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157
OPTIMIZED FUZZY MODELLING OF A BOILER

SUPERHEATER
S. Samyuktha and P. Kanagasabapathy
Department of Instrumentation Engg, M.I.T, Anna University, Chennai 600059
ABSTRACT
Modelling of systems is very much useful to study the response of a system for different
input variations and for the design of control schemes in both real time application and
in the off-line simulation. The development of optimized fuzzy model for a boiler
superheater of a 210 MW coal fired thermal boiler power plant is reported in this paper.
The fuzzy model has been developed first taking into the input output data sequences
of the transfer function model. The complexity of the fuzzy model is removed by means
of various optimization techniques. The resulting optimized model is complete, compact,
and consistent (C
3
).
Simulation study has been carried out on the fuzzy model both prior and after optimization
to get the response of the superheater for various inputs. These results are validated
with the results of the transfer function model and are found to be analogous.
1. INTRODUCTION
Modelling of systems is a very essential concept to develop an effective control system
and for simulation of a physical process. Fuzzy logic is a distinct idea for developing models
of physical processes. Fuzzy models are less externally complex; they can be understood
easily and very much suitable for non-linear processes. Models with fewer rules are more
advantageous. The process chosen in this work is boiler superheater, which is a vital component
of a power plant. The model is developed using MATLAB 5.3.
As the complexity of the target system increases, our ability to make precise and yet
significant statements about its behaviour diminishes until a threshold is reached beyond which
precision and significance (or relevance) become almost mutually exclusive characteristics.
In such a case, the underlying mechanics are better represented linguistically rather than
mathematically. Thus fuzzy models have gained significance. A fuzzy model is easy to execute
and understand. Fuzzy models have important implications for the corporate bottom-line
reduced MTBF (Mean Time Between Failure), improved MTTR (Mean Time To Repair), the
easier and more stable extensibility of existing system and improved understandability.
J. Instrum. Soc. India 32 (3) 157-164
158
1.1 Need for optimization
The fuzzy model of high dimensional system is a complex one. The number of rules
depends on the number of the inputs and outputs and also on the number of fuzzy data sets
on each input and output. As the rules increase the interpretability of the model becomes
exclusive and time of execution increases. To overcome these drawbacks the model should
be optimized. The number of rules can be optimized without affecting the standard of the
model.
2. BOILER SUPERHEATER
The boiler superheater is a secondary heat exchanger that accepts saturated steam from
boiler drum and adds sensible heat to steam. The desired outlet steam temperature from a
superheater is 540
o
C in a 210 MW power plant. Fig 1 shows the block diagram of boiler
superheater
SUPERHEATER
SYSTEM
Attemperater Spray
Flow Rate, Wa
Drum Pressure, Pd
Steam Enthalpy, Hd
Heat supplied by
flue gas, Qgs
Steam Flow Rate,
Wd
Outlet Steam
Temperature, Ts
STATE VARIABLES
Hs Steam enthalpy
Tm Metal tube
temperature
INPUT VARIABLES
OUTPUT
VARIABLE
3. FUZZY MODELLING OF SUPERHEATER
The first stage of fuzzy modelling is the selection of performance variables. Here the
input and output variables of the superheating process are selected. The input variables are
Ha Attemperator spray water enthalpy (x1)
Pd Drum Pressure (x2)
Wa Attemperator spray flow rate (x3)
Wd Steam flow rate (x4)
Qgs Heat supplied by flue gas (x5)
The output variable is
Ts Output steam temperature (y)
The second stage of fuzzy modelling is the determination of variables surface i.e., fuzzy
sets (fuzzification). The fuzzy sets or the linguistic variables for the inputs and outputs given
Fig.1. Block diagram of boiler superheater
159
above are designed. The variable x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 and y are the universe of discourse.
Each universe of discourse contain the same number of fuzzy sets r, which is chosen as 5.
