Measurements and Instrumentation

Topic Wise Notes Semester-V Course Code: TEC-505 Course Name: Electronic Measurement & Instrumentation

1. Measurement: Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and predetermined or predefined standards. Two quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical values. . Basic requirements for a meaningful measurement: The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable (verifiable).

! Met ods of Measurement

n"irect Methods n#ndirect Methods

"#$%&T M%T'(")* #n these methods+ the unknown quantity (called the measurand ) is directly compared against a standard. #,"#$%&T M%T'("* Measurements by direct methods are not always possible+ feasible and practicable. #n engineering applications measurement systems are used which require need of indirect method for measurement

Measurements and Instrumentation

purposes.

Measurements and Instrumentation

! Instruments S!stems and Measurement

nMeasurement involves the use of instruments as a physical means of

determining quantities or variables.

n-ecause of modular nature of the elements within it+ it is common to refer the

measuring instrument as a M%.)/$%M%,T )0)T%M.

! E"olution Instruments
wMechanica

of

l
w%lectrica

l
w%lectronic

#nstruments.
nM%&'.,#&.1* These instruments are very reliable

for static and stable

conditions. -ut their disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and transient conditions. %1%&T$#&.1* #t is faster than mechanical+ indicating the output are rapid than mechanical methods. -ut it depends on the mechanical movement of the meters. The response is 2.3 to 4 seconds. %1%&T$(,#&* #t is more reliable than other system. #t uses semiconductor devices and weak signal can also be detected

! Classification Instruments
n.bsolute

of

#nstruments.
n)econdary

#nstruments. .-)(1/T%* These instruments give the magnitude if the quantity under measurement terms of physical constants of the instrument.

Measurements and Instrumentation

)%&(,".$0* These instruments are calibrated by the comparison with absolute instruments which have already been calibrated. #urt er it is classified as
n"eflection

Type Type

#nstruments
n,ull

#nstruments. 5unctions of instrument and measuring system can be classified into three. They are*

Measurements and Instrumentation

ii) #ndicating function. iii) $ecording function. iv) &ontrolling function. .pplication of measurement systems are* i) Monitoring of process and operation. ii) &ontrol of processes and operation. iii) %xperimental engineering analysis.

Im$ortance of Electrical Measuring Instruments:

The measurement of current+ voltage 6 power is required to study the behavior of electrical equipment or an electric circuit+ under certain load conditions.()ingh+ 227)

%&' Classification of Electrical Instruments:

They are broadly divided in two categories. %&'&% ()solute Instruments: They are also called the 8rimary #nstruments. They are not calibrated against anything else. E*am$le: 9ater Manometers /sed for pressure Measurements are absolute or primary instrument because water column differential is unchangeable due to its physical nature. %&'&' Secondar! Instruments: These instruments need to be calibrated against the primary )tandards. .s these instruments are calibrated+ they provide quick display of the variable of intent. E*am$le: i) . bourdon type gauge used to measure the 8ressure needs to be calibrated against some primary standard e.g. water manometer.

Measurements and Instrumentation

! T!$es S!stem

of

Instrumentation

n#ntelligent #nstrumentation (data has been refined for the purpose of presentation

)
n"umb #nstrumentation (data must be processed by the

observer)

! Elements S!stem
n8rimary

of

+enerali,ed

Measurement

sensing conversion presentation

element.
n:ariable

element.
n"ata

element.

Measurements and Instrumentation

n8$#M.$0 )%,)#,; %1%M%,T* The quantity under measurement makes its

first contact with the primary sensing element of a measurement system.

n:.$#.-1% &(,:%$)#(, %1%M%,T* #t converts the output of the primary

sensing element into suitable form to preserve the information content of the original signal.
n".T. 8$%)%,T.T#(, %1%M%,T* The information about the quantity under

measurement has to be conveyed to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring+ control or analysis purpose.

