P.M. *hac9eray). 0ere no els and stories open with an exposition, where the author is an omniscient being, who explains e erything and prepares you for e erything. In ##-th century modernistic literature ($.Poolf, S.Mansfield, 2.2oyce, !.0emingway, etc) we find no exposition. Pe are immediately drawn into the depth of the context ( he door of Henry.s lunch room opened and two men came in. !. 0emingway. *he Sillers). Brticles often indicate the mood of the spea9er and create some attitude in the hearer (or the reader)(I collected men with interesting names. I already knew a !ocrates. Syl ia (lath. *he :ell 2ar). Lecture /

The 0erb
The General Pro%erties of a 0erb $erbs express e ents, processes, states, actions, acti ities, performances and achie ements. It is an open class of words. Bny word can be erbali=ed. Morphologically, syntactically and semantically it is a heterogeneous class of words, the most de eloped one, with the largest paradigm. *he erb is a macrosystem of categories ( person. number, aspect, tense, correlation, oice, mood) which are microsystems. !ach category is based on the opposition of forms, these oppositions being binary and ternary% pri ati e and e<uipollent (read))reads; read))have read; read))is read; read))is reading, went))goes))shall go, etc.). *he erb can be described in terms of the field theory. It has a field-li9e structure with a nucleus and a periphery. Its nucleus carries the actional, processi e and statal erbs with a fullfledged, de eloped paradigm, erbs with complete predication, notional erbs with a full nominati e alue. Pe see here transiti es, intransiti es, semantically dual erbs, functioning both as transiti es and intransiti es ( fly, wear, close, develop, eat, wash, etc.). *he periphery is composed of semi-notionals with a partial nominati e alue. *hese are the erbs with a defecti e paradigm and an incomplete predication ( lin9- erbs" be, seem, appear, happen, get, grow; modal erbs" must, may, can, should, will% modal e<ui alents" be to, have to, have got to, etc., auxiliaries ) do, have, shall, should, will, would, get, go) Wverything has been going ?ust great. he house got burnt2; erbs with the relational semantics (include, belong, refer, resemble)% erbs with phrasal semantics (begin, stop, continue, come, go, get, stand) He went running, He came running, He got going), substitutes replacing notionals (6o you want to go& Des, I do2. Bll these erbs ha e no nominati e alue, they can;t predicate by themsel es. Pe find among erbs those with post-positions ( to put off, to get off, etc.2. )otional erbs are apt to be easily functionali=ed (I have come to understand you at last), which shows !nglish to be an analytical language. Some erbs are used to impart dynamics to a sentence ( ry and do it' I can.t go and shoot him'2. Bs compared with Russian, !nglish is twice or thrice as erbal. The Category of Tense *ense is a grammatical expression of ob,ecti e distinctions of time into the past, present and future. *he existence of this category is undebated in all Indo-!uropean languages, but within the category there are some debated problems"-.the number of tenses% &.the existence of the 7uture *ense% 5. the syntagmatic meanings of the past tenses% 4.the nature of the 7uture-in- the (ast. Classifications of Tenses *here exist classifications embracing a rich ariety of tenses. *emporal relations are considered by some scholars to be more complex than merely the present, the past and the future. 1tto 2espersen;s classification is most peculiar. 0e distinguishes main or simple times ((resent and (ast), subordinate times which are points in time posterior or anterior to some other point ( in the

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present, in the past or in the future). *his is a logical scheme( the before past time, the after past time, the before future time, the after future time), with no simple future (She ga e birth to a son who was to cause her great anxiety ( the after past). 0e excluded the future on the ground that in !nglish there are no grammatical means to express pure futurity, the @so called futureA being modal. *he writer of a popular manual in practical grammar prof. Saushans9aya distinguished -3 tenses. 0er practical scheme of tenses is based on 1. 2espersen;s scheme and comprises (rogressi e tenses (continuous, long) and (erfect tenses. *here are 4 Indefinite tenses, 4 8ontinuous tenses, 4 (erfect tenses and 4 (erfect 8ontinuous tenses. *he classifications embracing 5 tenses were ad anced by (rofs. Smirnits9y, Ilyish, Shlebni9o a, et al. *hese classifications are based on a three tenses oppositional approach. It is the (ast, the (resent and the 7uture ( a tertiary e<uipollent opposition" went))goes)shall3will go). In two-tense classifications we find *he (ast and the (resent, or *he (resent and the 7uture ( a binary pri ati e opposition). In some schemes the (resent is treated as an abstraction which cannot be ob,ecti ely established. 1thers treat the (resent stretching limitlessly into the future and into the past (prospecti ely and retrospecti ely). The !uture Tense Bs a colourless, neutral synthetic future which is to be found in Russian and 7rench it is non-existent in !nglish. 1. 2espersen, (almer, +. :ar9hudaro hold that shall and will are modal erbs meaning obligation and olition. !nglish does ery well without regular auxiliaries to express futurity ( he train leaves tomorrow. he train is leaving tomorrow. he train is to leave tomorrow. he train is about to leave tomorrow. he train is on the point of lea ing). Pe do not find the 7uture in clauses of time and condition ( If he comes, tell me about it. (hen he comes, tell me about it2. Bccording to ).B.Sobrina, :.B.Ilyish, !.B.Sornee a, the !nglish *ense system is represented by the opposition *he (ast " the (resent " the 7uture. *hese scholars find that shall and will indicate merely futurity , they ha e become fully grammaticali=ed, losing their modality. ).B. Sobrina and !.B.Sornee a add that there exist two constructions shall3will X infinitive, in one shall and will are modals and in the other they are future auxiliaries. Phen they are auxiliaries, they can be contracted into kll. *his mar9er of futurity can be attached to any class of words ( (hat he says.ll have authority). M.q.:lo9h distinguishes newer categories within the 7uture. 1n the basis of the oppositions come )) shall come, come )) will come he distinguishes the category of prospect, on the basis of the opposition shall come)) will come he distinguishes the category of futurity option. *he distinction between the members of this opposition is neutrali=ed in the element Rll. !hall and will are not substitutable. (ill can be used in all persons, shall is rele ant only for the first person singular and plural. So we can conclude that *he 7uture is an unfinished system in !nglish. The Present Tense Bs to its syntagmatic semantics, the (resent is the richest tense form. Its paradigmatic meaning is that of immediate present coinciding with the moment of speech. It;s syntagmatic meanings are" habitual recurrent actions characterising a person (He hates authority)% uni ersal truths (usually in maxims)( he old believe everything, the middle8aged suspect everything, the young know everything. 1.Pilde)% the biblical timeless present ( Pne generation passeth away and another generation cometh, but the Warth abideth foreverC2; futurity ( He returns from @ondon tomorrow)% a long stretch of time from the past into the future( I know him all my life2; a past occurrence ( the so called 0istoric, 6ramatic (resent) (Desterday she comes in, sits down, gasps and dies. B. 8hristie. hen he turned the corner and what do you think happens ne>t&2. The Past Tense It seems to be semantically simpler as it merely refers to something that happened in the past. Bccording to 1tto 2espersen;s theory of the imaginati e use of tenses, the (ast or the before

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(ast con eys, under certain conditions, hypothetical actions, unreality, impossibility ( I wish you did it. I wish Dou had done it yesterday. He looks as if he had never been here). 1.!spersen did not distinguish the Sub,uncti e Mood (neither Sub,unci e I nor Sub,uncti e II). The !uture1in1the1Past Tense *here;s no agreement as to the place the forms should3would r infiniti e occupy in the system of the !nglish language. 1ften, these forms are placed outside the morphological categories. (rof. Smirnits9y finds them to be an expression of the 8onditional mood. (rof. I ano a put forward the idea of two temporal centres" the centre of the (resent and that of the (ast. *he 7uture-in-the(ast is a dependent future belonging to the past. Bccording to prof. Shaimo ich should3would are the manifestations of the category of posteriority which is based on the oppositions shall ) should, will ) would. M.q. :lo9h distinguishes the category of prospecti e posteriority. 0e distinguishes two 7utures" the 7uture-of-the-(resent and the 7uture-of-the-(ast . Bccording to prof. (lot9in, the 7uture-in-the-(ast is the 4 -th member of the tense paradigm in modern !nglish.

The Category of #s%ect

Qnder aspect scholars understand a mode (a phase) of an action, that is, continuity, progressi eness, completion, resultati ity, instantaneousness, etc.). *he following problems are open to discussion here"-. Some scholars don;t recogni=e the existence of this category in !nglish. *hey hold that aspectual relations of completenessa incompleteness, continuity, resultati ity are expressed contextually by lexico-grammatical means. *he continuous and perfect forms are treated as tenses. &. *hose who recogni=e it find it either a logical or a grammatical category. 5. Scholars who treat aspect as a logical category distinguish > aspects. *he ingressi e aspect denotes the initial phase of an action ( He went running. He started reading.2. *he durati e aspect denotes a progressi e action( He is eating). *he terminati e aspect represents an action as a finished whole ( It hit the target). *he effecti e aspect denotes the final point of an action (He has done it. He came running ). *he iterati e aspect denotes repeated actions (He often gets sick. He would come here every day last month ).*hose who recogni=e aspect as a grammatical category distinguish either 5 aspects Zthe imperfect aspect ( He was doing it)%the perfect aspect( He has done it)% the indefinite aspect( He did it)[ or & aspects(the common and the continuous). 4. 6ebated is the paradigmatic meaning of the continuous form. It is interpreted as duration or limited duration +2espersen), simultaneity +$orontso a), continuity within certain time limits (Ilyish), de elopment(:lo9h). >. *he category of aspect penetrates other erbal categories. *he categories of tense and aspect are blended, they are inseparable and should be treated ,ointly. *his iew was ad anced by professors $orontso a and I ano a. Bccording to professors :ar9hudaro , Smirnits9y, Ilyish tense and aspect are two distinct categories, tense showing the time of an action and aspect showing the de elopment of an action. (rofessors Smirnits9y, :ar9hudaro , Ilyish, Shlebni9o a find aspect to be a grammatical category based on the binary pri ati e opposition of two forms read))am reading ,reads)) is reading, has read)) has been reading, etc., which represent the common aspect and the continuous aspect. M.q. :lo9h distinguished the aspectual category of de elopment which is based on the opposition of the continuous and the noncontinuous forms. *he distinction between the continuous and the noncontinuous forms can be neutrali=ed (Dou are always complaining # you always complain). So, semantically, continuous forms are redundant. :ut, stylistically, they are of extreme importance, as they acti ely participate in the creation of sentential and textual emoti eness, expressi eness, intensi eness and e aluation (positi e and negati e). *he semantic content of continuous forms comes to be rather complex. Pe can distinguish in it the paradigmatic in ariant seme of continuity and the syntagmatic semes of permanence, timelessness, futurity, emoti eness, intensi eness, expressi eness, e aluation. *here are some factors in modern !nglish which occasion the fre<uent usage of continuous forms. Important are artistic considerations, as continuous forms are more emphatic than noncontinuous forms. *here is psychological explanation of the growing usage of continuous forms.

&*he :ritish are becoming more impulsi e, forgetting about their traditional reticence (suffice it to remember about the aggressi eness of :ritish football fans). 8ontinuous forms are more fre<uent in the speech of females. Bs a result of semantic disagreement between the non-dynamic meaning of the erb and the dynamic meaning of a continuous form a grammatical metaphor is being born which ma9es discourse more dynamic, emoti e, e aluatory (I.m not listening, I.m not seeing, I.m not feeling. I.m falling in love with you again2.In artistic texts authors most often impart dynamism to normally undynamic erbs (-ow he was remembering everything. Is she still liking Wngland& @oving it2. 8ontinuous forms participate in the creation of an ironic effect, which is based upon contrasts and contradictions ( Dou are being very charitable today). B person, normally, cannot be charitable for a ery limited period of time.