The linguistic variables (hedges) for the above input-output variables are
HAVL, HAL, HAN, HAH, HAVH F(x1)
PDVL, PDL, PDN, PDH, PDVH F(x2)
WAVL, WAL, WAN, WAH, WAVH F(x3)
WDVL, WDL, WDN, WDH, WDVH F(x4)
QGSVL, QGSL, QGSN, QGSH, QGSVH F(x5) and
TSVL, TSL, TSN, TSH, TSVH F(y)
where,
F(y) stands for the set of all fuzzy sets on y (Output steam temperature) and so on.
The fuzzy sets have their linguistic meanings. For instance the linguistic meaning (variable)
for input x1 (Attemperator spray water enthalpy) is mentioned as follows. It contains 5 linguistic
hedges, which are defined as,
HAVL Attemperator spray water enthalpy Very Low
HAL Attemperator spray water enthalpy Low
HAN Attemperator spray water enthalpy Normal
HAH Attemperator spray water enthalpy High
HAVH Attemperator spray water enthalpy Very High
Similarly fuzzy sets are defined for all other inputs and output variables. The fuzzification
of drum pressure Pd can be represented in the triangular form as shown in Fig. 2. The next
stage of fuzzy modelling is to form the fuzzy relationship between the inputs and output i.e.,
rules. The rules are formed from the available inputs-output data sequences of the superheater
process, based on if-then statement. Samples of the fuzzy rule tables are shown in Table 1.
A Total of 125 fuzzy rule tables are developed in the same way. From the Table 1 the fuzzy
rule can be explained as
[If x1 is HAVL and x2 is PDVL and x3 is WAVL and x4 is WDVL and x5 is QGSVL then
y is TSVH]
PDVL PDL PDN PDH PDVH
50 100 150 200 250
Pd ( Bars )
Fig.2. Fuzzification of drum pressure
Optimized Fuzzy Modelling of a Boiler Superheater
160
We have to develop a total of 5
5
(=3125) rules for a 5 input one output system with 5
linguistic fuzzy subsets. Here, all the values of linguistic variables are fuzzy numbers i.e.,
[0,1], not the exact process value. The exact numerical crisp value of the output steam
temperature for the given inputs is calculated using the defuzzification techniques, which is
the last stage of fuzzy modelling. There are several methods of defuzzification available. The
exact value of output steam temperature is calculated from the centre of gravity defuzzification
technique, which is mostly used in the fuzzy logic system.
WDVL WDL WDN WDH WDVH
QGSVL TSVH TSH TSN TSL TSVL
QGSL TSVH TSVH TSH TSN TSL
QGSN TSVH TSVH TSVH TSH TSN
QGSH TSVH TSVH TSVH TSVH TSH
QGSVH TSVH TSVH TSVH TSVH TSVH
Table 1 Fuzzy rule base for output steam
temperature Ts. Wd Vs Qgs (WAVL, PDVL, HAVL are fixed)
4. OPTIMIZATION OF FUZZY MODEL
4.1 Rule Generation on Extrema
As is shown in [4], optimal fuzzy rules cover extrema. This is a very interesting
conclusion that enables us to reduce the number of fuzzy rules greatly when we generate
fuzzy rules from data. Suppose the total given data sets is M. If we divide the whole data
sets into N patches, the number of data sets in each patch will be P = M/N, assuming that P
is an integer. Normally, when the output varies rapidly the patch size should be smaller; on
the other hand, the patch size can be a little larger if the output surface is smooth. For each
patch of the data, we find the two data sets that have the minimal and maximal outputs
respectively. Suppose for patch j, the two data sets are
R
j1
: If x
1
is A
j1
max
(x
1
),x
n
is A
jn
max
(x
n
), Then y is y
j
max
;
R
j2
: If x
1
is A
j1
min
(x
1
),x
n
is A
jn
min
(x
n
), Then y is y
j
min
;
In this way, 2P fuzzy rules will be generated in total, which will be much smaller than
N. In our process the number of rules M = 3125. The value of N is chosen according to
the variation in rule amplitude, and is set as 12. Thus 3125 rules are divided into patches
with 12 rules which makes 260 patches on the whole approximately. Fig 2 explains this
pictorially. The rule with maximum amplitude and the rule with minimum amplitude are chosen
from each patch. This leads to 2 X

260 rules = 520 rules.
