A Primer on Vectors, Basis Sets and Tensors

Copyright Brian G. Higgins (2004)

Vectors in !2
An ordered pair is a sequence of real numbers or scalars: x = 8x1 , x2 < (1)

We say the scalar xi is the i-th component of the ordered pair. The set of all ordered pairs is denoted by !2 . The ordered pair x is also referred to as a plane vector. Some examples of plane vectors include velocity, friction, force (when these concepts are restricted to the 2-D plane). As we shall see shortly vectors have both direction and magnitude, whereas scalars have just magnitude. A vector is usually represented geometrically as a directed line segment- an arrow- pointing in the direction of the vector, with a length that corresponds to its magnitude. The arrow head defines the terminal point of the vector. The base of the arrow defines the initial point of the vector. When one considers vectors in the plane, they are usually defined with respect to a specified coordinate system. For example, if we take the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, then the vectors a = 82, 3<, b = 8- 2, 3< (2)

are shown schematically as y 4 3 2 1 -3 -2 b -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 When the base of each vector is located at the origin of the coordinate system, 80, 0<, then the first component of the ordered pair (e.g., in the case of a, this is the scalar 2) is called the x-component of the vector, and the second component is called the y-component of the vector. Note that there is a one-to-one correspondence between all vectors in the plane and ordered pairs. Figure 1 1 2 3 x a

Vector_Tensors.nb

Addition of vectors, and multiplication of a vector by a scalar are defined in terms of their components by the following rules: If a = 8a1 , a2 <, b = 8b1 , b2 < are any two plane vectors, then: (i) Addition: a + b = 8a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 < (ii) Scalar multiplication: s a = 8s a1 , s a2 < (3) (4)

The definitions of vector addition and multiplication by a scalar given by (2) and (3) allow us to define subtraction of two vectors. First, we define the negative of a vector b by scalar multiplication: - b H- 1L b = 8H- 1L b1 , H- 1L b2 < = 8- b1 , - b2 < (5)

Then we use the definition for addition of two vectors:

a - b = 8a1 , a2 < + 8- b1 , - b2 < = 8a1 - b1 , a2 - b2 <

(6)

The geometric representation of vector addition, subtraction, and scalar multiplication are illustrated in Figures 2 -4 with the two vectors a = 82, 2<, b = 81, 4<: y 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

c b a

x 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Figure 2 y 4 2

b a
0.5 1 1.5 2 x 2.5

-2 -4

c =a - b
Figure 3

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y 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

c=1.5a a

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Figure 4

Figure 3 shows that the subtraction of two vectors c =a - b can be represented as a vector with its base at the origin of the coordinate system or with its base at the terminal point of vector b The principles of ordered pairs, addition of vectors, and multiplication by a scalar defined by (3) and (4) can be used to derive the following properties of vectors in !2 : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) a+b = b+a a + Hb + cL = Ha + bL + c a+0 = a a + H- aL = 0 1a=a 0a=0 t Ha + bL = t a + t b (communicative law) (associative law) (0 is the identity vector) ( -a is the inverse of a ) (scalar multiplication) (scalar multiplication) (where t is a scalar) (where s and t are scalars) (7)

Ht + sL a = t a + s a

The magnitude of a vector a in !2 (also referred to as its length, or norm) is defined as: ####### 2 ! a = "######## a2 1 + a2 !e=1 (8)

A vector that has magnitude of unity is called a unit vector, denoted by e: (9)

A unit vector can always be constructed from an arbitrary vector a by multiplying a with the reciprocal of its magnitude. Thus a unit vector corresponding to a is given by a ea = !a (10)

Note that ea is in the same direction as a. The procedure for constructing a unit vector from a is a direct application of our definition of multiplication of a vector by a scalar (see (7)).