The Category of Time 2elation or Correlation"

*he debated <uestions within the category of correlation are" -.the existence of this category% &. the character of this category% 5. the paradigmatic meaning of perfect forms% 4. the interrelations between correlation, tense and aspect. *here are se eral interpretations of the perfect form. -. Bccording to the tense iew, the perfect is a peculiar tense form (0. Sweet, 1. 2espersen, M. Ganshina, G. 8urme, M. :ryant, qu. Sorsa9o ,). It is an anterior tense which coexists with the other primary expressions of time( (resent, (ast and 7uture) (I shall have done it by < o.clock). &. Bccording to the aspect iew, the perfect is an aspect ()estfield, Pest, 6eutschbein). It is treated as the aspect of completion or the aspect of succession. 5.Bccording to the tense-aspect blend iew, the perfect is recogni=ed as a form of double temporal- aspecti e character (I. (. I ano a). 4. Bccording to the time correlation iew, the perfect form builds up its own category, different from tense and aspect. *his is an independent category which is termed differently by different scholars Z the category of time relation (B.I.Smirnits9y), the category of correlation (:.B.Ilyish), the category of order (:.Shaimo ich), the category of retrospecti e coordination ( M.q. :loch)[. (opular is the last interpretation. *he category of correlation is based on the opposition of nonperfect and perfect forms( write)) have written, is writing)) has been writing). *he paradigmatic meaning of a perfect form is that of precedence. *his independent grammatical category of time relation(correlation) constitutes a whole system in ol ing aspect, tense and mood( writes * has written * has been written, etc2. *ense, aspect and correlation are closely connected. *hey, correspondingly, represent the time of an action, its de elopment and its precedence to another action in the present, past or future. *he distinctions between the members of this opposition can be neutrali=ed (I hear )) I have heard, I forget# I have forgotten2. B (erfect form, representing the category of correlation, is polysemantic. It has a semantic structure constituted by the paradigmatic meaning of precedence and ariable syntagmatic meanings which can be re ealed combining the contextual analysis with the componential method Zresultati ity, completeness, successi eness, an implication for the future, repeatedness, retrospecti e conclusion (,eople have talked like that from time immemorial. Bon.t think it has been a happy marriage). *he meaning of the perfect depends on se eral factors. 1ne of them is the meaning of the erb. $erbs can be durati e and terminati e. 6urati e erbs denote an action that goes on indefinitely (to go, to walk, to love, to dislike, to speak)% terminati e erbs denote an action reaching a limit (to come, to close, to bring, to lose to break). (erfect forms can be encountered in all 9inds of speech" ulgar and ele ated, but they are most fre<uent in con ersation. (erfect forms can emphasise the attitude of the spea9er towards the people or e ents described ( !ince the time I left you, I have lived your life. I have breathed you, I have eaten you, I have drunk you, I have wept your eyes. I. Murdoch).

The Category of 0oice

*he definition of oice depends upon interpretations of this category, If oice is understood as a logical category it denotes ways of expressing relations between a erb and its sub,ect and

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ob,ect. If it is a grammatical category, oice denotes grammatical ways of expressing relations between a erb and its sub,ect and ob,ect. Much in this category is widely discussed. 6ebated problems here are -.the nature of the category% &.the starting point of analysis% 5.the problem of transiti ity% 4.the nature of the construction be X ,articiple II; <.the number of oices% 3.the limits of the passi e% ?. the paradigmatic meanings of the acti e and of the passi e oice forms.. -.$oice is treated as a syntactic category (0. (aul, B. (otebnya), as a morphologicosyntactic category as it denotes the syntactic relation of an action to its sub,ect and ob,ect by a system of morphological forms , as a purely morphological category (B.Smirnits9y, :. Ilyish, M. :lo9h, et al.). &. It is hard to say what is to be paid attention to, meanings or forms. !xternal signs can express different meanings. Bn acti e oice form expresses arious relations between a erb and its sub,ect and ob,ect Z He shaved the customer + acti ity2, He shaved and went out + reflexi ity2, I opened the door +acti ity2, he door opened + mediopassi ity2, hey kissed + reciprocality2, I suffered a blow +passi ity2Q. 5. Qnder transiti ity we understand the potential capacity of a erb to demand an ob,ect. *he nature of transiti ity is obscure and it is not clear whether it is a grammatical or a lexical category. $erbs are di ided into transiti es and intransiti es. :ut in M! this di ision is not exact as transiti e erbs can be used intransiti ely and ice ersa ( (hy don.t you walk me home& I.d like you to dance me. Dou danced me splendidly2. 4. *he construction to be X ,articiple II is ery ambiguous. Some scholars find it to be a passi e structure only when it expresses an action. It is analy=ed as a simple erbal predicate. Phen it expresses a state, it is to be interpreted as a compound nominal predicate Z he door is opened ( a state). he door is being opened +an action2Q. B.I. Smirnits9y, always relying upon form, considered each occurrence of to be X participle II as a passi e structure. >. Blong with the acti e and the passi e scholars distinguish the reflecti e oice( He washed himself; the medio-passi e (middle2 oice ( he door opened. he coat wears well. he coffee tastes well. he book sells like hotcakes.2. It denotes the processes going on within the sub,ect without affecting any ob,ect)% the reciprocal oice( hey hate one another. hey hugged each other ). Morphologically, @the oice formsA underlined absolutely resemble the acti e oice form. *he elements @-self, each other, one anotherA cannot be interpreted as auxiliaries of these @ oicesA, as at times they are omissible and at times they are nonomissible. *hese formations fall under the heading of the acti e oice. 3. *he erb to be is not the only auxiliary forming the passi e oice. (assi e structures are formed by means of the erbs to get, to become, to have, to go, to come ZHe got married. He came to be respected. I had my horse killed under me in the battle He went missing. he house got burnt). *he sub,ect in these sentences experiences some action). $. Mathesius also includes here the erb to suffer and the constructions to be sub?ect to, to be in preparation, as the sub,ect neither performs nor initiates an action. Most fre<uent is the (assi e with the erb to get which comes to function as an acti e auxiliary in Bmerican !nglish ( he work has got done). *he pre alent iew is that oice is a erbal category based on the opposition of the acti e and the passi e forms. *his opposition is expressed by a number of different forms representing aspect, tense, mood, correlation + read )) is read, wrote)) was written, is writing)) is being written, would write)) would be written, etc.2. ?. *he paradigmatic meanings of the acti e and the passi e forms writes)) is written are ague and admit of arious interpretations. *he acti e form denotes a sub,ect as the agent of the action (I did it), experiencer, sufferer, patient (I.ve lost everything). Pe encounter acti es with the reflexi e meaning (I shaved), reciprocal, mediopassi e meanings. *he term kacti e; appears to be unsatisfactory because of the discrepancy between the acti e form of the erb and its reflexi e, reciprocal, mediopassi e meanings. Bcti es are structurally ariable which depends on the transiti ity or intransiti ity of the erb Z0e read a book +transiti e2. He departed. He sleeps+intransiti e2. He gave her a book

&5
+ditransiti e2. He considers her a beauty +factiti e)[. (assi es are also structurally ariable Z he book is read by me +transiti e2. !he was lost in reverie +intransiti e2.!he was considered a beauty +factiti e2. !he was given a book by him +ditransiti e2.He has never been found fault with +a passi e, complicated by ad erbial elements2Q. (assi es ha e a different communicati e organi=ation as compared with acti es. *he semantic roles of their constituents are different from those of acti e structures. $. Mathesius , analy=ing the category of oice, connects it with a functional sentence perspecti e (or communicati e dynamism) under which we understand distribution of information among the elements of a sentence. 0e distinguishes 5 elements in a sentence )" the performer of an action, the action itself, the goal of an action (the person or thing affected by the action). *hese 5 elements are placed in different perspecti es" the acti e and the passi e. B sentence has an acti e perspecti e if the action starts with the performer with respect to the goal( I wrote a letter). B sentence has a passi e perspecti e if we start with the goal with respect to the performer( he letter has been written by him).*he (assi e is the de ice which ma9es it possible for the semantic ob,ect to perform the thematic function and for the semantic sub,ect to perform the rhematic function ( he book was given to him by "ane (the boo9 is the semantic ob,ect, 2ane is the semantic sub,ect). Bcti es and passi es are not interchangeable, mutually con ertible, as they ha e different communicati e purposes, that is, not all acti es can be passi i=ed ( "ohn likes girls. Henry studies 6rench). In the structures He was given to that kind of thing. !he has been taken ill. -o love was lost between them the sub,ect is incapable of functioning as an ob,ect of a corresponding acti e construction. *hey ha e different communicati e purposes. Bcti es rhemati=e logical ob,ects, passi es rhemati=e logical sub,ects. Bccording to the character of the agent, we distinguish different passi es" passi es with an explicit agent( It is when men are ruled by women), passi es with a non-existent agent ( He was lost in reverie), with an implicit agent which is easily restorable( (oman was made while Adam slept2. *he agents can be missing when they are un9nown or when they are of generic reference( Bostoevsky is commonly regarded as a prophetic writer2. *he formations he is arrived, he is gone, I am finished are not passi es, these are perfect forms of intransiti e erbs. *hey were ery fre<uent in Sha9espeare;s time. In modern !nglish they are stylistically mar9ed (Phen she opened the door he was gone'2. In Bmerican !nglish they are of fre<uent currency. *here are some factors determining the use of passi es in M!. *he pre alent factor is the functional sentence perspecti e. *he (assi e is used to rhemati=e the logical sub,ect ( he letter has been written by me). *he widest sphere of the application of passi es is scientific writings where impersonal presentation of the sub,ect matter is preferable. *here is no agent, or the agent is indefinite. Bttention is focused on the data described (9ethods of purifying water are given much attention to2. *he agueness of the agent in any functional style accounts for the fre<uency of passi es (5ood things which have long been en?oyed are not easily given up2. *he (assi e is on the increase in present day !nglish. Pe find arious structural and semantic arieties of passi es in all functional styles. *he use of the (assi e reflects the realities of the bureaucratic social structure where it is impossible to assign responsibility to a concrete indi idual. *he (assi e is so outrageously spread in all styles that there arise protests on the part of writers. Stylists find the Bcti e strong and igorous and the (assi e wea9 and colourless. The Category of Moo& *he category of mood falls under a wide notion of modality, which is an indispensable attribute of each sentence. It expresses the attitude of a spea9er towards a happening, whether he finds it a fact or a non-fact, that is imaginary, hypothetical or desirable. Modality is expressed phonetically ( by stress and intonation), lexically (by modal words), lexico-grammatically ( by modal erbs), grammatically ( by corresponding forms of erbs, the oppositions of which constitute the category of mood), syntactically ( by certain sub- clauses). *he category of mood in present day