Wd
Qgs
161

3125 rules
12 rules
260 patches
Amplitude of rules
R
j1

R
j2

Fig.3. Explanation of rule generation on extrema
4.2. Completeness of the Fuzzy Systems
A fuzzy system is said to be complete if
1. Fuzzy partitioning of each input variable is complete;
2. Rule structure of the fuzzy system is complete.
If one of the above conditions is violated, the fuzzy rule system is incomplete, which
implies that the fuzzy system will provide no output in some cases. In order to avoid overfitting
of the membership functions, certain measures must be taken in the process of parameter
optimization or rule generation. One practical measure is to limit an adjustable range of the
parameters so that the completeness of the fuzzy partitioning will be kept and the distinction
of different fuzzy sets will be preserved. A new possibility to deal with these problems with
the help of fuzzy similarity measures is suggested.
A fuzzy similarity measure indicates the degree to which two fuzzy sets are equal. It
has been used in structure learning of fuzzy systems [5]. The fuzzy similarity measure is
used to add new membership functions for the output variable so that proper fuzzy partitioning
of the output space can be obtained.
For any two fuzzy sets A and B, the fuzzy similarity measure is defined by:
S (A, B) = M (A B) / M (A L B)
where M (A) is called the size of fuzzy set A and can be calculated as follows:
+a
M(A) =
-a
|A(x) dx
It is noticed that S (A, B) = 1, if and only if A=B and S (A, B)=0, if and only if A and
B do not overlap. In other cases, S(A,B) varies from 0 to 1. Therefore, if the fuzzy similarity
measure of any two neighboring fuzzy sets is controlled properly, the incompleteness of the
fuzzy partitioning can be avoided and the distinction of the fuzzy sets can be preserved.
162
4.3 CONSISTENCY OF THE FUZZY SYSTEMS
Fuzzy rules are regarded as inconsistent, if
They have very similar premise parts, but possess rather different consequent, and
They conflict with the expert knowledge or heuristics
The discussion of consistency is sensible only if the premise parts of the rules are very
similar, if not necessarily the same. That is to say, two fuzzy rules may contradict with each
other even if they do not have the same premise; on the other hand, it is hard to say that two
rules are inconsistent if their premise parts have little similarity.
The definition of the similarity of rule premise (SRP) and the similarity of rule
consequent (SRC) again with the help of fuzzy similarity measure. Consider two rules in the
rule base:
R
i
: If x
1
is A
i1
(x
1
) and x
2
is A
i2
(x
2
) and .. and x
n
is A
in
(x
n
), then y is B
I
(y)
R
k
: If x
1
is A
k1
(x
1
) and x
2
is A
k2
(x
2
) and .... and x
n
is A
kn
(x
n
), then y is B
I
(y)
Then SRP and SRC of these two rules are defined as follows:
SRP(i,k) =
j=1
min
n
S(A
ij
, A
kj
)
SRC(i,k) =

S(B
i
, B
k
)
where n is the total number of the input variables and S (A,B) is the fuzzy similarity
measure of fuzzy sets A and B as defined in [4]. Then the consistency of rule
R (i) and R (k) is defined by :
The value of consistency range from 0-1, the threshold value of 0.55 is chosen and the
rules that have consistency below the threshold value are rejected.
In this method the number of rules are further reduced to 178.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The validity of the fuzzy model and optimized fuzzy model are verified by giving the
same set of inputs to the fuzzy model, optimized model and the transfer function model. The
outputs from all the three models are tabulated in Table 2 and are plotted in Fig 4.