Vector_Tensors.nb

Significance of Basis in !2 and !3

Any vector r lying in the plane defined by two non-collinear vectors a and b, can be expressed as linear combination of a and b r=aa+bb (11)

where a, b are scalars. Scalars a and b are called the components of r in the directions a and b, respectively. Vectors a and b are called the base vectors, and normally a is perpendicular to b (though need not be- see discussion on reciprocal base vectors). For example, any vector in R2 can be expressed as a linear combination of the unit vectors i = 81, 0< and j = 80, 1< a = a1 i + a2 j (12)

The unit vectors i and j are said to form a basis for vectors in !2 . The following figure illustrates the concept of a linear combination for the vector a = 84, 2< in terms of the base vectors i and j, that is, a = 4 i + 2 j. y 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 a1 =4

a
a2 =2

j i

0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Figure 5

A set of vectors xi from a given vector space !n is said to span the space if any vector in !n can be represented as a linear combination of xi . A basis for a vector space in !n is a set of linearly independent vectors that span !n . If we are given three non-coplanar vectors a, b, c then r = aa+bb+gc The vectors a, b, c are the base vectors in 3-D and in general are not mutually orthogonal. (13)

Vector Operations
The scalar product (also called the dot product) is defined by a b !a !b Cos HqL (14) where q is the angle between the two vectors a and b, when their origins are coincident. The magnitudes of a and b are denoted by !a and !b, respectively. Two vectors whose scalar product is zero are said to be orthogonal. A physical interpretation of the scalar product ab is the projection of a in the direction of b. The vector product of two vectors a and b is defined as the vector v = ab (15)

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which is perpendicular to a and b with magnitude

!v = !a !b Sin HqL

(16)

and so directed that a right hand rotation about v through the angle q carries a into b. The vectors a, b, v are said to form a right hand system if a right threaded screw rotated through an angle less than 180 will advance in the direction of v. Another way of interpreting the direction of v is when the fingers of the right hand are curled from a to b, such that the thumb on the right hand points in the direction of v . Note that a b -b a (17)

Thus the cross product does not satisfy the commutative law. The cross product occurs in fluid mechanics when we want to compute the vorticity of the flow. In mechanics the cross product occurs when we want to compute the torque at a point. If ex , ey , ez are the base vectors for a and b then we can also interpret the cross product as ex i j j j ax a b = det j j j j j k bx ey ay by ez az bz y z z z z z z z z {

(18)

where the determinant is formed by expanding about the first row. The scalar triple product of three vectors a, b, c is defined as a Hb cL = Ha bL c = l (19)

The scalar triple product is a scalar equal in magnitude to the volume of a parallelepiped of which a, b and c are coterminous, i.e. have the same boundary. Thus a, b, c define the edges of the parallelepiped Note the above formula indicates that it is permissible to interchange dot and cross product operations. Another useful interpretation is in terms of the determinant formed from the components of a, b, c cx i j j j j Ha bL c = det j j ax j j k bx cy ay by cz az bz y z z z z z z z z {

(20)

The vector triple product of three vectors a, b, c is the vector v defined by v = a Hb cL = b Ha cL - c Ha bL (21)

The decomposition of the vector triple product in terms of scalar products can be remembered by noting that the RHS of (19) is "bac" minus "cab" . The order of vectors in (21) is important as Ha bL c = - c Ha bL = - 8a Hb cL - b Ha cL< = b Ha cL - a Hc bL

(22)

Coordinate Systems
In these notes we will be concerned with a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system. Let e1 , e2 , e3 be a set of orthonormal base vectors such that any vector v in !3 can be represented as v = v1 e 1 + v2 e 2 + v3 e 3 Another notation for (23) is (23)

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v = vi e i
3 i=1

(24)

We can avoid the use of the summation sign by implicitly assuming that there is a summation over the index i v = vi ei , sum on i : i = 1, 2, 3 (25)

The representation of v by (25) is called indicial notation. When the indices are repeated, the convention is that we sum over all i. We noted above that the base vectors ei that define our rectangular Cartesian coordinate system are orthonormal. This means e1 e1 = e2 e2 = e3 e3 = 1 (26) e1 e2 = e2 e3 = e3 e1 = 0 Furthermore, the basis set for the Cartesian coordinate system forms a right handed system: e1 e2 = e3 , e2 e3 = e1 , e3 e1 = e2 The orthonormal property of the basis ei may be represented using indicial notation ei ej = dij where dij 1 if i = j =: 0 if i ! j (28) (27)

di j is called the Kronecker Delta function. We can use the orthonormal properties of the basis vectors to determine the components of v v1 = v e1 = !v cos HaL v2 = v e2 = !v cos HbL v3 = v e3 = !v cos HgL where a, b, g are the direction cosines. The right hand property of the coordinate system can also be represented in terms of indicial notation ei ej = eijk ek The quantity eijk is called the permutation symbol and takes on the following values 0 if any i, j, k are repeated l o o eijk = m 1 if i, j, k is an even permutation of 1, 2, 3 o o n - 1 if i, j, k is an odd permutation of 1, 2, 3 (30)