Measurements and Instrumentation

! #unctional Elements of an Instrumentation S!stem

-.(NTIT/ T0 BE ME(S.1E 2

31IM(1/
SENSIN+

V(1I(B4E
C0NVE1

V(1I(B4E
M(NI3.4(

2(T(
T1(NSMISS

2(T(
31ESENT(

E4EMENT

-SI0N
E4EMENT

TI-0N
E4EMENT

I0-N
E4EMENT

TI0N

2(T( C0N2ITI0NIN+ E4EMENT INTE1ME2I(TE ST(+E 2ETECT01

T1(NS2.CE1

TE1MIN(TIN+
ST(+E

Static C aracteristics of Instruments and Measurement S!stems 5IM36

n.pplication involved measurement of quantity that are either constant or varies

slowly with time is known as static. .ccuracy "rift "ead <one )tatic %rror )ensitivity $eproducibility Static C aracteristics )tatic correction )cale range )cale span ,oise "ead Time

Measurements and Instrumentation

'ysteresis. 1inearity

(CC.1(C/* #t is the closeness with an instrument reading approaches the true T1.E V(4.E* True value of quantity may be defined as the average of an SENSITIVIT/ is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the output response ST(TIC E1101* #t is defined as the difference between the measured value

value of the quantity being measured. infinite no. of measured value. to that of input response. and true value of the quantity.
n1e$roduci)ilit! is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of

time.
n2rift is an undesirable quality in industrial instruments because it is rarely apparent and

cannot be maintained. #t is classified as <ero drift )pan drift or sensitivity drift <onal drift. Nois e
n. spurious current or voltage extraneous to the current or voltage of interest in an

electrical or electronic circuit is called noise.

2!namic C aracteristics S!stem 5IM36

)peed of response Measuring lag 5idelity "ynamic error

of

Measurement

nS3EE2 0# 1ES30NSE* #t is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement

system responds to changes in measured quantity. #t is one of the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system.

n#I2E4IT/: #t is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates

changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error. 2!namic Error
n#t is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time and

the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. #t is also called measurement error. #t is one the dynamic characteristics. Measuring 4ag
n#t is the retardation delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the

measured quantity. #t is of

types*

$etardation type* The response begins immediately after a change in measured quantity has occurred. Time delay* The response of the measurement system begins after a dead =one after the application of the input.

Errors Measurement
%rrors

in
(;uarantee

n1imiting

%rrors)
n>nown %rror

S!stematic Errors INST1.MENT(4 E1101* These errors arise due to ? reasons@

n"ue n"ue n"ue

to inherent instrument to instrument misuse

short of

comings the of the

in the

to loading instrument

effects

ENVI10NMENT(4 E1101: These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device. These may be effects of temperature+ pressure+ humidity+ dust or of external electrostatic or magnetic field.

(-)%$:.T#(,.1 %$$($* The error on account of parallax is the

observational error.

1esidual error

This is also known as residual error. These errors are due to a multitude

of small factors which change or fluctuate from one measurement to another. The happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware are lumped together and called A$andomB or A$esidualB. 'ence the errors caused by these are called random or residual errors.

Statistical e"aluation of measurement data

(rit metic Mean

nThe

most probable value of measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number of

readings taken. 2e"iatio n "eviation is departure of the observed reading from the arithmetic mean of the

group of readings. Standard 2e"iation

nThe

standard deviation of an infinite number of data is defined as the square root of the

sum of the individual deviations squared divided by the number of readings. 3ro)le m Cuestion* The following 12 observation were recorded when measuring a voltage* 41.D+ 4 .2+ 41.E+ 4 .2+ 4 .1+ 41.7+ 4 .2+ 41.7+ 4 .3+ 41.E volts.&alculate Mean+ )tandard "eviation+ $ange. 8robable %rror and

(ns7e r MeanF41.7D volt )."F2. volt 8robable errorF2.13 volt $angeF2.E volt.

Cali)ration
of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check the 8rocedure involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either

n&alibration

instruments against a known standard and subsequently to find errors and accuracy.
n&alibration

a an

a 8rimary standard secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated. instrument of known accuracy.

Standards
. standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The term

Gstandard is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of physical quantity. T!$es of Standards
n#nternational

)tandards (defined based on international agreement )

n8rimary

)tandards (maintained by national standards laboratories) )tandards ( used by industrial measurement laboratories)

n)econdary

n9orking

)tandards ( used in general laboratory)

1. #nternational standards* "efined by international agreements . 8rimary standards* Maintained at institutions around the world Main function is checking accuracy of secondary standards ?. )econdary standards H %mployed in industry as references for calibration and for verifying working standards. 4. 9orking standards H /sed as measurement references on a day H to day basis in all electronics labs.