It is evident that the outputs of both transfer function and Fuzzy models (with 3125 rules)
for the same inputs are matching satisfactorily with negligible deviations with the sum of
squares of error 0.9093, thus proving the validity of the fuzzy model. The outputs of the
optimized fuzzy model (with 178 rules) are also matching with the transfer function model.
The deviation from the transfer function model is lesser than the Standard fuzzy model with
3125 rules and the sum of square of errors is found to be 0.5597, which proves that the
techniques used for the optimization are effective. The execution time for Transfer function
model is 0.33 sec, fuzzy model is 0.1 sec and that of optimized fuzzy model is 0.06 sec with
163
the use of MATLAB SIMULINK Library and Fuzzy logic toolbox version 5.3. Hence it is
observed that optimized fuzzy model needs the least execution time to give the output when
compared to transfer function model and conventional fuzzy model.
Fig.4. Transfer function, Fuzzy model and Optimized Fuzzy model responses of
superheater with variation in Heat supplied by flue gas Qgs
Sl. Qgs in T F o/p in Fuzzy o/p Optimized Fuzzy Optimized Error
2
Error
2
No. KJ/s Deg C in Deg C Fuzzy o/p Error Fuzzy
in Deg C Error
1 71100 533.2 534.6 534 -1.4 -0.8 1.96 0.64
2 71300 535.1 537.1 536.2 -2 -1.1 4 1.21
3 71500 537.1 537.9 537.3 -0.8 -0.2 0.64 0.04
4 71700 539 539.2 539.1 -0.2 -0.1 0.04 0.01
5. 71900 540.9 540.9 540.9 0 0 0 0
6. 72100 542.8 543 542.5 -0.2 0.3 0.04 0.09
7. 72300 544.8 545.1 545 -0.3 -0.2 0.09 0.04
8. 72500 546.7 546.8 546.8 -0.1 -0.1 0.01 0.01
9. 72700 548.6 548.1 548.4 0.5 0.2 0.25 0.04
10. 72900 550.5 548.9 549.9 1.6 0.6 2.56 0.36
11. 73100 552.5 551.4 551.9 1.1 0.6 1.21 0.36
Table 2 Validation of fuzzy model with transfer function model
Change in Heat supplied by flue gas Qgs
164
6. CONCLUSION
In this paper the optimized fuzzy model of a boiler superheater is explained. Using the
Transfer function model of the boiler superheater and input output data sequence the fuzzy
model was developed with the linguistic approach. Then the fuzzy model is optimized using
three different techniques so as to reduce 3125 rules to 178 rules. The results of optimized
model are compared with that of original fuzzy model as well as transfer function model.
These optimization techniques can be well applied to reduce the complexity of the fuzzy models
of high dimensional physical processes as they are found to be very effective.
REFERENCES
1. Earl Cox, The Fuzzy System Handbook, AP professional, (1990).
2. A.W. Ordys, A.W. Pike, M.A. Johnson, R.M. Katebi and M.J. Grimble, Modeling and
Simulation of Power Generation Plants, Springer-Verlag London (1994).
3. T. Tagaki, M. Sugeno Fuzzy Identification of systems and its application to modelling and
Control, IEEE Trans on Sys, Man and Cybn, Vol. 15, No.1, Jan/Feb, pp. 116-133 (1985).
4. Yaochu Jin, Fuzzy modelling of high dimensional systems : Complexity reduction and
Interpretability improvement, IEEE Trans on Fuzzy sys, Vol. 8, No. 2, April, pp. 212-220 (2000).
5. Yaochu Jin, Werner von Seelen and Bernhard Sendhoff On Generating FC
3
Fuzzy Rule
Systems from Data Using Evolution Strategies. IEEE Trans on Sys, Man and Cybn -B, Vol.29,
no.6, Dec, pp. 829-845 (1999).
165
FABRICATION OF CONDUCTIVITY CELL AND
AUTOMATION FOR THE MEASUREMENTS OF
PERMITTIVITY AND AC CONDUCTIVITY
E.M. Mohammed
*
and M.R. Anantharaman
$
$
Department of Physics, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin 682022
*
Present address : Department of Physics, Maharajas College, Cochin 682011.