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!nglish has gi en rise to many discussions. Interpretations of this category ary from scholar to scholar, reflecting their grammatical, logical, semantical or psychological orientations. *he category is confusing because of the contrast between its semantic intricacy and scantiness of its inflections. 6ebated problems within this category are" the character of the category, the starting point of analysis, the number of moods, the existence of the Imperati e Mood, the existence of the Sub,uncti e Mood, the nature of the forms shoulda would r infiniti e. Mood is understood as a morphologico- semantical phenomenon (1. 2espersen). Bccording to prof. R. +ong, mood is a semantico- syntactical phenomenon as it expresses distinctions between the actual and the hypothetical and partly distinctions between clause patterns. 0e distinguishes the indicati e, the sub,uncti e, the infiniti e, the gerundial and the participial moods. Mood is understood e en as a psychological phenomenon (e.g. @Mood expresses images of the twilight world of imaginationA). B.I. Smirnits9y, :.B.Ilyish and M.q.:loch understand mood as a purely morphological category. It is <uestionable whether it is forms which are to be systemati=ed according to their meanings, or modal meanings which are to be classified according to their forms. :ut all attempts to systemati=e meanings and forms fail. *here;s no scheme that would be uni ersally acceptable. *here are so many semantic implications and psychological connotations that the category of mood has always been the stumbling bloc9 for notionalists and formalists ali9e. It is difficult to analyse the category of mood as there is no correspondence between meaning and form. 1ne and the same meaning can be expressed ariously. *he meaning of supposition, for example, is expressed in se eral ways (I suggest our going there. I suggest that we should go there. I suggest that we go there2. *he concessi e meaning can also be expressed by different means j((hatever it be + can be, could be, may be, might be, should be, is )V. 1ne and the same external sign can express different meanings. (ere can be found in I wish he were here.If he were to come, I should be pleased. He wondered whether she were in !pain. !uppose he were here& It is as if he were ill. Had done can be seen in two semantically different structures ) I wish you had done it. I said he had done it. (roceeding from meaning scholars distinguish -3 Moods( *he 0ypothetical Mood, the 1ptati e Mood, the (ermissi e Mood, the Suppositional Mood, the Indicati e Mood, *he Imperati e Mood, the $oluntati e Mood, the (otential Mood, the 8ompulsory Mood, the 8onditional Mood, *he Irrealis, etc.). (roceeding from form, B.I. Smirnits9y distinguished 3 Moods" 6irect - Iindirect (1bli<ue Moods) ab ab indicati e imperati e synthetical analytical ab ab Sub,uncti e I Sub,uncti e II *he 8onditional *he Suppositional Some scholars distinguish 5 Moods"*he Indicati e, *he Imperati e and *he Sub,uncti e. +et us consider each of these moods separately. The )n&icative Moo& Semantically it is the most ob,ecti e mood, morphologically it is most de eloped. The )m%erative Moo& *his mood expresses order, command, a stimulus. It is the least de eloped mood resembling in form Su,uncti e I and the infiniti e. 0ence, some scholars do not recogni=e its existence.*hough it is unde eloped as compared with Russian, we encounter ery peculiar forms in syntagmatics Y Have done it by the time he comes + the perfect form of the imperati e2. %e always searching for new sensations +the continuous form of the imperati e)[. It can become polysemantic and de elop the meanings of condition or concession. 9ake me do these things and you would destroy me (2.+ondon) can be transformed into If you make me do these things, you will destroy me.

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The Subjunctive Moo& It is the most confusing mood. In 1ld !nglish there was a fully inflecti e Sub,uncti e comparable with +atin or German. It denoted problematic, hypothetical and purely imaginary actions. In !nglish *he Sub,uncti e has long been in a state of decay as compared with other !uropean languages. *he simple Sub,uncti e (Sub,uncti e I) is being supplanted (E^HGCIKHN) by the forms lest he should die or that he may die. Sub,uncti e II is being supplanted by was (I wish he was in Hell2. *he present day syntax allows ery few formal distinctions" 5od bless my wife. I wish he were here. *he difference between the Indicati e mood and the Sub,uncti e mood has practically come to be blotted out (If I wasn.t your friend, I think I.d blame you2. 0ence, many scholars (1. 2espersen, +. :archudaro ) do not recogni=e the existence of this Mood. Bccording to 1. 2espersen;s theory of the imaginati e use of tenses, past tenses indicate, in certain syntactic conditions, hypothesis, supposition, problemacity. In the sentence He smiles as if he had never heard about it the underlined form, according to 1.2espersen, is in before past time expressing unreality. In the contaminated clause, embracing the properties of two sub-clauses ( a predicati e clause and an ad erbial clause of unreal comparison) in the complex sentence It is as if he had never been there the underlined form of before past time expresses unreal comparison. Bccording to 1. 2espersen, the absence of the Sub,uncti e is made up for by some stereotyped phrases, grammatical idioms (so be it), combinations of modal erbs and infiniti es and the imaginati e use of past tenses (times) which become modally coloured in some patterns ( I wish he had done it). Bccording to !ric (artridge, the Sub,uncti e is not an extinct (E^FfLJstfp) mood. It is a li ing mood to be found in different patterns of simple sentences, in complex sentences (both in the principal and subordinate clauses) (5od bless you. If he knew, he would come. +a conditional clause2. Wven if he had come he wouldn.t have understood +a concessi e clause2. I wish he came +an ob,ect clause2, etc.*he Sub,uncti e, depending upon syntactical patterns, embraces different forms" might, came, should, had come, were, be. It is a semantic-syntactic- morphological category. M.q. :loch distinguishes 5 Sub,uncti es" *he Stipulati e (Sub,uncti e II" I wish he came2, *he Specti e (Sub,uncti e I " 5od bless him), *he 8onsecuti e (Sub,uncti e III" He would have refused). Most con enient for practical analysis is B. I. Smirnits9y;s classification of moods. 0e proceeds from formal criteria. !ach mood is presented by peculiar models on the le el of the simple and complex sentences ( 7or example, Sub,uncti e II on the le el of the simple sentence " Ph, that I were a glove upon that hand +P.Sha9espeare).Ph, if he were here. Ph, that he were here. If only he were here. (ere he only here' % Sub,uncti e II on the le el of the complex sentence" It is as if he were here. If he were here, he would understand. Wven if he were here he wouldn.t understand. I wish he came2. *he category of mood is hard to represent in terms of binary oppositions. (rof. Wand oort represents it in the following opposition" he play)) he plays +non8fact )) fact2. 1ne integral form of the Indicati e is opposed to one integral form of the Sub,uncti e. *he category of Mood in !nglish is not yet stabili=ed. It is still in the ma9ing.

The *on1!inites The 0erbals"

*he $erbals (infiniti es, participles I, participles II, gerunds) are non-finite forms of the erb. *hey ha e double nature, erbal and nominal. *he Infiniti e has the properties of the noun and of the erb, (articiple I and (articiple II ha e the properties of the erb, of the ad,ecti e and of the ad erb. *he Gerund has the properties of the erb and of the noun. Is is accounted for by the fact that ,historically, the Infiniti e and the Gerund are connected with the noun, while (articiple I and (articiple II are connected with the ad,ecti e and the ad erb. So, the erbals treat actions as substances and <ualities. Points of Similarities -ith the !inites

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-. *he erbals express the idea of action( to write, writing, written, writing" here are a lot of things to marvel at but, first, a lot of =uestions to ask. A man to see you' S.(lath). &. *hey all ha e the categories of correlation and oice, the infiniti e has one more erbal category, that of aspect (to be writing, to have written, to be written, to have been written, to have been writing; being written, having written, having been written ). *he distinction between the acti e and the passi e, the non-perfect and perfect forms can be neutrali=ed in the non-finites ( he house is to let he house is to be let; I am awfully surprised to find you here I am awfully surprised to have found you here he book isn.t worth buying he book isn.t worth being bought. Dour stomach wants educating Dour stomach wants being educated. Arriving there he immediately understood everything Having arrived there he immediately understood everything). 5. *he non-finites, li9e the finites, are seldom used singly, without complements +9arriage is not a hopeless affair doomed to failure. He seems to have done it2. Points of $ifferences -ith the !inites -. *he erbals cannot refer actions to the present, past, or future. *hey show precedence, simultaneity, or successi eness of some actions as regards those expressed by the finites YI am surprised at your having done it +precedence2. He seems to be standing over there+simultaneity2[. &. *he erbals lac9 the categories of person, number, tense and mood. Still an infiniti e can imply, in some contexts, some modality, which is re ealed transformationally ( He is the easiest man to do business with He is the easiest man that you can do business with. Here is a book for you to read. Here is a book that you can+ could, may, should2 read. o look at his pictures you would have thought that Impressionists had never been. If you had looked at his pictures you would have thought that Impressionists had never been ( P.S.Maugham)[. +ac9ing the categories of person, number and tense, non-finites cannot function as predicates in the sentence. :ut they can ac<uire some predicati e force, they can imply predicati ity which can be seen transformationally( A man of eighty to marry a girl of twenty four'& hat a man of eighty five should marry a girl of twenty'2. )on-finites become potential predicates ( secondary predicates) in predicati e constructions (I saw thee weep. I saw that you wept. I am surprised at your having done it. I am surprised that you have done it2. (articiple II differs from the rest of the erbals. It has no forms (passi e and perfect) as the meanings of passi ity and completeness are implicit in it( It is a poem translated into many languages2. *he erbal nature is less prominent here, so it can be easily ad,ecti i=ed ( an offended look). It is in the periphery of the erbals. It may turn into a structural element, a functional word. Such is the preposition given2+5iven the circumstances + Z [\]LHI H^ZLH_LK`aZLb2, America is likely to launch a war here). $ebate& Problems -ithin The 0erbals -. *he existing terms (resent (articiple and (ast (articiple are not satisfactory as the finites do not denote time absolutely. 1n the analogy with the German (arti=ip I and (arti=ip II the terms (articiple I and (articiple II were proposed. *he term @half-gerundA is unscientific (I insist upon "ohn doing it in time. I insist upon them doing it in time2. &. Sometimes a gerund and a participle I are hard to distinguish Z( I saw mother reading a book+a participle2. I remember mother reading a book +a gerund2Q. It is reasonable to consider them as an ing8form, the difference between the gerund and the participle being neutrali=ed. *he difference between a gerund and a erbal noun can also be neutrali=ed ( ,eople told me about your smoking). The !unctions of *on1!inites *he finites perform the function of a simple erbal predicate. *he non-finites can perform different functions in the sentence (predicati e, sub,ect, ob,ect, attribute, ad erbial modifier). *hey can occur isolatedly, in phrases Z here are things to marvel at (an infiniti e phrase functions as an attribute), in predicati e constructions which function as complex sub,ects, predicati es, ob,ects,

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attributes, ad erbial modifiers ( I made him do it. He was seen to be crossing the street.2. Some functions of non-finites can be syncretical and ambiguous Z I got places to go and things to do +an attribute and an ad erbial modifier of purpose). So, all the forms of the erb are di ided oppositionally into 7inites and )on-finites, which differ structurally, semantically and functionally.

