TEST ASSIGNMENT

CHAPTER I

Members of Group 2:

- DwiRinaApriliana (E1D019069)
- Dwi Tanti VidinaSunu (E1D019070)
- EkaPutriJuliantari (E1D019072)

PROGRAM STUDI PENDIDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS

JURUSAN PENDIDIKAN BAHASA DAN SENI

FAKULTAS KEGURUAN DAN ILMU PENDIDIKAN

UNIVERSITAS MATARAM

2021
 INTRODUCTION

1. History of Morphology
The students of language have always been aware of the importance of words,
morphology, the study of the internal structure of words did not emerge as a distinct
sub-branch of linguistics until the nineteenth century. Early in the nineteenth
century, morphology played a pivotal role in the reconstruction of Indo-European. In
1816, Franz Bopp published the results of a study supporting the claim, originally
made by Sir William Jones in 1786, that Sanskrit, Latin, Persian and the Germanic
languages were descended from a common ancestor. Bopp's evidence was based on
a comparison of the grammatical endings of words in these languages. Between
1819 and 1837, Bopp's contemporary Jacob Grimm published his classic work,
Deutsche Grarnrnatik. By making a thorough analytical comparison of sound
systems and word-formation patterns, Grimm showed the evolution of the grammar
of Germanic languages and the relationships of Germanic to other Indo-European
languages.
Later, under the influence of the Darwinian theory of evolution, the philologist
Max Muller contended, in his Oxford lectures of 1899, that the study of the
evolution of words would illuminate the evolution of language just as in biology
morphology, the study of the forms of organisms, had thrown light on the evolution
of species. His specific claim was that the study of the 400-500 basic roots of the
Indo-European ancestor of many of the languages of Europe and Asia was the key to
understanding the origin of human language (d. Mliller, 1899; cited by Matthews,
1974). Such evolutionary pretensions were abandoned very early on in the history of
morphology. In this .century morphology has been regarded as an essentially
synchronic discipline, that is to say, a discipline focusing on the study of word-
structure at one stage in the life of a language rather than on the evolution of words.
Based on Wikipedia, linguistic is a scientific study of language. It involves
analysis of language form, language in meaning, and language in context, as well as
an analysis of the social, cultural, historical and political factors that influence
language. There are for levels in linguistics, those are: Semantic, syntactic,
morphological, and phonology level. Semantic is the study of meaning of words,
phrases, and sentences.It deals with the conventional meaning conveyed by the use
of words, phrases and sentences of a language. Syntax is the set of rules, principles,
 and processes that govern the structure of sentence in a given language, usually
including word order. Morphology is the study of words, how they are formed, and
their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of
words and parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. The last
one is phonology is the study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in
languages.

DISCUSSION

2. Separation of levels in linguistics.

The separation of levels in linguistic are:

- Semantic level
- Syntactic level
- Morphological level
- Phonology/phonemics level
a. Semantic
Semantic is the study of meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.It deals
with the conventional meaning conveyed by the use of words, phrases and
sentences of a language. Semantic features represent the basic conceptual
components of meaning for any lexical item. An individual semantic feature
constitutes one component of a word's intention, which is the inherent sense or
concept evoked.

Semantics Roles :

- Agent is the semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the one who performs the
action of the verb in an event (e.g. The girlclosed the door)

- Theme is the semantic role of the noun phrase used to identify the entity involved in
or affected by the action of the verb in an event (e.g. The girl closed the door)
Instrument and experiencer :
Instrument : the semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the entity that is used to

perform the action of the verb. It is the stimulus or immediate physical cause of an
event. (e.g. She useda pencil to make the sketch)
 Experiencer : the semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the entity that has the
feeling, perception or state described by the verb (e.g. He was scared)

Location, source and goal :

- Location : the semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity is (e.g. I
am eating in the kitchen).
- Source : the semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity moves from
(e.g. Bryan walk from his house).
- Goal : the semantic role of the noun phrase identifying where an entity moves to (e.g.
Nami went to the beach).

Lexical relation : Lexical relations such as homonymy, polysemy, synonymy,

antonymy, hyponymy, and meronymy are well-established semantic links between
words in the mental lexicon, but in modern linguistic approaches to, but the focus is
more often on aspects of meaning below the word level.

Synonymy : the lexical relation in which two or more words have very closely
related meanings (e.g. “fast” is a synonym of “quick”).

Antonymy : the lexical relation in which words have opposite meanings (e.g.
“Small” is an antonym of “big”).

Reversives : antonyms in which the meaning of one is the reverse action of the
other (e.g. enter/exit, raise/lower)

Hyponymy : the lexical relation in which the meaning of one word is included
in the meaning of another (e.g. the colors red, green, blue and yellow are hyponyms.
They fall under the general term of color, which is the hypernym.)