Measurement errors

 Measurement can thus be redefined as Athe process of comparing an unknown quantity with an expected (standard ) quantityB /sually+ measurement gives a value that is not the expected value. The difference is measurement error. %rror is the measure of the degree that the measured value conforms to the expected value. Xn X n Yn En = Yn X n Y
Yn X n Yn Yn X n Yn

That is where measured values respectively.

and

are the expected and the

&an be I 5ractional error F .nd J error is fractional error is fractional error x122J Yn X n Yn .bsolute fractional error F and is always positive

Yn X n Yn

1. ;ross errors or 'uman errors H these result from carelessness e.g. misreading an instrument or incorrectly recording a reading. . )ystematic errors @ #nstrumental errors due to friction and =ero positioning. o o o o %nvironmental errors H due to ambient conditions i.e. Temperature 'umidity 8ressure 8resence of electric and magnetic fields

?. $andom errors H These are unpredictable errors and can occur any time and they require statistical analysis. )tatistical analysis of random errors* .verage (arithmetic mean) or (measure of central tendency) is given by*
x = xi K n
n i =1 n i =1

x = xi K n

d i = xi x d i = xi x

D = di
i =1

"eviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean i.e. i =1 iii. .verage deviation H n d = i 1 n 1 n iv. )tandard deviation H d = i V = 1 n 1 v. :ariance+ V =
D = di
n

ii.

/sed when quantities are calculated from measurements made from two (or more) instruments. #t is assumed that the errors combine in a worst possible way. V = (V1 + V ) (V1 + V ) V = (V1 + V ) (V1 + V ) V = (V1 V1 ) + (V V ) )um of quantities V = (V1 V1 ) + (V V ) ii. "ifference of quantities H V = (V1 V1 ) (V V ) the error of the difference of two measurements are again V = (V1 V1 ) (V V ) additive* V = (V1 V ) (V1 + V ) and V = (V1 V ) (V1 + V )

iii. 8roduct of two quantities H (V + V )( I + I ) (V + V )( I + I ) 8 F :# F P VI (VI + IV ) P VI (V I + I V ) VI VI IV + VI VI VI IV + VI F IE IE is vary small and can be neglected &an be shown that Jerror in 8FJerror in : L Jerror in #. #:. Cuotient of quantities* J error in %K# F (Jerror in %) L (Jerror in #)

v.

Cuantity raised to a power* Jerror in F -(Jerror in .)

T1(N2.CE1S
Translational displacement transducers are instruments that measure the motion of a body in a straight line between two points. Apart from their use as a primary transducer measuring the motion of a body, translational displacement transducers are also widely used as a secondary component in measurement systems, where some other physical quantity such as pressure, force, acceleration or temperature is translated into a translational motion by the primary measurement transducer.

. transducer is a device that converts one form of energy to another. #n electrical measurements+ transducers convert other forms of energy to electrical ,ote* ,aturally existing phenomena are non@electrical. %.g. temperature+ pressure+ displacement etc. The transducer must fulfill two maMor functions* i. To sense the presence+ magnitude+ change in and frequency of some measurand. ii. To provide an electrical output which when processed and supplied to a readout device+ gives an accurate representation of the original measurand. These are classified as* i. ;enuine energy converters ( called active transducers) ii. %nergy controllers (passive transducers) #mportant considerations in transducer selection* 1ong term stability of input K output relationships (transfer characteristic ii. )i=e+ shape and weight of the device iii. $esponse to rapid changes in measurand iv. %lectrical output impedance v. $eliability+ availability and cost. vi. $esponse to interfering and modifying inputs vii. %ffects of ambient conditions(temperature+ humidity+ vibration and supply frequency in the case of ac powered devices. "esired input refers to the quantity the transducer is specifically intended to respond to. #nterfering input represents those quantities the transducer is unintentionally sensitive to. Modifying input represents the quantity whose effect is to modify the desired and interfering inputs. $esistance temperature detectors #t is least sensitive to contamination RT = R1O1 + (T T1 )N $T"Ps* RT = R1O1 + (T T1 )N The resistance of metals increases with temperature according to*

 8latinum $T"Ps are either thick film or wire wound type. The thick film type has a faster speed of response. Thermistor (thermal resistor) This device is made from either oxides of nickel+ manganese and cobalt or sulfides of iron+ aluminum or copper or semiconducting materials These are made into beads+ discs or rods. They are characteri=ed by a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. and very high sensitivity. Thermocouple The )eeback effect* 9hen two dissimilar metals are in contact+ a potential is developed which is proportional to the temperature of the Munction. V = s(T T1 ) The voltage that is generated is* V = s(T T1 ) 9here s is the sensitivity of the material combination. This effect results from the diffusion of electrons across the interface between the two metals. The material giving the electrons become more positive and the one receiving more negative. This is an active transducer which is of the first H order type.