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Materials for Lecture 3 S4*T#X *he domain of morphology is the paradigmatics of words% the domain of syntax is the syntagmatics of words, phrases and sentences, their arrangement, combinability and functioning. Syntax studies how words are combined into phrases and simple sentences, how simple sentences are combined into compound and complex sentences and how supraphrasal units and texts are organi=ed and generated. Ty%es of Synta' *here are se eral arieties of syntax , se eral syntactic theories in modern linguistics. *raditional sentential syntax, the primary concern of which is a sentence and its grammatical organi=ation. 0ypersyntax goes beyond the border of the sentence into discourse (or text). It studies the structure , generation, cohesion of discourse (its structural, semantic and communicati e completeness). (resuppositional syntax describes semantic implication which consists in a sentence presupposing another sentence + %ill is tall but he cannot play basketball. *he implication is that all tall guys can play bas9etball). I rang him but he was out . *he implication is that I came up to the phone, picked up the receiver, dialled the numberC2. +ogico-semantic syntax studies the semantic structure of a sentence. *he semantic structure of a sentence is described in terms of propositions, predicates, arguments, deep cases +!ee Semantic Syntax). 7unctional-communicati e syntax is concerned with the functional sentence perspecti e (or communicati e dynamism), the distribution of information among the elements of a sentence and means of distinguishing the gi en and the new. (aradigmatic syntax studies the paradigm of a sentence, constituted by all possible transformations of a sentence (He has a car 8$ !he has a car. He had a car. hey are having a car, etc.2. Structural syntax (the >'-s and the 3'-s of the ## th century) studied a bare structure of phrases and sentences, utterly disregarding their content, ambiguity, implicit relations and discourse complexity. It mostly operated with the I8 method and the distributional method. *ransformational generati e syntax studies the relations between surface and deep structures. It operates with the transformational analysis and the method of surface and deep structures + he invitation of the writer surprises me #$ the writer invited somebody or somebody invited the writer). Syntactic theories ignore indi idual and stylistic differences% they ignore ariations of discourse, syntactical ariations at any historical period. *hey ignore that the stilted style of scientific discourse differs greatly from complicated syntax of artistic discourse, written syntax differs from loosely organised oral syntax with greater redundancy, artistic authorial syntax (0emingway;s parataxis% 2oyce;s parcellation and headless clauses without connecti es +5od becomes man becomes fish becomes barnacle goose becomes featherbed mountain2; Galsworthy;s one-member nominal and infiniti al sentences, +awrence;s detachment and double predicates). T+E T+E(24 (! T+E P+2#SE *o 9now how a sentence is constructed we are to see how its constituents are built and classified. *heoretical syntax describes free word-combinations of the type ( a beautiful girl, ladies and gentlemen, run =uickly, on account of etc.). 0ere the elements are separable, whereas in a phraseological unit, especially in an idiom (to smell a rat ) the globality of nomination reigns supreme o er the formal separability of units. *here exist arious terms to name a group of words (a word group, a word combination, a cluster of words, a syntagmatic grouping, a phrase, etc.). Russian linguists prefer to use the term @word combinationA, Pestern linguists resort to the term @phraseA. *he constituents of a phrase are the head element, the modified one, the governing element; an ad?unct, a modifier, the governed element ( in the phrase @a beautiful girlV a girl is the head, while UbeautifulV is an ad,unct). $evices of Connecting 5or&s in a Phrase Main grammatical de ices of connecting words within a phrase are agreement, government, ad?oinment +GNJIcdFEJK2, incorporation, enclosure +bd`e\KEJK2. Bgreement consists in combining a head and its ad,unct by means of morphological categories they both share. *he ad,unct assumes the grammatical form of the head (in synthetical

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languages " fFg ZKgHh NFbEJEHh IHN_ , etc. In these languages nouns and ad,ecti es agree in number, gender and case% nouns and erbs agree in gender, person and number). In !nglish agreement is practically non-existent, we find it only in this book * these books, that book * those books. 1n the le el of a simple sentence we find formal agreement (he goes). In go ernment an ad,unct assumes a certain grammatical form under the influence of its head word. Go ernment is insignificant in !nglish, obser ed mostly between nouns and erbs ( help her, help him). Inflectional go ernment occurs between a head noun and a noun in the possessi e case ( the student.s answer). Go ernment in !nglish is expressed primarily by prepositions (to arri e at, to rely upon, to result in, to refer to, etc.). In ad,oinment an ad,unct is placed before or after the head word without changing its form (cf. isolation). It;s characteristic of analytical and isolated languages ()r) Algebra problem, Br) a wise teacher, Br$ run =uickly, Bd rBd very =uickly, etc.2. Incorporation consists in enclosing a syntactic structure between parts of a phrase (a life8 and8death =uestion2. *he incorporated formations are studied by morphology, syntax and wordbuilding. It;s an example of o erlapping between syntax and morphology. *hese formations are termed differently) a word syntagm, a word * sentence, a composite word, etc. Bd,oinment is pre alent in !nglish. Bgreement and go ernment are insignificant, as to incorporation it is progressing, but remains to be exotic. It;s more fre<uently used in newspapers( while8you8wait shoe repairs). $ebate& Problems -ithin the Theory of the Phrase *here are se eral debated problems within the theory of the phrase. Most essential are the predicati e character of the phrase, the problem of criteria of classifying phrases, the number of elements within a phrase. Most scholars hold that e ery combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit constitutes a phrase" hot weather, very hot, at least, on account of. Pe can distinguish phrases comprising notional and functional words +-XAlgebra problem, AX- wise teacher, AX B run =uickly, AX B very =uickly, etc.). *hey are grammatical units% each constituent of a phrase can undergo different grammatical changes. *he grammatical ariation of a phrase constitutes its paradigm + to read a book, to be reading a book, to have been reading a book, etc.2. *here are phrases e<ui alent to prepositions, these are prepositional phrases( instead of). *here are also con,unctional phrases (as long as, as soon as). Pe are to discriminate between analytical forms of words and phrases. o write a letter is a phrase , while would have been writing is the analytical form of the word write2. 0ome scholars hold that a phrase is a non-predicati e unit, it;s more li9e a word, as it names actions, things, <ualities (very beautiful), it names also <ualities of <ualities (very =uickly)% they belie e that predication is the prerogati e of a sentence. Pestern scholars ma9e no difference between sub,ect-predicate combinations and nonpredicati e combinations, calling both phrases ("ohn runs away, to run away). Classifications of Phrases 0enry Sweet classified phrases according to the relations between the head and the ad,unct. *hese relations are of logical and grammatical subordination. 0e distinguished the following degrees of subordination"- apposition (ad,oinment)(,rince Hamlet2, agreement (concord) ( these books2, go ernment (to see a film). So the criterion, underlying this classification, the degree of subordination. 1tto 2espersen introduced the theory of ran9s to understand the hierarchy of elements in a phrase. !lements are not of the same footing, they function as primaries, secondaries and tertiaries. *he ran9 of the element depends on its position. 1ne and the same element can be a primary and a secondary" an e>=uisitely lovely dress% a vast country and a country doctor ( III II I% II I% II I). Pe see that the word country can be a primary and a secondary. (rof. Srui=inga

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distinguished close and loose syntactic groups. In a close group there is a syntactically leading element( poor "ohn, very fragile). In a loose group both elements are independent of each other ( ladies and gentlemen). Bccording to the number of constituents, syntactic groups are di ided into double, triple and multiple groups. +eonard :loomfield, using the procedure of substitution, identified phrases according to their functioning in larger structures into endocentric and exocentric ones. Bn endocentric phrase functions as its head constituent (Aery fresh milk is on the table # 9ilk is on the table, students and teachers X students and teachers are in the hall). Bn exocentric phrase doesn;t function as any of it;s constituents (In the house; "ohn runs away; by running away). )one of their elements can replace the whole phrase in a larger structure. :oth types of phrases were further subdi ided by :loomfield into subclasses according to their structure. !ndocentric phrases are di ided into coordinate ones with elements being on the same footing ( girls and boys) and subordinate ones (charactersubstance phrases" poor "ohn). Bs to exocentric phrases the relations within them are more di erse. Pe see here predicati e (actor-action) phrases ("ohn runs away), connecti e phrases ( with "ohn, in the house). *hough :loomfield;s classification was generally recognised in western linguistics, it was still criticised for the discrepancy between the initial (function) and the subse<uent (structure) principles of classification. Bn exocentric phrase is criticised for being a catch-all, as it comprises e erything that cannot find place in a better organised endocentric phrase. 8lassifications of phrases are based on the presence or absence of the head word. Most scholars di ide phrases into headed (poor "ohn), non-headed (in the house).*here exist classifications proceeding from the grammatical characteristics of the head word" a nounal phrase (a red rose), a erbal phrase (to run =uickly), an ad,ecti al phrase (very beautiful), an ad erbial phrase (very coldly), a prepositional phrase (in front of), a con,unctional phrase (as long as2. *here exists classifications based on coordination or subordination (husband and wife; his pretty wife).*here exists a classification based on deri atabilityanon-deri atability. Some phrases can be deri ed from a sentence, some cannot be deri ed (the composition of light music u- 0e composes light music% the blooming flowers u- *he flowers bloom).*he phrases of the type in the house, a woman with her children cannot be deri ed from sentences. *his classification was ad anced in transformational grammar, which studies correlations between a phrase and a sentence. B sentence can be transformed into a phrase and ice ersa. So we see that attributi e relations de elop on the basis of predicati e relations (a new car i* the car is new2. )on-deri ati e phrases are phrases with determiners (articles, numerals) ( several of my friends) *he nominal phrases of the type young "olyon, a perfect fool are non-deri ati e ones as the ad,ecti es underlined ser e as intensifiers and specifiers. *hey do not predicate. (rof. $.$. :urla9o a distinguishes phrases into 9ernels and non-9ernels. In a 9ernel phrase the function of its central element can;t be identified. In the phrase a beautiful girl we don;t 9now whether a girl is a sub,ect or an ob,ect. *he elements of a non-9ernel phrase ha e the same footing ( ladies and gentlemen2. (rof. M.q. :lo9h distinguishes syntagmatic groupings of 5 types" autosemantic groupings, consisting of notional words (a beautiful girl2, they don;t depend upon the context% synsemantic groupings, carrying one notional and one functional word (for fear of, at the e>pense of,2 they depend on the context% functional groupings ( from within). 7unctional are con,unctional prepositional phrases. *hey are analogous to functional words used as connectors and specifiers. Qsing the oppositional method we can distinguish the following structural arieties of phrases" headed O non-headed, 9ernel O non-9ernel, deri ati e O not deri ati e, endocentric O exocentric, coordinate O subordinate, loose O close, predicati e O non-predicati e, independently predicati e O dependently predicati e (his being a bachelor), autosemantic O synsemantic. T+E T+E(24 (! T+E S)MPLE SE*TE*CE