ABSTRACT
Dielectric and conductivity studies are important in understanding the electrical
characteristics of materials. The design of a conductivity cell plays an important role for
carrying out these studies. The low resistance measurements cannot be free from errors
if four-probe methods are not used. The noise level of the instrument will limit the usable
frequency range. For high frequency measurements proper modifications are to be
incorporated in the design of the conductivity cell to reduce the noise level. The number
of observations is also important to minimize the error.
Fast data acquisition will reduce the error due to fluctuations in the voltage and current
sources used in the measurement. Before taking the readings, proper delay time is to be
introduced for equilibrium. All these factors are taken into consideration in the design
of this cell. The measurement is made easier by developing a Gprogram with the aid of
LabVIEW package which can control all the parameters and facilitate acquisition of a
large number of readings without consuming much time. The dielectric permittivity and
ac conductivity can be calculated simultaneously for different frequencies from the
capacitance and dielectric loss measurements using the interfaced LCR meter (HP 4285A).
The cell is designed to conduct the measurement at different temperatures and pressures
and in different atmospheres.
1. INTRODUCTION
The electrical properties are very important in material characterisation. The drawback
of the ac- measurement devices is the difficulty to increase the signal to noise ratio level. So
care should be taken to minimize the noise level in any electrical measuring device.
The automation of the dielectric and ac conductivity measurements are done by interfacing
a LCR meter and a personal computer via a GPIB card with the aid of a LabVIEW package.
Author for correspondence : Dr. M.R. Anantharaman, Dept. of Physics, Cochin University of
Science and Technology, Cochin 682 022, e-mail : mra@cusat.ac.in or mraiyer@yahoo.com
166
The low resistance measurement requires a four-probe method to minimize the possible
errors. The noise level of the instrument limits the frequency ranges. For high frequency
operations, the design has to be modified to reduce the noise level. In order to improve the
accuracy of measurements a large number of observations are necessary, which is very difficult
with manual measurements. This is often time consuming and labour intensive and the
measurements are prone to errors. By averaging and filtering these data, the signal to noise
ratio can be greatly improved [1-5].
Fast data acquisition reduces the error due to variations in the voltage/current with time.
Proper delay time has to be introduced between the readings for stability of measurements.
The measurements are made easier by developing an application program. This program controls
the requisite parameters and also facilitates in recording a large number of readings.
The conductivity cell is designed by making suitable modifications to incorporate all the
features for carrying out the experiment under different atmospheres and pressures and also
at different temperatures starting from 80
0
K to 600
0
K. The graphical program is run to acquire
and process the measured data from the LCR meter.
Emphasis was laid in automating the measurements of capacitance, dielectric permittivity,
ac conductivity and loss simultaneously of a sample loaded into the dielectric cell. The
instrument from where data is acquired is an LCR meter (HP 4285A) and is run virtually via
a personal computer without operating any knobs on the instrument. The ensuing sections
give a brief idea about the data acquisition system (DAS) and virtual instrumentation (VI).
These subsystems are necessary for the full-fledged automation of the system for the
measurements of dielectric permittivity and conductivity and are discussed [6-14].
The frequency dependence can be studied at different temperatures and pressures by
designing a sample holder and conductivity cell. This article deals with the design of a
multipurpose conductivity cell and the development of a package based on virtual
instrumentation (VI) for the automation of data acquisition. The VI for automatic evaluation
of permittivity and ac conductivity simultaneously from dielectric measurements by employing
the conductivity cell and an LCR meter (HP 4285 A) is also dealt with in this communication.
2. LAB VIEW
Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Work Bench (LabVIEW) is a powerful tool
for instrumentation and analysis. This is a programming language for personal computers running
in any operating systems. LabVIEW departs from the sequential nature of traditional
programming languages and features a graphical programming. The details are cited
elsewhere(9). LabVIEW integrates data acquisition analysis and presentation in one system.