5orce Transducer
L L R R

The strain gauge* This is a resistive input transducer whose resistance change is related to changes in length. #ncrease in length from 1 to 1 L

$esults in increase in resistance from $ to $ L )ensitivity of the gauge (or gauge factor) is given by* R K R R K R G= = L K L R K R R K R G= = L K L 9here* $ F resistance 1 F length F mechanical strain

E E

'ookePs 1aw* ) F 9here* % F 0oungPs modulus ) F mechanical stress )train gauges are used in the measurement of force+ pressure+ acceleration and dc bridges are used as conditioners. Main source of error is resistance change due to temperature. -ridge methods which make use of dummy gauges compensate for these errors. 5orce Measurement The 8ie=oelectric transducer* These are also used in the measurement of force+ acceleration and pressure They are made from crystalline materials like quart=+ $ochelle salt and ceramics like barium titanate These materials generate a voltage when deformed. The crystals contain molecules with asymmetrical charge distribution 9hen pressure is applied+ crystal deforms and there is relative displacement of Lve and Hve charges within the crystal. This produces external charges of opposite sign. q = voC q = voC

The associated output voltage is given by* S dp vo = q o r 9here & is the capacitance of the crystal S dp vo = q q = S q Ap q = S q Ap
o r

o r A d o r A C= d
C= vo = 2 vo = 2

The surface charge is related to the applied pressure by* $ecall * for a parallel plate cap.

substituting for &* 1inear :ariable "ifferential Transformer

This consists of a primary coil and two secondary coils wound in opposition. . ferromagnetic core (plunger) moves along the axis of the three coils. since the two secondary coils are wound in opposition+ 9hen the core is at its central position+ #n practice this condition is not met due to mismatches in the secondary coils.

vo = v1 v vo = v1 v

8hoto@electric transducers These can be divided into three types*

8hoto@conductive 8hoto@emissive and 8hoto@voltaic 8hoto@conductive transducer (cell)* These are elements or compounds whose conductivity increases with intensity of electromagnetic radiation. 8hoto@emissive transducers 8hoto@emissive effect is the emission of electrons in a vacuum from metal or semiconductor surfaces This is as a result of absorption of electromagnetic energy by these materials. The e.m. energy is in the visible or near visible part of the spectrum. %lectrons absorb enough energy from incident photons to escape from these surfaces. ! 8 at is meant )! measurement9 Measurement is an act or the result of comparison between the quantity and a 8re@defined standard. ! Mention t e )asic requirements of measurement& Q The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should be commonly accepted. Q The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable. ! 8 at are t e ' met ods for measurement9 Q "irect method and Q #ndirect method. ! E*$lain t e function of measurement s!stem& The measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to be measured in an analogous form. the analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to the end device which presents the results of the measurement. ! 2efine Instrument& #nstrument is defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable. ! 4ist t e t!$es of instruments& Q The ? types of instruments are

Q Mechanical #nstruments Q %lectrical #nstruments and Q %lectronic #nstruments. ! Classif! instruments )ased on t eir functions& #ndicating instruments #ntegrating instruments $ecording instruments ! +i"e t e a$$lications of measurement s!stems& Q The instruments and measurement systems are sued for Q Monitoring of processes and operations.

Q &ontrol of processes and operations. Q %xperimental engineering analysis. ! 8 ! cali)ration of instrument is im$ortant9 The calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check the instrument against a known standard and subsequently to errors in accuracy. ! E*$lain t e cali)ration $rocedure& &alibration procedure involves a comparison of the particular instrument with either. Q . primary standard Q . secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated or .n instrument of known accuracy. ! 2efine Cali)ration& #t is the process by which comparing the instrument with a standard to correct the accuracy.

1. Analog Instruments

w.n analog device is one in which the output or display is a continuous function of
time and bears a constant relation to its input. ! Classification &lassified based upon the quantity they measure (ammeter+ voltmeter) &lassified according to the current that can be measured by them.("&+.&) &lassified according to the effects used for working. &lassified as #ndicating+ $ecording+ .nd #ntegrating. &lassified on the basis of method used for comparing the unknown quantity. ("irect K &omparison measurement )

Principle of operation Magnetic %ffect Thermal %ffect %lectrostatic %ffect #nduction %ffect 'all %ffect

Magnetic Effect

Force between Current carrying Magnet

Force between Two Current Carrying Coils

Hall Effects

Operating Forces "eflecting 5orce &ontrolling 5orce "amping 5orce Supporting the moving element )uspension Taut )uspension 8ivot and Mewel bearings

Control Systems ;ravity &ontrol )pring &ontrol ! nalog mmeters are connected in series in the circuit whose current is to be measured.

w.mmeters

The power loss in an ammeter is # $a.Therefore ammeters should have a low electrical resistance so that they cause a small voltage drop and consequently absorb small power.

nalog !oltmeters

w:oltmeters are connected in parallel in the circuit whose voltage is to be measured.