5Sentential syntax is to be understood as a language component of our internal grammar, which allows us to generate, process and recogni=e grammatically correct sentences out of a limited storage of words without a moment;s hesitation. It;s a study of our computer-li9e ability in transformational-generati e terms to generate, process and recogni=e acceptable or non-acceptable structures of the type he field is fro;en. he leaves are dry. @ife consists of propositions about life. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. *here;s no sense in the last sentence, but we still recogni=e it as an !nglish sentence, though lexico-semantical alency laws are destroyed. It;s recogni=able as a poetic metaphor , the product of the ## century experimental erse. Sentential syntax is a study of syntactical modelling, communicati e dynamism (the functional sentence perspecti e) of all 9inds of sentences O simple and composite(compound and complex). *hough new re olutionary methods of parsing (vLJFFJHfMGCcfp LJowDL) ha e swept into prominence in the second half of the ## th century and sha9en the foundations of *raditional grammar, traditional parsing into the main and secondary parts has not gone into obli ion% the sub,ect and the predicate come bac9 into iew. *he present day sentential syntax ta9es ad antage of basic achie ements of traditionalists, structuralists, transformationalists, generati ists, that is all sophistication of the modern syntactic research, inno atory techni<ues and procedures of analysis. The $efinition of a Sentence Pe are to distinguish among sentences, clauses and utterances. B sentence is a grammatical unit of written language. Bn utterance is a speech act, a pragmatic unit. B clause is a constituent of a sentence, a higher-ran9ed unit- a sentence- contains lower- ran9ed units O clauses. Bll attempts at presenting a definition that would satisfy all scholars ha e pro ed to be fruitless. Scholars ha e failed to achie e a generally acceptable definition. *here exist hundreds of definitions, but none of them is found ade<uate. B sentence is a polyfunctional unit. It possesses many aspects (facets)" grammatical structure, a certain distribution of communicati e dynamism, modality, predicati ity, intonation, etc. *here are absolutely differing types of sentences. *here are one-word sentences (0elpx 7irex Pomenx Magnificentx !ighty-fi ex). *here are >' page-long sentences. Such is Molly :loom;s unpunctuated monologue from 2. 2oyce;s @QlyssesA. It is impossible to arri e at one uniform definition which could co er multiple types of sentences and embrace all facets of a sentence. *here exist logical, psychological, structural, phonetical, graphical definitions of a sentence. B sentence is an expression of a complete thought or ,udgement (logical). B sentence is an utterance which ma9es as long a communication as the spea9er has intended to ma9e before gi ing himself a rest (phonetical). Bccording to S. (orter, a sentence is a minimum complete utterance, a structure, it;s analysed into morphemes, words, phrases, clauses. It is a segment of speech flowing between pause and pause% it is a binary unit. Bccording to prof. Shaimo ich, a sentence is a communicati e unit made up of words and word-morphemes in accordance with their combinability and structurally united by intonation and predicati ity. M.q. :loch in his definition attempts to co er all aspects of a sentence ( structure, nominati e <uality, intonation, predicati ity, modality, pragmaticity, communicati e dynamism)" a sentence is a unit of speech, built of words% unli9e a word, a sentence doesn;t exist in the system of a language as a ready-made unit, it;s created by the spea9er in the course of communication% it;s intonationally coloured, characteri=ed by predicati ity, possesses a nominati e aspect, has a contextually rele ant communicati e purpose. :efore classifying sentences we shall dwell upon syntactic modelling, semantic modelling and a syntactic paradigm of the sentence. Syntactic Mo&elling of the Sentence Pithout comprehending what a basic model is we cannot understand the computer-li9e ability of our brain which can create sentences that ha e ne er been heard before and process sentences that we read and hear so that we can understand them. Modelling implies representing

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infinite li ing structures as a finite set of basic structures, of models (*he sun shines. 0e is cle er. *here is a boo9 on the table, etc.). *he notion of a basic structure is termed ariously" a skeleton, a model, a naked sentence, the nucleus of a sentence, a pattern, an elementary sentence, a kernel, a sentence situation, a deep structure, a proposition, etc. )o matter how it is termed, it is the simplest unextended predicati e minimum, an ultimately abstract scheme. *he basic structure is analysed differently" in terms of the main parts of a sentence (sub?ect and predicate), in terms of classes of words ( a noun and a verb), in terms of predicates, arguments and deep cases ( agentive, instrumental, locative, beneficiary, etc.). *he number of basic structures aries from one linguistic school to another. 6escripti ists hold that there are from 5 to ? sentence situations% transformationalists distinguish ? 9ernels% prof. G.G. (ocheptso distinguishes 5/ 9ernels. It all depends upon the criteria, scholars proceed from, to minimise basic structures. 6escripti ists proceed from structure disregarding meaning% they do not discriminate between two identical structures) 6ather gave 9ary money. om painted the fence white. *he former transparently has two ob,ects, while the latter carries an implicit predication which is re ealed transformationally" om painted the fence so that it became white. Bccording to transformationalists, @ om painted the fence whiteA is not a basic structure. *hey ad anced the notion of a kernel which underlies more complicated structures. *hey distinguished ? 9ernels" he sun shines. I have a car. I read a book. He gives me a book. He is clever. He is a poet. here is a book on the table. Bll possible grammatical structures are deri ations of 9ernels, recei ed by addition, substitution, deletion, embedding , recategori=ation ( erbali=ation, nominali=ation). *raditional grammar ad anced the notion of a naked sentence which anticipated modern theories. 7rom a na9ed sentence more extended structures can be recei ed by means of syntactic processes (e>tension, e>pansion, modification, completion, contamination, ellipsis2. Semantic Mo&elling of the Sentence Semantic modelling is associated with generati e semantics and semantic syntax. 0ere the content side of a sentence is modelled and described in elementary senses. *he basic notion is that of a semantic structure, which a mental model of an extralinguistic situation is. Semantically oriented syntactic theories were de eloped by 8harles 7illmore, Pallace 8hafe, 8h. Mc8auley, 1.I. Mos9als9aya. $.$. :ogdano . *hese scholars described the semantic structure of a sentence in terms of propositions, predicates, arguments and deep cases. *he semantic relations between arguments and predicates were described by them in terms of deep cases. P.8hafe distinguishes propositions according to the character of the verb) He broke a vase +with an actional semantic structure2, he wood is dry (with a statal semantic structure), It rains (with a processi e semantic Bll theories of modelling, no matter what school they could be ad anced by, what terms they could be described in, distinguish & parts within a basic structure" a noun X a verb, a sub?ect X a predicate, a noun phrase Xa verb phrase, a predicate X an argument. Bccording to P. 8hafe, the total human conceptual uni erse is dichotomi=ed into two ma,or areas" smb does smth, smth happens to smb. The *otion of a Syntactic Para&igm B syntactic paradigm is a set of syntactic structures, one of which is a 9ernel, it is in ariable, and others are ariables recei ed by arious transformational procedures, this process being called syntactic deri ation. In the paradigm of the sentence we distinguish the morphological sphere and the syntactical sphere. In the morphological sphere we find all possible changes of the constituents of the 9ernel ( he sun shines # $ the sun shone, the sun will shine, the sun is shining, the sun has been shing, these suns shine, etc.2. *he morphological sphere of the paradigm includes the changes in nouns as to number and case% the changes in erbs as to number, person, tense, oice, aspect, correlation and mood% the changes in ad,ecti es as to degrees of comparison. In the syntactical

55
sphere we find the negati e and the interrogati e forms of a 9ernel + he sun does not shine. he sun did not shine. Boes the sun shine& Bid the sun shine& (ill the sun shine& How does the sun shine& etc.2. In the syntactical sphere we can see phrase-transforms and clause-transforms of 9ernels. Sernels can be changed into phrases by the transformational procedure of phrasali=ation and expanded into clauses by the transformational procedure of clausali=ation. *hese transformations in ol e connecti es - con,unctions, con,uncti e pronouns and ad erbs, con,uncti e phrases ( he sun shines #$the sun shining, the shining of the sun , for the sun to shine, with the sun shining ;#$ if the sun shines, though the sun shines, when the sun shines, while the sun shines, as the sun shines, etc.2.8lauses can be combined to recei e larger structures (If the sun shines I.ll be happy, etc.2. *he general paradigm of a sentence embracing all morphological and syntactical transformations is oluminous. (aradigmatic structuring of connections and dependencies penetrated from morphology into the sphere of a sentence. Pe see that the methods of describing morphology and syntax o erlap. Structural Classification of Sim%le Sentences *here are se eral classifications of a simple sentence" structural, communicati e, semantic, pragmatic, etc. Scholars distinguish the following communicati e types of sentences" declarati e, interrogati e, imperati e and exclamatory. B simple sentence is a monopredicati e unit ha ing only one explicitly predicati e line which is formally expressed by a sub,ect and a predicate. Structurally simple sentences are classified into one-member (single-nucleus, one-axis) and two-member (double-nucleus, two-axis) sentences. More fre<uent are two-member sentences carrying the main parts ( a sub,ect and a predicate) and secondary parts. *hey can be expanded and unexpanded Z he sun shines + sub?ect X predicate2; 4obot robots a robot +sub?ect X predicate X ob?ect )[. B simple sentence does not exclude implicit predicati e lines which are formally unexpressed but distinguishable transformationally ( I am ama;ed at the sun shining so brightly2. *here are morphological arieties of one-member sentences"-. nominal (nounal and ad,ecti al) sentences" (omen' he men of property' !ilence' (onderful' Bisgusting' he perfect beauty of a sunflower; &. Infiniti al sentences (stylistic alternati es to sentences with finite erb predication)" 6orget all so soon' o love her' o have loved her' o be loved by her' ( these are the transforms of the initial infiniti al sentence). *hese are examples of written language. Speech is incredibly subtler than writing. Buthors try to reproduce sentences which are heard daily and which de iate from grammatical canons ( !he has developed power, this woman * this * this * this wife of his (2.Galsworthy). In actual performance much of our language communication is represented by the fragments of sentences (Pn the hill. Des.2. !xtracted from the context these fragments can be interpreted in an unlimited number of ways.

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General Pro%erties of a Sim%le T-o1Member E'%an&e&" Sentence Pithin a simple sentence we distinguish primary and secondary (independenta dependent) elements, the structural nucleus and its ad,uncts. Syntactic Ties *here exist se eral syntactic ties within a sentence. *he primary predicati e tie ma9es a sentence as it reali=es itself in the changes of the erb for person, number, tense, oice, mood, aspect, time relation. *he secondary predicati e tie can be re ealed transformationally, it does not ma9e a sentence, it is concealed in infiniti al, gerundial, participial constructions, predicati e constructions with nouns, ad,ecti es, stati es ZI saw him running (a complex ob,ect expressed by an ob,ecti e participial construction)% I find him a genius XY I find that he is a genius (a secondary sub,ect and a secondary predicate)%I found the house aflame XY I found that the house was aflame ( a predicati e construction with a stati e)% he dishes done, children to bed, her book read, she watches news on A (a complex ad erbial modifier of attendant circumstances). Pithin a simple sentence we also distinguish the subordinating tie which is an expression of dependence of an ad,unct on the headZ I was proud of him (proud is the head and him is an ad,unct). *he coordinating tie establishes syntactically homogeneous elements ( he sky was pale and soft. He was rude and nasty). *he appositi e tie can be illustrated by @7ing Alfred was a remarkable figure (7ing is an apposition). *he attributi e tie, existing between a modifier and a modified word, can be transformed into a predicati e tie (a beautiful girl2. *he completi e tie exists between an indispensable ob,ect and a erb( He broke his promise), the ob,ect completing the meaning of the erb. *he attributi e completi e tie exists between a erb and an ad erbial modifier of manner which is indispensable( He treated me kindly. He broke the thing gently2.*he introducti e tie ( ery loose) can be illustrated by the example 6rankly speaking, I don.t know anything about it. *hese are immediate explicit syntactic ties. Blong with them there exist implicit semantic ties which can be re ealed transformationally and interpreted componentially in terms of semantic agreementadisagreement of subclasses of words (Bbstractaconcrete, inanimateaanimate, humananonhuman, youngaold, maleafemale)" he flowers stood white and desolate( the ad,ecti es white and desolate are connected with the noun flowers as they semantically agree. *he sentence can be transformed into 5 9ernels" 6lowers stood. 6lowers were white. 6lowers were desolate. Pre&icative Constructions Pithin a simple sentence we distinguish primary and secondary (independenta dependent) elements, the structural nucleus and its ad,uncts. Pe ha e seen that there exist se eral syntactic ties within a sentence. $ery peculiar is the secondary predicati e tie. It is implicit, formally unexpressed. It is concealed in infiniti al, gerundial, participial constructions, predicati e constructions with nouns, ad,ecti es, stati es. In a predicati e construction we can distinguish a secondary sub,ect and a secondary predicate. B secondary sub,ect can be expressed by a noun in the common case, or a personal pronoun in the ob,ecti e case (before an infiniti e, a participle II, a gerund, a participle I, an ad,ecti e, a noun or a stati e), a noun in the geniti e case or a possessi e pronoun ( before a gerund). B predicati e construction functions usually as a complex sub,ect, a complex predicati e, a complex ob,ect, a complex attribute, a complex ad erbial modifier, B simple sentence with any of these complex parts can be transformed into a complex sentence with a subordinate clause. (redicati e constructions with an infiniti e are" -.*he Bccusati e (1b,ecti e) with the Infiniti e construction (I saw him cross the street. I heard him sing. I want you to do it) which functions as a complex ob,ect. &. *he )ominati e (Sub,ecti e) with the Infiniti e construction (He was seen to cross the street2. Some linguists belie e it to function as a complex sub,ect. *here is an opinion, according to which @was seen to crossA is a predicate of double orientation.