For acquiring data and controlling instruments, LabVIEW supports RS-232/422, IEEE488
(GPIB) and VXI including virtual instruments software architecture (VISA) functions as well
as plug in data acquisition (DAQ) boards. Instrument control applications are simplified by
the built in driver software in the package. There are more than 800 built-in device/instrument
drivers in the library of the LabVIEW package. Analysis library contains functions for signal
generation, processing and tools for signal filtering. It also possess windows, statistics,
regression, linear algebra and any arithmetic or logical calculation facilities. It can generate
charts, graphs and customized user defined graphics.
E.M. Mohammed and M.R. Anantharaman
167
3. DESIGN AND FABRICATION
The cell (Fig.1) consists of a mild steel (MS) cylinder whose ends are permanently fixed
with MS flanges. These flanges were provided with O-ring grooves for vacuum sealing. This
chamber is sealed by top and bottom covers using neoprene O-rings. The top cover carries
insulated terminals for various measurements. Four window ports are provided to the chamber
for the following uses. 1
st
one for coupling with the rotary pump for evacuating the chamber,
2
nd
and 3
rd
are to perform optical studies and 4
th
one is to connect the pressure gauge.
Fig.1. Schematic Diagram of Conductivity Cell
1. BNC 2. Neoprine O Ring 3. MS Chamber
4. SS Pipe 5. Sample Holder 6. Liq. Nitrogen Cavity
7. Optical Window 8. Copper Electrodes 9. Sample
10. Fixing Screws 11. MS Flange 12. To Vaccum pump
13. Thermo couple 14. Spring
4. SAMPLE HOLDER ASSEMBLY
The sample holder consists of a copper cylinder. A hole of 12.5 mm diameter is bored
through the copper cylinder with a step at its center to act as a lock for the sample pellet. A
vertical hole is made at its centre to insert the thermocouple to measure the sample temperature.
A Teflon cylindrical shell is used to insulate the sample and this is fixed inside the centre of
the cylindrical cavity. The sample pellets of thickness 1mm to 6 mm can be placed inside the
Teflon cavity. Two copper cylinders with spring-loaded electrodes are inserted from either
side to make the electrical contacts with the specimen. The position of the cylinders can be
Fabrication of Conductivity Cell and Automation
168
Fig.2. Schematic Diagram of Sample Holder
1. Electrode Pair 2. Loading Spring 3. Soldron Heater
4. Sample Cavity 5. Electrode Positioning Screws 6. Thermocouple
7. Sample Lock 8. Teflon Cavity
fixed according to the thickness of the samples used. The details are shown in fig. 2. Another
hole is bored to insert the soldron heater coil to heat the specimen to the required temperature.
A Digital temperature controller is used to keep the specimen temperature a constant.
The top of the copper cylinder is silver brazed first to a thin walled stainless steel (SS)
tube of 46 mm diameter and it is connected to a 50 mm diameter pipe to an mild steel (MS)
flange forming the cold finger of the cell. This cold finger is inserted through the top plate
and is fixed on to this plate using O ring and allen screws. The length of the S.S. tube is
adjusted such that the geometrical centre of the copper electrodes are in a line with the axis
of the windows. The electrical connections of the thermocouple and heater are made through
Teflon insulations fixed in the top plate of the chamber. The BNC connectors are provided
for electrical connections to the specimen.
The unique feature of the cell is that this can be used for temperature variation studies
from 80 K to 500 K without disturbing vacuum. Another advantage of this design is that this
cell can be used for measuring the electrical conductivity, dielectric constant and thermally
stimulated polarization and depolarization depending on the nature of the material used.