The power loss in an ammeter is : K$:.Therefore voltmeters should have a high electrical resistance so that they cause a small voltage drop and consequently absorb small power.

7. Types Instruments

of

w8ermanent
(8MM&).

magnet

moving

coil

wMoving
#ron

w%lectro@dynamometer
type.

w'ot
type.

wire

wThermocouple

type.

w#nduction
type.

w%lectrostatic
type.

w$ectifier
type.

"MMC

Moving #ron #nstruments$ ttraction Type

%epulsion Type Moving #ron #nstruments

Electro&ynamometer Type

Measurements and Instrumentation

(d"antages of Mo"ing-Iron Instruments: The various advantages are following. 1. The instrument can be used for both ..& 6 ".& Measurements because a reversal in current direction will affect the assembly in such a way that force of repulsion or attraction lies still in the same direction. . %rrors due to friction are very less due to high torque to weight ratio. ?. . single type of moving element can cover a wide range hence these instruments are cheaper than other types of instruments.

Measurements and Instrumentation

4. %xtremely $ugged 6 reliable due to absence of any current carrying parts. 3. The range of instrument can be extended. R. These can withstand large loads and are not damaged even under severe overload conditions. D. These are capable of giving good accuracy. Modern Moving@#ron #nstruments have a ".& error of J or less.

2isad"antages of Mo"ing-Iron Instruments: The various disadvantages are following. 1. 'ave non@linear scale. . &annot be calibrated with a high degree of precision for ".& due to hysteresis in #ron cores. ?. #f damping torque is due to gravity control than instrument needs to be placed in vertical position always. 4. "eflection of only 42ocan be obtained. Errors 7it Mo"ing-Iron Instruments: The various errors are following. 1) 'ysteresis %rror*
"ue to hysteresis effect+ the flux density for the same current while ascending 6 descending :alues is different ) )tray Magnetic field error* %xternal stray magnetic fields are liable to affect adversely the accurate functioning of instrument ?) Temperature %rror* )elf heating of the coil can cause change in the resistance of the coil. The error is of the order of 2.2 J per 2& change in temperature 4) 5requency %rror* &hange in frequency of current causes the change in the reactance of the coil thus causing error in the instrument 3) %ddy &urrent %rror* 9ith ..& current+ the generated eddy currents in iron core cause error in the deflecting torque thus changing the meter reading R) 9ave form error* #n ..& current+ change in the waveform of signal cause error in reading '&%&' Mo"ing Coil Instruments: #n these types of instruments the deflecting element is the current carrying coil itself. There are two types of moving@coil instruments '&%&'&% 3ermanent Magnet t!$e: . coil wound on aluminum or copper frame is placed in the radial magnetic field produced by a 8ermanent u@shaped magnet provided with soft@iron pole pieces provided with to reduce the reluctance of magnetic field by air gap.

d"antages of 3ermanent Magnet t!$e Mo"ing-Coil Instrument: The various advantages are following.

Measurements and Instrumentation

1. 1ow power consumption . The sensitivity is high ?. ,o hysteresis loss4. /niformity of the scale and the possibility of a very long scale (9adhwa+ 22R) 5. It consumes low power, of the order of 25W to 2 !W R. :ery efficient eddy current damping D. 'igh torqueKweight ratio E. ,ot affected much by stray magnetic fields due to strong operating fields 7. (perating current is small 12. #t has high accuracy.