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5. *he 7or-*o-Infiniti e construction (It is a book for you to read), which functions as a complex attribute, or a complex ad erbial modifier. 4. *he )ominati e Bbsolute Infiniti al construction (He was happy, with the whole universe to improve), which functions as a complex ad erbial modifier of cause. (redicati e constructions with a participle are" -. *he Bccusati e (1b,ecti e) with the (articiple construction (I saw him running), which functions as a complex ob,ect. &. *he )ominati e (Sub,ecti e) with the (articiple construction (He was seen to be crossing the street). 2. Some linguists belie e it to function as a complex sub,ect. *here is an opinion, according to which @was seen to be crossingA is a predicate of double orientation. 5. *he )ominati e Bbsolute (articipial construction (with the preposition with or without it ( he dishes done, children to bed, her book read, she watches news on A (a complex ad erbial modifier of attendant circumstances).He entered the room, +with2 his dog following him). 4. *he Bbsolute (articipial construction (4iding side by side, the night was beautiful2. *he sub,ect of the action expressed by the participle is beyond the borders of this sentence. *he construction functions as a complex ad erbial modifier of attendant circumstances. (redicati e constructions with a gerund" -.*he wholly gerundial construction with a noun in the geniti e case or a possessi e pronoun ("ohn.s having come late has ama;ed me). It functions here as a complex sub,ect.&. *he half-gerundial construction (I am ama;ed at "ohn having come late). It functions as a complex prepositional ob,ect. *here are predicati e constructions with nouns, ad,ecti es and stati es. *hey function as a complex ob,ect. *hey can be transformed into sub-clauses (I find him a genius (a secondary sub,ect and a secondary predicate )XY I find that he is a genius % I found the house aflame+( a predicati e construction with a stati e) XY I found that the house was aflame% I find him clever +a predicative construction with an ad?ective2#$ I find that he is clever2. Syntactic Processes :y introducing arious dependent elements into the sub,ect-predicate s9eleton of a sentence we can deri e expanded structures. *he ways of introduction of these dependent elements are called syntactic processes. *hey are"extension, modification, completion, enlargement (expansion), contamination (fusion), replacement, ellipsis, in ersion, parcellation, etc. *hey are comparable to transformational procedures, distinguished by transformational grammar" addition, substitution, permutation, deletion. 8ompletion consists in adding sub,ecti e and ob,ecti e complements to complete the meanings of transiti e erbs of incomplete predication and copulati e (CEKoDMI^G) erbs. In the sentence He seemed tired. *he element tired is added to the copulati e erb seem, otherwise a sentence would not be complete. In the sentence I consider him clever. *he ad,ecti e clever is indispensable as the erb consider is that of incomplete predication. !xtension means adding ad erbial modifiers. !xpansion (enlargement) is the amplification of a sentence structure. Modification is adding an attribute to the sub,ect or the ob,ect. 8ontamination (CHKiGIfG) is fusing elements into a whole which results in a double predicate (*he moon rose red) or a predicate of double orientation(He is said to have done it). Syncretism consists in combining two functions within one and the same form ( !he is not a girl to marry #$ !he is not a girl who would marry somebody. !he is not the girl somebody would marry). !llipsis consists in omitting a principal or a subordinate element or both which can be restored from the context (He capitulated. (ithout the honours of war. (anted a governess. 9ust possess knowledge of 6rench, Italian, 4ussian, 4omanian, music and mining engineering. +# A governess is wanted). *his phenomenon fre<uently occurs in con ersation, ads, newspaper headings where expanded structures are customarily elliptici=ed. *here are structures which produce the impression of being elliptical (!he beautiful' He a general'2. *hese are logically and grammatically

53
complete sentences, they are to be analysed the way they are. *heir expansion would destroy their spontaneous scream style. 1. 2espersen was against the ellipsomania of those grammarians which spea9 of ellipsis in season and out of season as a sort of panacea to explain all the structures which de iate from the pattern sub?ect8predicate8ob?ect8adverbial modifier with a finite erb. *he surface and deep structures of such sentences do not coincide( He a general' #$ He is a general. I do not believe that). In ersion, when understood broadly, consists in placing a part of a sentence into an uncustomary position for it to be rhemati=ed, to become a new communicati e centre ( Wconomics 9ary ?ust doesn.t know. "ealous I have never been2. )arrow in ersion consists in placing the predicate before the sub,ect ( here comes a mournful procession). (arcellation is a new syntactic process, characteristic of the ##-th century syntax. It is a brea9 of the chain of elements on the syntagmatic le el ( He was interrupted at that point. %y me. here is a cloud in the sky. 5rey +"oyce. Qlysses). Bny element can be extracted from the maternal structure and turned into an independent structure (!hame of death. hey hide. 9y handkerchief. hey threw it). (arcellated elements in any function can be in pre- or post position or distanced from the maternal structure. B simple sentence has a grammatical structure which is analysed in terms of principal and secondary parts. It has a semantic structure which is analysed in terms of the predicate, arguments and deep cases. It has a communicati e structure which is analysed in terms of communicati e dynamism, that is in terms of the rheme and the theme. *he theme is the starting point while the rheme is the goal of discourse. Pe can analyse the sentence I opened the door in grammatical, semantic and communicati e terms. Its grammatical structure is sub,ectr predicater ob,ect, its semantic structure is agent r action r ob,ect, its communicati e structure is theme r rheme. *here is a hierarchy of dependencies in a simple sentence which expresses itself in the principal and secondary parts of a simple sentence.

The Princi%al Parts of a Sim%le Sentence

*he principal parts of a simple sentence are the sub,ect and the predicate. *hey are indispensable. *he sub,ect denotes something that is spo9en about. It is subdi ided into a group sub,ect (expanded), a comple> sub?ect (expressed by a predicati e construction2+ 6or me to do it is dangerous; His having done that surprised me2, a formal sub,ect which introduces the genuine sub,ect ( It is strange his doing that ), an impersonal sub,ect ( It rains), a rrhematic sub,ect( A woman entered the room), a thematic sub,ect( he woman came up to the window2. *he predicate denotes an action, state or property of the thing expressed by the sub,ect. It agrees with the sub,ect logically. B single sub,ect denoting multitude agrees with a plural predicate ( he great ma?ority are satisfied with the outcomes of the elections). (redicates are classified into simple and compound ones. B simple predicate can be simple erbal, simple nominal, infiniti al and reflexi e. B simple erbal predicate is expressed by a erb in any form representing any category (person, number, tense, aspect, correlation, oice and mood). B simple nominal predicate is expressed by a noun or an ad,ecti e ( He clever&' He a general&'). *he nature of the nominal predicate can be interpreted transformationally or by means of the method of deep and surface structures( He is clever. I do not believe. He is a general. I do not believe ). Bn infiniti al predicate is usually found in exclamatoryinterrogati e sentences ( 9r Bomby to divorce his wife&' XY 9r. Bomby divorces his wife. I do not believe). In a reflexi e predicate the element self cannot be omitted ( I en?oyed myself in the park). *o the simple erbal predicates some scholars refer a phraseological predicate ( He was probably losing his marbles) (going cra;y). 8ompound predicates are subdi ided into compound nominal predicates, compound modal predicates, compound aspect predicates% double predicates and predicates of double orientation. B

5?
compound nominal predicate is built up on the model a lin9- erb r a predicati e. *he number of lin9- erbs is great and it is still growing larger( He is a poet. He turned pale. He was going mad). (redicati es are most fre<uently expressed by nouns and ad,ecti es. B erbal aspect predicate consists of a erb denoting the beginning, de elopment or the end of an action and a non-finite form of a er (He came running. He got going. He began reading. He continued speaking). B compound erbal modal predicate consists of a modal erb (or a modal e<ui alent) and an infini e (indefinite, continuous or perfect (She could have danced all night). Bmong compound predicates we find mixed types (a compound modal nominal predicate, a compound modal aspectual predicate ( 0e must be a poet. 0e may begin to attend classes). B double predicate consists of two parts, erbal and nominal, the former being an explicit predicate, the latter being an implicit predicate. It can be described transformationally (0e married youngXY0e married. 0e was young). *he predicate of double orientation consists of two parts, the latter oriented upon the sub,ect of this sentence, the former oriented upon a sub,ect beyond the limits of this sentence which can be pro ed transformationally ( He is said to have done it #$ hey say that he has done it2.

The Secon&ary Parts of a Sim%le Sentence

*he secondary parts of a simple sentence can be indispensable or facultati e for the structural and semantic completeness of the sentence. Secondary parts are di ided into ob,ects, attributes and ad erbial modifiers. #n (bject Bn ob,ect is a secondary part which depends upon the predicate. It is erb -oriented. +ogical relations between a predicate- erb and its ob,ect are arious. Bn ob,ect is indispensable (obligatory) when it is used after erbs of incomplete predication (to be, seem, appear, smell, ta9e). Such erbs are insufficient by themsel es, structurally, communicati ely and semantically incomplete and need an ob,ect or an ad erbial modifier ( hey took the boy to the theatre). :y means of the transformational procedure of deletion we can depri e the erb of its ob,ect and see whether it is complete or incomplete ( hey broke the thing gently XY jthey broke gently, where the sign y means @ungrammaticalA). *raditionally ob,ects are classified into direct, indirect, prepositional and cognate (LDhCHEGII^p) ( He smiled a winner.s smile. He lived a happy life2. In the cognate ob,ect the erb and the noun, functioning as the ob,ect, are of the same root). Pe can distinguish a complex ob,ect which is expressed by a predicati e construction with an infiniti e, a participle or a Gerund ( I remember my mother singing a song to me. I saw him cross the street. I heard her singing. I found the house ruined2. (e can also distiguish a formal ob?ect which introduces a genuine ob?ect + I find it strange to go there). Bccording to their semantic roles ob,ects are di ided by professors :urla9o a, I ano a and (ocheptso into the ob,ect of the ob,ect ( I read the book2, the ob,ect of the addressee (He gives it to me), the ob,ect of the sub,ect( I was blackmailed by him).
#n #&verbial Mo&ifier

It a secondary or a tertiary of the sentence, it is erb- and ad erb- oriented. It is not determined by the semantic meaning of the erb. *ypes of ad erbial modifiers are determined by semantic arieties or semantic types of ad erbs.Pe distinguish ad erbial modifiers of manner, measure, cause, attendant circumstances, time, exception, direction, place, comparison (realaunreal), concession (realaunrealaproblematic). It can be facultati e and indispensable( He broke the thing gently. hey took the boy to the theatre.2 8omplex ad erbial modifiers are expressed by predicati e constructionsZ He entered the room, the dog following him +a nominati e absolute participial construction). He entered the room, with his dog following him +a prepositional participial construction2
#n #ttribute