(29)

(31)

For example the following are even permutations of 1,2,3 e123 = e312 = e231 = 1 while the following are odd permutations of 1,2,3 e213 = e132 = e321 = - 1 (33) (32)

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The permutation symbol is extremely useful for calculating the cross product of two vectors in terms of their components. For example given two vectors a = ai ei and b = bi ei , then i e1 j j a j a b = det j j j 1 k b1 e2 a2 b2 e3 a3 b3 y z z z z z z {

(34)

= e1 Ha2 b3 - a3 b2 L - e2 Ha1 b3 - a3 b1 L + e3 Ha1 b2 - a2 b1 L

This result can be expressed more compactly using indicial notation a b = eijk ai bj ek Recall that since the indices i, j, k are repeated on the RHS of (35) we must sum over these indices a b = e1 j k a 1 b j ek + e2 j k a 2 b j e k + e3 j k a 3 b j e k = e123 a1 b2 e3 + e132 a1 b3 e2 (36) + e213 a2 b1 e3 + e231 a2 b3 e1 +e312 a3 b1 e2 + e321 a3 b2 e1 We have use the property that eijk is zero if the indices are repeated. The above result reduces to a b = e1 Ha2 b3 - a3 b2 L - e2 Ha1 b3 - a3 b1 L + e3 Ha1 b2 - a2 b1 L HiL Hsumming over repeated indicesL (37) (35)

We now list some useful properties of the permutation symbol eijk ekij = 6 eijk = -ejik eijk ai ak = 0 a b = eijk ai bj ek = eijk aj bk ei dmp i j j j j = det j j dnp j k drp dmq dnq drq dms dns drs y z z z z z z z {

HiiL HivL HvL

HiiiL

Hinterchanging any two indicesL

(38)

epqs emnr

From property (v) it follows epqs esnr = dpn dqr - dpr dqn (39) epqs esqr = - 2 dpr The permutation symbol is also useful for determining the triple scalar product: a Hb cL = ar er Heijk bi cj ek L

(40) = eijk bi cj ar dkr = eijr bi cj ar

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Expanding this result gives

a Hb cL = b1 Hc2 a3 - c3 a2 L - b2 Hc3 a1 - c1 a3 L + b3 Hc1 a2 - c2 a1 L

(41)

Dyadic Algebra
The juxtaposition of two vectors a and b is called a dyad, and is represented as a b. Dyads are used in fluid mechanics to describe the force acting on a surface where it is necessary to know both the magnitude and direction of the force as well as the orientation of the surface. In dyads the order of vectors is important so that ab!ba The transposition operator () interchanges the order of the dyad Ha bL = b a (43) (42)

We can use the familiar vector operations (scalar product, cross product) to operate on dyads. We will use the following "nesting convention". Consider the scalar product of a dyad ab with a vector c which produces a new vector multiplied by a scalar: Ha bL c = a Hb cL c Ha bL = Hc aL b

(44)

The cross product of a dyad ab with a vector c produces a new dyad: Ha bL c = a Hb cL = - a Hc bL c Ha bL = Hc aL b

(45)

The scalar product of two dyads is also defined, which produces a new dyad multiplied by a scalar a b c d = a Hb cL d = a d Hb cL a b : c d = Ha dL Hb dL (46)

The double scalar product of two dyads produces a scalar (47)

Note the double scalar product works from "bottom to top, inside to outside". We can use indicial notation to evaluate vector operations on dyads as the following example illustrates a b c = Hai ei bj ej L ck ek = Hai bj ck L ei ej ek

= Hai bj ck L ei djk = Hbj cj L ai ei = Hbj cj L a

(48)