2isad"antages of 3ermanent Magnet t!$e Mo"ing-Coil Instrument: The various disadvantages are following. 1) They are costly as compared to the moving iron instruments. ) .geing of permanent magnet and control springs introduces the errors. ?) /se limited to ".& only 4) )cale length of meter can be increased from 1 2 o and 42o or even D2o or ?22o only 3) 5riction due to Mewel pivot suspension. Errors 7it 3ermanent Magnet t!$e Mo"ing-Coil Instrument: The various errors are following 1. "ue to friction of moving parts and temperature . "ue to weakening of permanent magnet with the passage of time but can be eliminated by carefully ageing the magnet during its manufacture. ?. .n account of thermoelectric %M5 when they are shunted for current measurement. '&%&'&' 2!namometer t!$e: #f the permanent magnet in the moving@coil instrument is replaced by an electromagnet the type is called the dynamometer type instrument. They are generally air@cored coils to avoid any eddy current or hysteresis errors while using ..& current. (d"antages of 2!namometer t!$e Mo"ing-Coil Instrument: The various advantages are following 1. ,o hysteresis loss . ,o eddy currents due to the absence of iron or aluminum core The design of a voltmeter+ ammeter or ohmmeter begins with a current@

sensitive element. Though most modern meters have solid@state digital readouts+ the physics is more readily demonstrated with a moving coil current detector called a galvanometer. )ince the modifications of the current sensor are compact+ it is practical to have all three functions in a single instrument with multiple ranges of sensitivity. )chematically+ a single range SmultimeterS might be designed as illustrated.

Measurements and Instrumentation

Vol Voltmeter . voltmeter measures the change in voltage between two points in an electric circuit and therefore must be connected in parallel with the portion of the circuit on which the measurement is made. -y contrast+ an ammeter must be connected in series. #n analogy with a water circuit+ a voltmeter is like a meter designed to measure pressure difference. #t is necessary for the voltmeter to have a very high resistance so that it does not have an appreciable affect on the current or voltage associated with the measured circuit. Modern solid@state meters have digital readouts+ but the principles of operation can be better appreciated by examining the older moving coil meters based on galvanometer sensors.

( mme te r .n ammeter is an instrument for measuring the electric current in amperes in a branch of an electric circuit. #t must be placed in series with the measured branch+ and must have very low resistance to avoid significant alteration of the current it is to measure. -y contrast+ a voltmeter must be connected in parallel. The analogy with an in@ line flow meter in a water circuit can help visuali=e why an ammeter must have a low resistance+ and why connecting an ammeter in parallel can damage the meter. Modern solid@state meters have digital readouts+ but the principles of operation can be better appreciated by examining the older moving coil meters based on galvanometer sensors.

Measurements and Instrumentation

0 mme mmeter The standard way to measure resistance in ohms is to supply a constant voltage to the resistance and measure the current through it. That current is of course inversely proportional to the resistance according to (hmTs law+ so that you have a non@ linear scale. The current registered by the current sensing element is proportional to 1K$+ so that a large current implies a small resistance. Modern solid@state meters have digital readouts+ but the principles of operation can be better appreciated by examining the older moving coil meters based on galvanometer sensors. Vol Voltmeter:(mmeter Measurements

The value of electrical resistance associated with a circuit element or measuring the voltage across it and the current through it and then dividing the measured voltage by the current can determine appliance. This method works even for non@ohmic resistances where the resistance might depend upon the current. D'Arsonval Galvanometer The two 5rench inventors of this form of galvanometer in the early 1EE2s came from quite different backgrounds. Uacques "T.rsonval (1E31@1742) was a director of a laboratory of biological physics and a professor of experimental medicine+ and one of the founders of diathermy treatments. Marcel "epre= (1E4?@171E) was an engineer and an early promoter of high@voltage electrical power transmission. #n the "T.rsonval@"epre= design the coil has many turns of fine wire+ and is suspended by flat ribbon of wire which serves as one lead@in wire. The connection to the lower end of the coil is provided by a light+ helical spring that provides the restoring torque. The electro@magnetic torque is greatest when the magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the plane of the coilV this condition is met for a wide range of coil positions by placing the cylindrical core of soft iron in the middle of the magnetic gap+ and giving the magnet pole faces a concave contour. )ince the electro@magnetic torque is proportional to the current in the coil and the restoring

Measurements and Instrumentation

toque is proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension fiber+ at equilibrium the current through the coil is linearly proportional to its

Measurements and Instrumentation

angular deflection. This means that the galvanometer scales can always be linear+ a great boon to the user.

Mo"ing Iron meters AC voltmeters and ammeters .& electromechanical meter movements come in two basic arrangements* those based on "& movement designs+ and those engineered specifically for .& use. 8ermanent@magnet moving coil (8MM&) meter movements will not work correctly if directly connected to alternating current+ because the direction of needle movement will change with each half@cycle of the .&. (5igure below) 8ermanent@ magnet meter movements+ like permanent@magnet motors+ are devices whose motion depends on the polarity of the applied voltage (or+ you can think of it in terms of the direction of the current).