5.
Bn attribute is a noun- oriented secondary or tertiary part of a sentence. It doesn;t enter the structural scheme of the sentence. $ery often it facultati e and can be easily omitted (A beautiful girl entered a spacious room). It can be used in pre-position and post-position. Its position is determined by its semantics. Bttributes gi ing more concrete character to a noun are placed nearer to it than those gi ing general assessment (Bn attracti e small girl). It can be complex, when it is expressed by a predicati e construction ( his is a book for you to read). Bn attribute ery often merely decorates a sentence, but there are instances when without it a noun is communicati ely empty (!he has blue eyes), which ma9es it obligatory. $ebate& Problems -ithin a Sim%le Sentence -. 6ebated is the status of a simple sentence with expansion. -.-. !xpanded are the simple sentences with homogeneous parts. Bny member of the sentence can be homogeneous ( he beauty of the lakes, the forests, and the stretches of the tran=uil blue skies gently took the army out of Alessandro. M.0elprin. He came awake with a ?erk, turned towards the window and almost screamed. St. Sing). -.&. !xpanded are the simple sentences with infiniti al, gerundial and participial phrases( here are other businesses to attend to #$ here are other businesses which can be attended to). -.5. !xpanded are the simple sentences with infiniti al, gerundial and participial predicati e constructions which function as complex parts of a sentence Y+I want it to be spring +an ob?ective with an infinitive construction2. 4iding side by side, the night was beautiful + an absolute participial construction2. "udging by his appearance, he is a second8rate actor+an absolute participial construction2Q. B sentence with homogeneous parts is analysed as a simple sentence with one explicit predicati e tie and two or more implicit predicati e ties. Some scholars find it to be a compound sentence. B sentence carrying phrases and constructions with non-finites is considered to be a complex sentence with an abridged clause. :.B.Ilyish finds the structures with homogeneous elements, apposition, detachment and predicati e constructions with non-finites, nouns, ad,ecti es, stati es to be transitional sentences between mono- and polypredicati e structures. &. 6ebated is the status of a sentence with syncretical elements( Her life was gone and done with. His hands are cut and bleeding (are is an auxiliary for perfect and continuous tenses). 5. *here are no rigid criteria of distinguishing between secondary parts of the simple sentence" between an attribute and a prepositional ob,ect ( he sound of the door opening made him start). In traditional linguistics nounal constructions with the preposition of after a noun are considered to be prepositional ob,ects% between a prepositional ob,ect and an ad erbial modifier ( After many snows I was home again)% between an attribute and an ad erbial modifier( !he is not a girl to marry2. 1.2espersen distinguished secondary parts into secondaries and tertiaries. B. (esh9o s9y di ided members of the sentence into those which are go erned and those which are not go erned. *he theory of secondary parts has many wea9nesses, hence structuralists discard traditional parsing into primaries and secondaries and resort to the I8 method, distributional and transformational methods when analy=ing non-included utterances (simple sentences). 4. 6ebated is the nature of the formations of the type His attachments may be said to have ended. It is not clear whether it is a complex sub,ect expressed by the nominanati e with the infiniti e construction or a modal predicate of double orientation. >. 6ebated are the character and the functional status of infiniti al structures in such sentences as Common people to talk about him' :.B. Ilyish treated it as a two-member sentence with an infiniti e functioning as a simple infiniti al predicate. :ut it contradicts the generally established belief that a predicate should be expressed by a finite form of the erb. 3. 6ebated is the status of the sentence opening with con,unctions or con,uncti e phrases ( !illy little fool trying to flatter me. As if I don.t know that). *he nature of the opening element and of the whole sentence is debated. :.B.Ilyish holds that it is an emancipated clause turning into an independent simple sentence. *he opening element is no longer a con,unction. Bc<uiring some additional semantic meaning, it becomes an inter,ection.

5/

# C(MP(S)TE SE*TE*CE *here are dichotomic and trichotomic classifications of sentences. In a dichotomic classification we see a simple ( one Oaxis) sentence and a composite sentence. *he trichotomic classification remains the pre alent scheme of the structural classifications of sentences in all linguistic schools (the simple sentence, the compound sentence, the complex sentence with structural ariations). 6escripti ists introduced the terms a single free utterance (minimal and expanded2+ I want a cat), a duplication (or a multiplication) of the pattern +He was young, the weather was beautiful, and Wurope was at war2 9. Helprin. A !oldier of the 5reat (ar. ,.klm), a se<uence with included utterances + (e don.t know where we. ll be tomorrow2. B composite sentence is a polypredicati e structure based on coordination (parataxis), subordination (hypertaxis) or specification (explication). 8omposite sentences based on coordination are called compound sentences, while sentences based on subordination are called complex sentences.. 8omposite sentences based on specification (explication) carry two parts which are separated by a colon, the second part specifying the first +nK\F`KE _) ZH IEHe gN[oF EKL. 4eal grief is ugly) the business of an actor is to represent it not only with truth but with beauty. (omen in their nature are giantesses) they will break through everything and go on with their own lives2. *he nature of composite sentences with specification is debated. It is not clear whether it is a ariety of complex sentences or an independent syntactic connection along with coordination and subordination.B compound sentence can be complicated by subordination, li9ewise complex sentence can be complicated by coordination"All that I ask of you in return is that you will be a true lover, for @ove is wiser than ,hilosophy, though he is wise, and mightier than ,ower, though he is mighty +It is a fusion of an allegory with a personified metaphor2 In !nglish subordination domineers o er coordination, while in Russian domineers o er subordination, be it a simple or a composite sentence. coordination

# Com%oun& Sentence
(roblems within a compound sentence are" -. general notion of coordination and types of coordination% &. the semantic olume of the coordinating con,unctions and, but, or, for% 5. the stylistic importance of parataxis. B compound sentence has always been considered as a wea9 lin9% it was thought not to be a sentence proper. Srui=inga spea9s about loose syntactic groups, not independent sentences. *here were attempts to exclude the notion of a compound sentence or to employ new terms to express more exactly the grammatical peculiarities of this type" a double or a multiple sentence, a duplication of the pattern, a multiplication of the pattern" !he would not eat anything and she would not sleep at all. B compound sentence is based on coordination (parataxis) and it consists in syntactical e<uality of two or more parts (clauses), but this syntactical e<uality does not presuppose their logical semantical and communicati e e<uality. 8lauses of a compound sentence constitute a semantical, syntactical and communicati e whole. B compound sentence is structured multi ariously. It can comprise &,5,4 or more coordinate clauses which can be ,oined to each other syndetically, asyndetically (without connecti es) or in a mixed way. Bsyndetic connection can be exemplified by the sentences he larks sprang up in front of his feet, the air was full of butterflies, the sweet fragrance rose from the wild grasses +p clauses2. I span, I wove, I kept the house, I nursed the sick, I made the garden. 0ere is the sentence with a mixed coordination" Dour children are murdered, your husband gone, a corpse in your bathtub, and your house is wrecked.

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*ypes of coordination are copulati e (and), dis,uncti e (or),ad ersati e (but), causati econsecuti e (for). !ach type of coordination is expressed by certain connecti es, which are con,unctions, con,uncti e ad erbs and pronouns, particles, con,uncti e phrases" and, but, or, for, moreo er, howe er, whereas, either\or, on the other hand, to say nothing of\, etc. 8opulati e coordination expresses simultaneous, parallel actions" I am the poet of the body and I am the poet of the soul) the pleasures of heaven are with me and the pains of hell are with me +(hitman2 Bd ersati e coordination denotes contrast. *he second part contradicts to what is expressed in the first part"!orrow knocked at my door, but I was afraid; ambition called me, but I dreaded the chancesC+Wdgar @ee 9asters2. 6is,uncti e coordination expresses choice" Bid he not give her everything or was she not everything to him. In a sentence with a causati e-consecuti e coordination one clause expresses the cause of the conse<uence which is to be found in another clause." Bo not weep, maiden, for war is kindC+!t. Crane2. %lessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven + he Holy !criptures2 + he %ible2. 8oordination is expressed primarily by coordinating con,unctions and, but, or, for, which are polysemantic, polyfunctional% each con,unction comprises the properties of the rest of coordinating con,unctions. Bnd is the most polyfunctional con,unction. It can substitute for other coordinating con,unctions in most cases. Since 1ld !nglish till the present time and expresses all 9ind of relations" copulati e, dis,uncti e, ad ersati e, causati e-consecuti e, which can be pro ed transformationally. Bnd ,oins clauses presenting details of one whole, it can render relati e connection, this connection is encountered within a complex sentence" His book was published and this pleased his vanity. #$ His book was published which pleased his vanity ( a continuati e attributi e clause) *he distinction between a compound and a complex sentence is neutrali=ed here and we analy=e it as composite sentence. Bnd ,oins clauses with simultaneous or subse<uent actions. It can express ad ersati e relations (@ove was offered me and I shrank from its disillusions2;ad ersati e-concessi e relations (dCHdgfHGeNID-gLDHfEfHGeNI^G) + I shrank away from them and I had an acute nostalgia for them. +#$ though I shrank\)% condition( 6ollow and you will see +#$ if you followC2 % conse<uence + he hour was midnight and no 6orsytes remained in sight +as the hour was midnight, no 6orsytes remained in sight2, +Dou wanted her silenced and I Rve silenced her. (.!.9augham2. (rof. I.R.Galperin distinguished a peculiar coordinati e connection , calling it the gapsentence lin9. It bridges a semantic gap (a semantic leap2 +!he and that fellow ought to be suffering, and they were in Italy. ". 5alsworthy2. *his sort of coordination is to be found in represented speech, which represents the unuttered thoughts of characters in the writings of 2. Galsworthy, S. Mansfield, 6. (ar9er. It expresses the underlying message, suggestions, implications and associations. *he ad ersati e con,unction but can also be polyfunctional in syntagmatics. It can express concession (though) (-ew skies the e>ile finds, but the heart is still the same. 9.Helprin2. It can indicate a change or brea9 in narration or simply a turn to a new theme +He was =uite a gentleman, but she had known it from the first2. Bs parataxis (coordination) is less demanding than subordination, it is of greater stylistic alue. It denotes a semantic leap,, the suggested, the unsaid, the implied. S.Mansfield, !.0emingway, P.Saroyan masterfully employ it. In 0emingway;s writings parataxis is the basis for reiteration. It appeals to the subconscious. It implies something timeless, immortal, infinite. *he :iblical text (both in *he 1ld *estament and *he )ew *estament) is primarily based on parataxis

4which expresses profound, solemn, eternal problems. !.0emingway borrowed parataxis from the :ible to create his famous iceberg techni<ue.

*he *heory of the 8omplex Sentence

*he problems to be discussed within the complex sentence are" I. *he general notion of a complex sentence. &. *he status of the subordinate clause. 5. 8lassifications of subordinate clauses. 5.-. *he principles of classifications. 5.&. $arieties of subordinate clauses. 4. 8onnections between the principal and the subordinate clause. >. )eutrali=ation between subordination and coordination. 3. *he character of the subordinating con,unction. ?. +e els of subordination, .. Syntactic processes in the complex sentence. /. 8ommunicati e dynamism within a composite sentence (compound and complex) and a supraphrasal unit.