5. INSTRUMENT AUTOMATION
The electrical measurements using this cell was automated using a graphical program
based on LabVIEW. The following features are added to it to make the measurement and
analysis more user friendly. The instrument controls are replaced by the controls designed in
the front panel of the LabVIEW as shown in fig. 3. Additional input parameters required for
the data analysis are also shown as control terminals in the front panel. After loading the sample
the temperature of the sample is set to the required value and the cell is evacuated to attain
the required pressure. The LCR meter is interfaced with the computer using a GPIB card.
The block diagram shown in fig. 4. of the LabVIEW program controls the data flow
and takes the required readings and calculates the values of the output variables as per the
design and also plots the curves after the completion of the measurements. Proper delay can
be introduced to stabilize the system before reading the data. Visual and audible indicators
169
Fig.4. Block Diagram of Permittivity Measurements
Fabrication of Conductivity Cell and Automation
Fig.3. Front Panel of Permittivity Measurement
170
can be used to show the status of the measurement. Any error in the data flow can be sensed
and a control can be used to stop the measurement at any time. The loop structure shown
in the block diagram helps to take continuous reading of the data for a long time. The delay
time and the step value can be used to limit the number of readings in between the limiting
values selected in program. All the input and output parameters can be stored into a
spreadsheet file.
Here the program is specifically designed for calculating the dielectric permittivity and ac
conductivity of the sample from the measurement of the capacitance and loss factor using
the HP 4285A LCR meter. The formula for dielectric permittivity and ac conductivity is directly
entered in the formula node as shown in fig.(3). The dielectric permittivity is calculated using
the relation
where C is the measured capacitance, d and A are the thickness and area of the specimen
respectively and r
O
is the permitivity of free space. The ac conductivity is calculated using
the relation
o
ac
= 2fr
O
r
r
tan 6, where f is the frequency and tan 6 is the dielectric loss.
the Lab VIEW takes the capacitance and loss factor readings from the LCR meter and
using other given input parameters, calculates the dielectric permittivity and ac
conductivity for each frequency. This can be repeated for different temperatures (80K to
500K). The frequency can be varied in steps up to the stop frequency and the entire
data is stored in a spreadsheet file. Also it plots the curve as per the selected variables in
x and y-axis.
6. CONCLUSION
The measurements can be repeated with the modified parameters and the results can be
compared with the old values stored in the system. More than 20 000 data points can be
acquired in about 5 minutes time.
The automatic data acquisition with the help of the package based on virtual instrumentation
and the cell fabricated enables the simultaneous evaluation of the permittivity and ac conductivity
of samples over a wide frequency range. The temperature variation studies can also be
automated by suitably developing a driver for the temperature controller. Further scope also
exist to automate the permeability measurements of the magnetic samples by employing LCR
meter. However this requires a different set up.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
EMM thanks the University Grants Commission for the fellowship received (FIP).
MRA thanks All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) for financial assistance
received in the form of a project under TAPTEC, (F.No. 8017 /RDII/ MAT/ 30/98
dated 06-03-1998).
Cd
r
r
=
r
O
A
171 Fabrication of Conductivity Cell and Automation
REFERENCES
1. Tareev B, Physics of Dielectric Materials, (Mir Publishers), Moscow, (1979).
2. A. Goswami, Thin Film Fundamentals, New Age International Publishers Ltd. New Delhi, (1996).
3. Ramasastry C and Syamasundara RaoY, J.Phys. E:Sci.Instrum.12 (1979), 1023-1024.
4. D.V.S. Murty, Transducers and Instrumentation:, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, (1995).
5. J. Jha, M Puri, R Sukesh Kumar M. Kowar, Elements of Electronics Instrumentation, Narosa
Publishing House, New Delhi, (1996).