Fig:Passing AC through this D'Arsonval meter useless flutter of the needle

movement causes

Measurements and Instrumentation

#n order to use a "&@style meter movement such as the "T.rsonval design+ the alternating current must be rectified into "&. This is most easily accomplished through

Measurements and Instrumentation

the use of devices called diodes. 9e saw diodes used in an example circuit demonstrating the creation of harmonic frequencies from a distorted (or rectified) sine wave. 9ithout going into elaborate detail over how and why diodes work as they do+ Must remember that they each act like a one@way valve for electrons to flow* acting as a conductor for one polarity and an insulator for another. (ddly enough+ the arrowhead in each diode symbol points against the permitted direction of electron flow rather than with it as one might expect. .rranged in a bridge+ four diodes will serve to steer .& through the meter movement in a constant direction throughout all portions of the .& cycle* (5igure below)

#ig:3assing (C t roug t is 1ectified (C meter mo"ement 7ill dri"e it in one direction& .nother strategy for a practical .& meter movement is to redesign the movement without the inherent polarity sensitivity of the "& types. This means avoiding the use of permanent magnets. 8robably the simplest design is to use a no

Measurements and Instrumentation

magneti=ed iron vane to move the needle against spring tension+ the vane being attracted toward a stationary coil of wire energi=ed by the .& quantity to be measured as in 5igure below.

Measurements and Instrumentation

#ig:Iron-"ane electromec anical meter mo"ement

%lectrostatic attraction between two metal plates separated by an air gap is an alternative mechanism for generating a needle@moving force proportional to applied voltage. This works Must as well for .& as it does for "&+ or should # say+ Must as poorlyW The forces involved are very small+ much smaller than the magnetic attraction between an energi=ed coil and an iron vane+ and as such these AelectrostaticB meter movements tend to be fragile and easily disturbed by physical movement. -ut+ for some high@voltage .& applications+ the electrostatic movement is an elegant technology. #f nothing else+ this technology possesses the advantage of extremely high input impedance+ meaning that no current need be drawn from the circuit under test. .lso+ electrostatic meter movements are capable of measuring very high voltages without need for range resistors or other+ external apparatus. 9hen a sensitive meter movement needs to be re@ranged to function as an .& voltmeter+ series@connected AmultiplierB resistors andKor resistive voltage dividers may be employed Must as in "& meter design* (5igure below)

Measurements and Instrumentation

Fig:Multiplier resistor (a) or resistive divider (b) scales the range of the basic meter movement

&apacitors may be used instead of resistors+ though+ to make voltmeter divider circuits. This strategy has the advantage of being non@dissipative (no true power consumed and no heat produced)* (5igure below)

5ig* .& voltmeter with capacitive divider #f the meter movement is electrostatic+ and thus inherently capacitive in nature+ a single AmultiplierB capacitor may be connected in series to give it a greater voltage measuring range+ Must as a series@connected multiplier resistor gives a moving@ coil (inherently resistive) meter movement a greater voltage range* (5igure below)

Measurements and Instrumentation

Fig:An electrostatic meter movement ma use a capacitive multiplier to multipl the scale of the basic meter movement!! The &athode $ay Tube (&$T) mentioned in the "& metering chapter is ideally suited for measuring .& voltages+ especially if the electron beam is swept side@to@side across the screen of the tube while the measured .& voltage drives the beam up and down. . graphical representation of the .& wave shape and not Must a measurement of magnitude can easily be had with such a device. 'owever+ &$TTs have the disadvantages of weight+ si=e+ significant power consumption+ and fragility (being made of evacuated glass) working against them. 5or these reasons+ electromechanical .& meter movements still have a place in practical usage. 9ith some of the advantages and disadvantages of these meter movement technologies having been discussed already+ there is another factor crucially important for the designer and user of .& metering instruments to be aware of. This is the issue of $M) measurement. .s we already know+ .& measurements are often cast in a scale of "& power equivalence+ called R S (1oot@Mean@Square) for the sake of meaningful comparisons with "& and with other .& waveforms of varying shape. ,one of the meter movement technologies so far discussed inherently measure the $M) value of an .& quantity. Meter movements relying on the motion of a mechanical needle (ArectifiedB "T.rsonval+ iron@vane+ and electrostatic) all tend to mechanically average the instantaneous values into an overall average value for the waveform. This average value is not necessarily the same as $M)+ although many times it is mistaken as such. .verage and $M) values rate against each other as such for these three common waveform