Cartesian Tensors
A second-order cartesian tensor is defined as a linear combination of unit dyads: T = Tij ei ej
3 3 i=1 j=1

(49)

In these notes we will use bold face uppercase letters to represent tensors. In indicial notation we write the tensor as

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T = Tij ei ej

(50)

where the summation over the i and j indices is assumed. The coefficients Tij are called the components of T relative to the base vectors ei . The values of the components Tij depend on the coordinate system. A second-order tensor has 9 components. It is sometimes convenient to express the components of a second-order tensor using matrix notation T11 i j j j T @TD = j j j 21 k T31 T12 T22 T32 T13 T23 T33 y z z z z z z {

(51)

The scalar product of a vector with a tensor is defined in terms of operations on dyads. For example, T a = Tij ei ej a = Tij ei Hej aL

= Tij ei Hej ak ek L = Tij ak ei Hej ek L = Tij ak ei djk = Tij aj ei

(52)

The components of the vector that results from the scalar product of a tensor with a vector can also be calculated using matrix notation T11 i j j j T @T aD = j j j 21 k T31 T12 T22 T32 T13 T23 T33 a1 y i z j z j z j z j a2 z zj j { k a3 T11 a1 + T12 a2 + T13 a3 y y i z j z z j z z j z z = j T21 a1 + T22 a2 + T23 a3 z z z z j z j { k T31 a1 + T32 a2 + T33 a3 {

(53)

Comparing Eqn(52) with Eqn (53) we see that T11 a1 + T12 a2 + T13 a3 T1 j aj T21 a1 + T22 a2 + T23 a3 T2 j aj T31 a1 + T32 a2 + T33 a3 T3 j aj so that T a = T1 j a j ei + T2 j a j e2 + T3 j a j e 3 We define the transpose of a tensor as T = T ij ei ej = Tji ei ej so that T ij = Tji We can use the definition of the transpose to show that T a = a T This is easily proved using indicial notation. First, we evaluate a T = ai ei Tjk ej ek = ai Tjk dij ek = ai Tik ek then we evaluate (59) (58) (57) (56) (55) (54)

10

Vector_Tensors.nb

T a = T ij ei ej ak ek = Tij ei ak djk = Tij aj ei

(60) = Tji aj ei = aj Tji ei We can also show in a similar manner that a T b = b T a A tensor is said to be symmetric if T = T and skew symmetric (anti-symmetric) if T = - T We define the trace of a second-order tensor as the sum of its diagonal components tr HTL = tr HTij ei ej L = Tij ei ej = Tij dij = Tii (63) (62) (61)

(64)

Special Tensors
(i) Idemfactor: This is a unit isotropic dyadic denoted by I I = dij ei ej Expressed as a matrix the components of I are 1 0 0y i j z j z j 0 1 0z z @ID = j j z j z k0 0 1{ (65)

(66)

By definition the Idemfactor (sometimes called the unit tensor) preserves length and angles. Thus the scalar product of the Idemfactor I with a vector v gives back v I v = dij ei ej vp ep = dij djp vp ei = vi ei = v Some other important operations involving the Idemfactor are listed below I I = dij ei ej dkl ek el = dij dkl djk ei el = djk ej ek = I I : I = dij ei ej : dpq ep eq = dij dpq Hei eq L Hej ep L = dij dpq diq djp = dij dpi djp = dij dji = dii = 3 I : u v = dij ei ej : uk ek vp ep = dij uk vp djk dip = dij uj vi (70) = vi ui = v u (ii) Alternator: This is a unit isotropic triadic denoted by ! (68) (67)

(69)

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11

e1 i j j ! = eijk ei ej ek det j j j e1 j k e1 Examples of useful operations with ! are ! : u v = eijk ei ej ek : ul el vm em = eijk ul vm ei djm dkl

e2 e2 e2

e3 e3 e3

y z z z z z z {

(71)

(72)

= eijk uk vj ei = -eikj uk vj ei = - u v ! : ! = eijk ei ej ek : epqr ep eq er = eijk epqr dkp djq ei er = eijk ekjr ei ej = - 2 dir ei er = - 2 I ! ! = eijk ei ej ek epqr ep eq er = eijk epqr dkp djq dir = eijk ekji = - 2 dir dir = - 2 dii = - 6 (74) (73)