). The General *otion of a Com%le' Sentence. B complex sentence is a polypredicati e unit built up on the principle of subordination. which aries from a close to a ery loose connection with many gradations in between. *he constituents of the complex sentence are traditionally called clauses. *ransformationalists ad anced the term @included structuresA as the syntactically dependent part of the complex sentence is included (embedded) into the independent (non-included) structure. *he complex sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses O a principal clause and a subordinate clause. *he two are interconnected, the ery existence of either of them is supported by the existence of the other. Sub-clauses can ad,oin the main clause or they can be embedded (included) into the main clause ((e have engineered toys and gadgets we don.t understand and technological terrors we may not be able to control (St. Sing). 6. The Status of the Subor&inate Clause. *he most accepted iew is that a sub-clause is an explicitly predicati e structure with a sub,ect and a predicate. Many scholars hold that a clause needn;t ha e explicit predication (0. (outsma, G.8urme, M.:ryant, R. +ong, etc.). *hey treat participial, gerundial and infiniti al complexes as unde eloped erbid sub-clauses + imothy had left a lot of money, with nobody in particular to leave it to (2. Galsworthy). (rof. q.G.:irenbaum treated participial, nounal, ad,ecti al phrases introduced by the con,unctions while, unless, when, until as elliptical subclauses (He will continue talking until stopped. (hen traveling I have now and then watched the sunrise). Pe can transform these sentences into complex sentences with sub-clauses + Ontil they stopped him, he will continue talking. (hen I was traveling, I now and then watched the sunrise). Still most linguists find these formations merely phrases, carrying implicit predicati e relations. /.1. Classifications of Subor&inate Clauses. Sub-clauses are classified on two principles" functional and categorial. Bs to the functional principle, they are classed on the analogy with the parts of the simple sentence. *hey are li9ened to sub,ects, ob,ects, ad erbial modifiers, predicati e and attributes. ( ,eople treated the old as if they wanted nothing. 8ompare it with ,eople treated the old with neglect). :ut there are clauses which do not correspond to the members of the simple sentence. Such are continuati e attributi e clauses (She ma9es me feel happy, which you have never done (I.Murdoch). Such are complement

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sub-clauses (It;s in (aris where we met). Such are contaminated clauses (It was as if he had been younger every spring. 2. Galsworthy2.*he clause underlined is a result of contamination of a predicati e clause and an ad erbial clause of unreal comparison. In accord with the categorical principle, sub-clauses are classed into nounal, ad,ecti al and ad erbial clauses, as here they are li9ened to the classes of words (nouns, ad,ecti es and ad erbs). :oth principles are mutually complementary. /.6. Ty%es of Subor&inate Clauses. Sub,ect clauses occupy the position of the sub,ect. *hey are to be found either in the initial or in the final position ((hat is thine is mine. (hat happened after that surprised them both. I.Murdoch. It is surprising that he should have done it ). Sub,ect clauses can be introduced by con,unctions, con,uncti e pronouns and ad erbs.*he clauses which can be found in the final position present two possibilities of interpretation" -. It is the formal sub,ect, the genuine sub,ect is placed in the final position to be rhemati=ed. &. It is the genuine sub,ect, the clause coming last is an appositi e clause. (redicati e clauses occupy the position of the predicati e. *hey are introduced by the lin9s be, seem, look, feel, become, etc.( he moral I draw is that the writer should seek his reward in the pleasure of his work and in release from the burden of his thought (P.S.Maugham).B complex sentence can carry a sub,ect clause and a predicati e clause Z (hat gives an ideal beauty is that it is unattainable (P.S. Maugham). (hat he learnt is that life is not all poetryQ. 0ere the distinction between the principal clause and the subordinate clause is arbitrary. *here are some arieties of ob,ect clauses" ob,ect clauses proper and speech- rendering ob,ect clauses (:. B.Ilyish called them clauses of indirect speech, M.q.:lo9h calls them reporti e clauses). *he ob,ect clause proper can be easily replaced by a noun ( He bought what he wanted2. B reporti e clause usually comes after the erbs say, ask, e>claim, wonder, which are usually followed by clauses. 0ere ery few nouns, or no nouns can be seen +!he could not say what it was. !he e>claimed that it was true. !he wondered why on earth she was worrying so much). Bttributi e clauses perform the function of an attribute. *here are different arieties of attributi e clauses" descripti e, restricti e, appositi e. Pithin descripti e clauses we encounter continuati e clauses, which are loosely connected with the principal clause ( His book had an overwhelming success which ama;ed everybody2.*his looseness can be re ealed transformationally (zHis book had an overwhelming success and that surprised everybody). *he complex sentences with continuous attributi e clauses ha e a loose connection between the principal clause and the sub-clause, which pro es that the distinction between coordination and subordination can be neutrali=ed. *he antecedent of continuati e clauses is the whole of the main clause. *he antecedent of an appositi e clause is, usually, an abstract noun (I have always been a little disconcerted by the passion women have for behaving beautifully at the death8bed of those they love. P.S.Maugham). Bd erbial clauses constitute a ast field of syntax. *hey ha e semantic and structural peculiarities. *he traditional identification of ad erbial clauses is rational. It continues to wor9. Many attempts to wor9 out a newer classification on the basis of @newly ad anced scientific criteriaA failed. Bd erbial clauses are di ided into 4 groups" -. clauses of time and space. *hey denote temporal and special locali=ation. *he connectors are" while, as, since, before, after, until, as soon as, now that, no sooner than, where, etc.( I have grown a beard since I saw you last and fathered two fine sons .R. Gra es2% &. 8lauses of manner and comparison with connectors as, as though, as if, than, asCas, not soCas , etc. (He had spoken about America, as if he had lived in it all his life2. Bmong these ad erbial clauses we find clauses of proportionate agreement (:.B.Ilyish) ( he better she felt the worse patient she made). *hese are parallel, mutually symmetrical structures with compression% 5.Bd erbial clauses of attendant e ent, condition, cause, reason, result

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(conse<uence), concession, purpose. *hese clauses denote circumstance. 8onditional and concessi e clauses denote real, problematic and unreal condition and concession. *he connectors are" if, suppose, even if, even thoughZIf she missed coming, which happened twice, his eyes grew sad ( 2.Galsworthy). If I.d only waited, perhaps, it would ha e gone all right (P.S.Maugham). Wven if she had come yesterday, she would not have understood anythingQ. Bll types of clauses of circumstance are interrelated both semantically and paradigmatically ZHe opened the window wide that he might hear the conversation below +purpose2q As he wanted to hear the conversation below, he opened the window and listened +cause2q hough he couldn.t hear the conversation below, he opened the window wide and listened +concession2, etc.[.4.(arenthetical or introductory clauses. *hese clauses are ,oined to the principal clause loosely. *here are two semantic sub-types here" introductory and de iational ( !trickland was not, I should say, a man of great intelligence. P.S.Maugham. Hope, if it was hope, did not hear him). 3. Connections bet-een the Princi%al an& the Subor&inate Clause. Sub-clauses can be optional or indispensable for the structural and semantic integrity of the complex sentence. So, the sub-clause can be connected with the principal clause indispensably or optionally. Indispensable are the structures which occupy the position of the sub,ect or the predicati e ( (hoever comes will be welcome. Health is what he needs. (hat might be is not what is2. *hese sub-clauses cannot be remo ed, otherwise it would ma9e the structure ungrammatical. 1ptional are those clauses (attributi e, ad erbial) which merely gi e additional information to the antecedent +!he speaks broken Wnglish, and she has a very foreign appearance which she e>aggerates. B 8hristie2. *he sub-clause is ,oined to the principal clause syndetically, i.e. by a subordinating con,unction, or asyndetically, by ad,oinment (with or without in ersion) Z umors of the brain often cause behaviors the layman might think as psychotic (St.Sing)% !hould he come, tell me about itQ. 7. *eutrali,ation bet-een Subor&ination an& Coor&ination. *he borderline between the compound and the complex sentence is ery ague and the difference between them can be neutrali=ed. It occurs when a sub-clause comes to be ery loose, losing its grammatical tension. )eutrali=ation between subordination and coordination is obser ed when -. a temporal clause (a while-clause, or a when-clause) expresses contrast rather than time ZHis sense of property is e>treme, while you have practically none +2.Galsworthy)% He wears fine clothes while I go in rags (1.Pilde)[. &. )eutrali=ation occurs in structures with continuati e attributi e clauses Z he casino had been dropping money lately which shouldn.t be (M. (uso. Godfather)[z he casino had been dropping money lately and that shouldn.t be [.*he con,uncti e pronoun which is easily replaced here by the phrase and that.. 5. )eutrali=ation occurs when a when-clause expresses a successi e action ZI was listening, and thinking how the wind assailed and tore it when I heard a footstep on the stairs .8h. 6ic9ens. Great !xpectations)z and then I heard a footstep on the stairs[. 8. The Character of the Subor&inating Conjunction Most of the subordinating con,unctions and con,uncti e pronouns and ad erbs are polyfunctional as they introduce arious 9ind of sub-clauses. (I remember the house where I was born2. )ormally the con,uncti e ad erb where introduces a spatial ad erbial clause. 0ere where I was born is an attributi e subordinate clause. Most polyfunctional is the con,unction that which can introduce a great ariety of subclauses " (an ob,ect clause) I know that he will never do that% (a sub,ect clause) hat this should be so cut her to the =uick; +a predicative clause2 (hat surprises me is that he never e>pected it; +a complement clause2 It is the vastness of 4ussia that fascinates the traveler;+a clause of conse=uence2 !o great was her grief that she stood dumb, etc. Pe see that the con,unction does not determine the character of the clause. 9. Levels of Subor&ination

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*here are two basic types of subordination" parallel and consecuti e. In parallel subordination sub-clauses refer to one and the same principal clause. ( However hard he was working, whatever was happening, he never forgot me). 8onsecuti e subordination presents a hierarchy of clausal le els. In this hierarchy one subordinate clause is commonly subordinated to another (I.ve no idea 0k/ why she said 02/ she couldn.t call on us at the time 0p/ I had suggested2. :. Syntactic Processes in the Com%le' Sentence. *o the uni ersally recogni=ed processes within a complex sentence there refer contamination, parcellation and emancipation. In contamination two syntactic and semantic relations are fused, which results in contaminated (mixed) clauses Z his man looked as if he were suffering +2.Galsworthy). *he clause underlined can be analy=ed as a contamination of a predicati e and an ad erbial clause of unreal comparison. (arcellation consists in separating a sub-clause from the principal clause to rhemati=e (and emphasi=e) it (%ut princess Bragomiroff says that she married an Wnglishman. (hose name she cannot remember (B. 8hristie). !mancipation consists in a subclause turning into an independent sentence with a connecti e turning into an ad erbial element (!upposing he comes& hat he should have come to that' If only he were here today'2. ;. Communicative $ynamism -ithin a Com%osite Sentence Com%oun& an& Com%le'" an& a Su%ra1%hrasal <nit. In a compound sentence both parts are communicati ely e<ual if they are connected by copulati e and ad ersati e coordination. If they are connected by causati e and consecuti e coordination, the second coordinati e clause becomes rhematic +Come to Aenice early in the morning and you will see a city bathed in a sea of light2. In a complex sentence the principal clause dominates sub-clauses structurally, but communicati ely it is insignificant. It is a sheer introducer of sub-clauses, it expresses modality and general assessment of the information carried by a sub-clause ( I returned, and saw under the sun that the race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong, neither yet the bread to the wise, nor yet the riches to men of understanding, nor yet favor to the men of skill, but time and chance happenth to them all +Wcclesiastes2. (laced in the final position sub-clauses are usually rhematic. In a complex sentence with a complement sub-clause it is the main clause which is rhematic ( It is her bright ?oy that surprised me).B parcellated sub-clause becomes rhemati=ed (See parcellation). In a complex sentence based on specification it is the second part which is rhematic ( @ife is very mi>ed, sir) it is not all poetry and it is not all gaiety (:.Shaw). Pithin a supra-phrasal unit sentences, constituting it, are connected by different means of cohesion" coordination, subordination, specification, reiteration of all 9ind, anaphoric pronouns, ellipsis, the definite article, a peculiar distribution of tenses, etc. 0ere we distinguish two communicati e parts" the topic and the comment. *he topic stri es to the beginning. *he comment comes last carrying either new or most important information +He is the kind of young man who does everything well. He is good at games, an e>cellent shot, a good amateur actor and can tell a first8rate story (B. 8hristie2.