Measurements and Instrumentation

shapes* (5igure below)

Measurements and Instrumentation

R S! Average! and Pea"#to#Pea" va$%es for sine! sq%are! and triang$e &aves' )ince $M) seems to be the kind of measurement most people are interested in obtaining with an instrument+ and electromechanical meter movements naturally deliver average measurements rather than $M)+ what are .& meter designers to doX &heat+ of courseW Typically the assumption is made that the waveform shape to be measured is going to be sine (by far the most common+ especially for power systems)+ and then the meter movement scale is altered by the appropriate multiplication factor. 5or sine waves we see that $M) is equal to 2.D2D times the peak value while .verage is 2.R?D times the peak+ so we can divide one figure by the other to obtain an average@to@$M) conversion factor of 1.127*

#n other words+ the meter movement will be calibrated to indicate approximately 1.11 times higher than it would ordinarily (naturally) indicate with no special

Measurements and Instrumentation

accommodations. #t must be stressed that this AcheatB only works well when the meter is used to measure pure sine wave sources. ,ote that for triangle waves+ the ratio between $M) and .verage is not the same as for sine waves*

9ith square waves+ the $M) and .verage values are identicalW .n .& meter calibrated to accurately read $M) voltage or current on a pure sine wave will not give the proper value while indicating the magnitude of anything other than a perfect sine wave. This includes triangle waves+ square waves+ or any kind of distorted sine wave. 9ith harmonics becoming an ever@present phenomenon in large .& power systems+ this matter of accurate $M) measurement is no small matter. The astute reader will note that # have omitted the &$T AmovementB from the $M)K.verage discussion. This is because a &$T with its practically weightless electron beam AmovementB displays the 8eak (or 8eak@to@8eak if you wish) of an .& waveform rather than .verage or $M). )till+ a similar problem arises* how do you determine the $M) value of a waveform from itX &onversion factors between 8eak and $M) only hold so long as the waveform falls neatly into a known category of shape (sine+ triangle+ and square are the only examples with 8eakK$M)K.verage conversion factors given hereW). (ne answer is to design the meter movement around the very definition of $M)* the effective heating value of an .& voltageKcurrent as it powers a resistive load. )uppose that the .& source to be measured is connected across a resistor of known value+ and the heat output of that resistor is measured with a device like a thermocouple. This would provide a far more direct measurement means of $M) than any conversion factor could+ for it will work with .,0 waveform shape whatsoever* (5igure below)

Measurements and Instrumentation

Direct reading t(er)a$ R S vo$t)eter acco))odates an* &ave s(ape' 9hile the device shown above is somewhat crude and would suffer from unique engineering problems of its own+ the concept illustrated is very sound. The resistor converts the .& voltage or current quantity into a thermal (heat) quantity+ effectively squaring the values in real@time. The systemTs mass works to average these values by the principle of thermal inertia+ and then the meter scale itself is calibrated to give an indication based on the square@root of the thermal measurement* perfect $oot@Mean@ )quare indication all in one deviceW #n fact+ one maMor instrument manufacturer has implemented this technique into its high@end line of handheld electronic multimeters for Atrue@$M)B capability.

Measurements and Instrumentation

! Name t e different essential torques in indicating instruments& "eflecting torque &ontrolling torque "amping torque ! Name t e t!$es of instruments used for ma;ing "oltmeter and ammeter. 8MM& type Moving iron type "ynamometer type 'ot wire type %lectrostatic type #nduction type. ! State t e ad"antages of 3MMC instruments /niform scale. ,o hysteresis loss :ery accurate 'igh efficiency.

! State t e disad"antages of 3MMC instruments &annot be used for ac mKs )ome errors are caused by temperature variations. ! State t e a$$lications of 3MMC instruments mKs of dc voltage and current used in dc galvanometer. ! <o7 t e range of instrument can )e e*tended in 3MMC instruments& #n ammeter by connecting a shunt resister #n voltmeter by connecting a series resister. ! State t e ad"antages of 2!namometer t!$e instruments &an be used for both dc and ac mKs. 5ree from hysterisis and eddy current errors. ! State t e ad"antages of Mo"ing iron t!$e instruments 1ess expensive &an be used for both dc and ac $easonably accurate. ! State t e ad"antages of <ot 7ire t!$e instruments &an be used for both dc and ac /naffected by stray magnetic fields $eadings are independent of frequency and waveform.