Orthogonal Tensors
When an orthogonal tensor operates on a vector it preserves its length and angle. If we let Q denote an orthogonal tensor then Cos HQ a, Q bL = Cos Ha, bL , preserves angle An orthogonal tensor has the following properties Q Q = I or Q Q = I (76) !Q a = !a , preserves length

(75)

det@QD = " 1

where det[Q] is the determinant of the coefficient matrix. Here is an example of an orthogonal tensor. Consider two coordinate systems ei and e* i that differ by some rotation q about the e3 axis. Thus the direction cosines are
* e1 e* 1 = Cos HqL, e1 e2 = Cos H90 + qL = - Sin HqL * e2 e* 1 = Cos H90 - qL = Sin HqL, e2 e2 = Cos HqL

(77)

* * * * e3 e* 3 = 1, e1 e3 = 0, e2 e3 = 0, e3 e2 = 0, e3 e1 = 0

Now let us suppose that Q is an orthogonal tensor that represents this rotation. Then we have e* i = Q ei = Qmk em ek ei = Qmi em Now (78)

12

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& em e* i = em HQmi em L = Qmi = Cos Hem , ei L

(79)

Thus the components of the orthogonal tensor Q are Cos HqL - Sin HqL 0 y i j z j z j @QD = j Sin HqL Cos HqL 0 z z j z j z 0 0 1{ k

(80)

Reciprocal Sets of Vectors

A set of vectors a, b, c and a', b', c' are called reciprocal sets of vectors if a a' = b b' = c c' = 1 and a b' = a c' = b a' = b c' = 0 If the sets are reciprocal then one can construct the prime vectors from the non prime vectors bc ca ab a ' = , b ' = , c ' = a Hb cL a Hb cL a Hb cL where a(bc)!0.It is a simple matter to prove (83). Let ai and bi be reciprocal. Then a1 b1 = 1, a2 b1 = b1 a3 = 0 Since b1 is orthogonal to a2 and a3 we have a constant l such that b1 = l Ha2 a3 L (85) (84) (83) (82) (81)

Therefore,

a1 b1 = l a1 Ha2 a3 L = 1

(86)

Solving for l gives 1 l = a1 Ha2 a3 L Using this result in (85) gives a2 a3 b1 = a 1 Ha 2 a 3 L In analogous manner we can show a3 a1 a1 a2 b2 = , b3 = a 1 Ha 2 a 3 L a1 Ha2 a3 L A self-reciprocal set of basis vectors is one such that bc ca ab a = , b = , c = a Hb cL a Hb cL a Hb cL Note that for all self-reciprocal sets, a a = 1, a a ' = 1, a b = a b ' = 0 (91) (90) (89) (88) (87)

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13

Thus self-reciprocal base vectors are unit vectors and are perpendicular to each other. Such a set by definition is an orthonormal basis. It is important to recognize that any vector v can be expressed in terms of a reciprocal basis v = a ' Ha vL + b ' Hb vL + c ' Hc vL v = a Ha ' vL + b Hb ' vL + c Hc ' vL Ha vL, Hb vL, Hc vL for H92L Ha ' vL, Hb ' vL, Hc ' vL for H93L (92)

or

(93)

Since a', b', c' are non-coplanar, the components of v are

(94)

and

(95)

These components are not the same, and this difference is the underlying theme that one pursues in studying components of vectors or tensors in non-orthogonal coordinate systems, i.e., the contravariant versus covariant components. We can see immediately why a self-reciprocal basis is so convenient. Suppose we have a vector v defined by a self-reciprocal basis v = a Ha vL + b Hb vL + c Hc vL v a = Ha aL Ha vL = a v (96)

Hence if we want the component of v in the a- direction, then (97)

or v = a va + b vb + c vc where va = a v , etc. (98)

References
The following references were helpful in preparing these notes
W. Michael Lai, D Rubin &E Krempl, Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, Pergamon Press, 1978 Lawrence E. Malvern, Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium, Prentice-Hall, 1969 James G. Simmonds, A Brief on Tensor Analysis, Springer-Verlag, 1982 A. J. M Spencer, Continuum Mechanics, Longman, 1980