Prototype : the most characteristic instance of a category (e.g. “Robin” is the

prototype of “bird”).

Homophones : are two or more words with different forms and the same
pronunciation (e.g.to–too–two).

Homonyms : two words with the same form that are unrelated in meaning
(e.g. bank (of ariver) – bank (financial institution).
 Polysemy : a word having two or more related meanings (e.g. foot, of person,
of bed, of mountain).

Metonymy : a word used in place of another with which it is closely

connected in everyday experience (e.g. He drank the whole bottle (= the liquid)

Collocation : a relationship between words that frequently occur together (e.g.

salt and pepper).

b. Syntac
Based on Wikipedia, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that
govern the structure of sentence in a given language, usually including word
order.
Generative grammar : a linguistic theory that regards linguistics as the study of
a hypothesised innate grammatical structure.
Syntactic structures : a generative grammar defines the syntactic structures of a
language. The grammar will generate all the well-formed syntactic structures (e.g.
sentences) of the language and will not generate any ill-formed structures.

Deep and surface structure

Deep structure : the underlying structure of sentences as represented by phrase
structure rules (meaning).
Surface structure : the structure of individual sentences after the application of
movement rules to deep structure (form).
Structural ambiguity : a situation in which a single phrase or sentence has two
(or more) different underlying structures and interpretations.
Recursion : the repeated application of a rule in generating structures. Recursive
rules have the capacity to be applied more than once in generating a structure. E.g.
The gun was on the table near the window in the bedroom.
Symbols used in syntactic description

- S : Sentence
- PN : Proper Noun
- Art : Article
- NP : Noun Phrase
- * : Ungrammatical Sequence
 - → : consists of / rewrites as
- ( ) : optional constituent
- { } : Only one of these constituents
- N : Noun
- V : Verb
- Adv : Adverb
- Adj : Adjective
- VP : Verb Phrase
- Pro : Pronoun
- Prep : Preposition
- PP : Prepositional Phrase
Tree diagram
In a tree diagram, a sentence is divided into two parts: a subject and a predicate.
They are made up of noun phrases or verb phrases. These are groups of words
that include a noun or verb and any words that add as modifiers. The subject is a
noun phrase while a predicate is usually a verb phrase. Example:

(Source: https://blog.ung.edu/press/a-linguists-tree-of-knowledge/ )

Phrase structure rules

Phrase structure rules are rules stating that the structure of a phrase of a
specific type consists of one or more constituents in a particular order. Here are some
rules used in identifying the phrases and sentences.

S →NP VP means a sentence rewrites as a noun phrase and a verb phrase.

NP →{Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN} means a noun phrase rewrites as either an article, an
optional adjective and a noun or a pronoun or a proper noun”.

VP →V NP (PP) (Adv) means a verb phrase rewrites as a verb, a noun phrase, or a

prepositional phrase, and or an adjective phrases.
PP →Prep NP means a prepositional phrase rewrites as a preposition, and a noun
phrase.

Lexical rules: rules stating which words can be used for constituents
generated by phrase structure rules.

PN →{Mary, George} N →{girl, dog, boy} Art→{a, the} Pro→{it, you}

Back to recursion

V →{followed, helped, saw} Adj →{small, crazy} Prep→{near, with}

Adv →{recently, yesterday}

As we did earlier with the repetition of the prepositional phrase, e.g. The gun was on
the table near the window in the bedroom, we can do the same with sentences.

Mary helped George.0039

Complement phrase (CP): a structure such as that Mary helped George used to
complete a construction beginning with a structure such as Cathy knew.

Transformational rules: rules that are used to change or move constituents in

structures derived from phrase structure rules. For example: The cat chased the mouse
→ The mouse was chased by the cat. (Active to passive)

c. Morphology
Based on Wikipedia, morphology is the study of words, how they are formed,
and their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of
words and parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes.
Morphology also looks at parts of speech, intonation and stress, and the ways context
can change a word's pronunciation and meaning. Morphology differs from
morphological typology, which is the classification of languages based on their use of
words, and lexicology, which is the study of words and how they make up a
language's vocabulary. Or we can say, morphology is the study of morpheme. It is the
smallest meaningful unit of utterance.
There are two types of morpheme, those are free and bound morphemes. Free
morphemes is kind of morpheme that can stand themselves as single words. There are
two types of free morpheme, those are lexical and functional morphemes. While,
 bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone by themselves as a single
word, and are typically attached to another form, exemplified as re-, -ist, -ed, -s. All
affixes (prefixes and suffixes) in English are bound morphemes. Bound morphemes
divided into two typesderivational and inflectional morphemes.

d. Phonology
Phonology is the study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in
languages. We can say phonology is concerned with the abstract set of sounds in a
language that allows us to distinguish meaning in the actual physical sounds we say
and hear. In general, the basic unit of phonology is the phoneme, which is an
individual speech sound (such as /p/) that can often be represented by a single
grapheme, or letter (such as the letter p). There are, however, exceptions, such as the
sound /sh/, which is represented by two graphemes (sh). Each natural language has a
different set of possible sounds that can be combined to create words.Phoneme is the
smallest meaning-distinguishing sound unit in the abstract representation of the
sounds of a language.Phones are phonetic units and appear in square brackets, and
serves as a physically produced speech sound, representing one version of a
phoneme.Allophone is one of a closely related set of speech sounds or
phones.Minimal pair is when two words such as “pat” and “bat” are identical in form
except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position.Minimal set is
when a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing
one phoneme.

3. The interaction between morphology and phonology

The interaction between morphology and phonology is common, because they
are closely related disciplines. The morphology of a language concerns the
generalizations about form and meaning that relate words to one another within that
language. The phonology of a language concerns the generalizations about the sound
patterns in that language. Morphology and phonology intersect insofar as the
statement of morphological generalizations includes information about sound
patterns, or insofar as the statement of phonological generalizations includes
information about morphology.
Morphological and phonological processes are tightly interrelated in spoken
production. During processing, morphological processes must combine the
 phonological content of individual morphemes to produce a phonological
representation that is suitable for driving phonological processing. Further, morpheme
assembly frequently causes changes in a word's phonological well-formedness that
must be addressed by the phonology.

4. Explain the following example Indonesian data by considering their

phonological changes
a. mata (noun)mematai (verb) : mem
b. tegur (noun) menegur (verb) : men
c. gambar (noun) menggambar (verb) : meng
d. cuci (noun) mencuci (verb) : men
On the left side, all the words are nouns and on the right side all the words are
verbs. To become a verb, a noun should take a nasal prefix (N-)which has variety off
allomorphs. The reason for me- prefix becoming mem-, men-, and meng- is due the
initial consonant sounds of roots.

5. Examine the interaction between morphology and syntax !

Morphology levels dealing with word structure and syntax levels dealing
with sentence structure. Traditioally morpho – syntax is called grammar. Because
the word structure (morpho) may be affected the syntactic construction (sentence –
structure) in which the word is used.
Ex: the verb walk has a number of forms including walk, walks, and walked.
The selection of a particular form of the verb depends on the syntactic construction
in which it occurs. For instance in the past tense walk is realised as walked.

6. Explain the following Indonesian data by considering their grammatical

functions:
a. Amir memasukan bajunya
Amir me – masuk – kan baju – nya
Amir ACT – puts – APPL clothes – 3SG.POSS
‘Amir puts his clothes on’

b. Bola itu di tendangnya

Bola itu di - tendang - nya
The ball PASS – kick – 3SG.POSS
 ‘Ball was kicked bt him’

c. Lupakan dirinya
Lupa – kan diri – nya
Forget – APPL him – 3SG.POSS
‘Forget about him’

d. Dia memasakan ibunya nasi kuning

Dia me – masak – kan ibu –nya nasi kuning
She ACT – cook – APPL mother – 3SG.POSS yellow rice
‘She cooked yellow rice for her mother’

CONCLUSION
From the discussion above, we can conclude that there are for levels in
linguistics, those are: Semantic, syntactic, morphological, and phonology level. The
interaction or interface between morphology and phonology is quite common because
they are closely related disciplines. Morphology levels dealing with word structure and
syntax levels dealing with sentence structure. Traditioally morpho – syntax is called
grammar. Because the word structure (morpho) may be affected the syntactic
construction (sentence – structure) in which the word is used. It is important for us to
understand about morphology and we should understand about all the materials, so that
we can improve our knowledge about linguistics.

REFERENCES
Hanafi, Nurachman. 2002. Morphology (hand-outs of lectures). Mataram: FKIP Unram
Katamba, Francis. 1993. Morphology. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Finegan, Edward. 2008. Language: Its Structure and Use. USA. Tomson Wadsworth.
Todd, Loreto. 1987. An Introduction to Linguistics. Singapore: Longman Singapore
Publishers Pte Ltd.
Sharon Inkelas. Handbook of Phonological Theory, 68-102, 2011
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3608811/
http://relin.letras.ufmg.br/shlee/Katamba_ch1-3.pdf
https://slideplayer.com/slide/13673546/
https://www.thoughtco.com/phonology-definition-1691623
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)