6. E.D. Tittel Steve James, ISDN Networking Essentials Boston San Diego, New York, (1996).
7. Fredrick. M.Cady, Micro controllers and Micro Computers, Oxford University Press, (1997).
8. D. Patranabis, Principles of Process Control, Tata Mc.Graw-Hill, New Delhi, (1993).
9. LabVIEW, National Instruments, Austin, Texas, (1998).
10. R.D. Gretz, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 38, (1967), 112.
11. F.E. Card and J.J. Galen, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 32 (1961), 858.
12. V. Kopane and V.E. Shubin, Instrum. Exp. Tech. 19, (1976), 1228.
13. Bajpai, A. Banerjee, Rev. Sci. Instrum.68 (11), Nov, (1997).
14. A.R.D. Rodrigues and D.P. Siddans, J. Phys. E. Sci. Instrum. Vol. 12, (1979), 403-408.
172
DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A HIGH SPEED
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Chaturi Singh and K. Poddar
National Wind Tunnel Facility, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur-208016, India
ABSTRACT
This paper describes the design and implementation of a PC-based 8-channel high-speed
automatic pressure measurement system. The system includes eight miniature electronic
pressure scanners (32 or 64 ports), a homebuilt digital interfacing and line driver (DILD)
unit, and a PC-based data acquisition (DAQ) system. The entire measurement chain is
automated using Laboratory Virtual Instruments Engineering Workbench (LabVIEW)
software. The pressure measurement system is capable of measuring pressure from 512
ports simultaneously at the rate of 20,000 Hz
1. INTRODUCTION
Pressure sensing is generally required for wind tunnel testing and aircraft flight testing.
A number of techniques are available for pressure measurement. At the National Wind Tunnel
Facility (NWTF), IIT Kanpur, pressure is measured by using 32 port miniature electronic
pressure scanners, which have a range of 20 inches of water column. These pressure scanners
are differential pressure measurement units consisting of an array of silicon piezoresistive
pressure sensors, one for each pressure port. The complete pressure measurement system
includes eight ESP
1
(embedded standard products) technology based electronic pressure
scanners, a homebuilt DILD unit and the PC-based DAQ system.
The PC-based DAQ system consists of a windows-based host computer installed with a
high-speed 16-bit DAQ board
2
(PCI 6032E) and the application software LabVIEW
3
. The
application software using DAQ board sends digital address to ESP pressure scanners to select
the sensors and acquires data through analog input lines. The DAQ board provides TTL-logic
levels whereas the pressure scanners require CMOS-logic levels for the sensor selection. The
DILD unit compensate for this logic level (TTL-CMOS) mismatching. Additional functions
of the DILD unit are to provide digital fan out to drive eight ESP pressure scanners and develop
long cable signal drive capability.
2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The implementation diagram of eight-channel high-speed pressure measurement
system is shown in Fig.1. As discussed before, this system consists of the following main
elements :
173
ESP Electronic Pressure Scanners
Digital Interfacing and Line Driver (DILD) Unit
PC-Based DAQ System
2.1 ESP Electronic Pressure Scanners
ESP electronic Pressure Scanners are differential pressure measurement units consisting
of an array of silicon peizoresistive pressure sensors (16, 32 or 64), one for each pressure
port. The outputs of the sensors can be electronically multiplexed at rates up to 20,000 Hz
using binary addressing and connected to a single onboard instrumentation amplifier (Fig.2).
The binary (digital) address (A
0
A
5
) specify which sensor output will present on the voltage
output line V
0
. The digital address lines are +12V (CMOS) logic and require to be connected
through open-collector buffers driven from digital output lines of 16-bit DAQ board installed
in PC. The multiplexed amplified analog output of the scanner is capable of driving long lengths
(30 feet) of able to the remote A/D converter of DAQ board (installed in PC). The ESP
Sanners require 12 VDC power supply for the operation of the built-in analog/digital devices
and a +5VDC power supply as the excitation voltage source for the sensors as shown in
Fig.2.
The accuracy of the ESP scanner is maintained within 0.05% of the full-scale (FS)
pressure range through periodic on-line calibration. The calibration process consists of
pneumatically switching the scanner calibration manifold into the calibrate position and applying
multiple calibration pressures and monitoring the electrical response of each sensor within the
scanner. The calibration data for each of the sensors may be reduced into offset, sensitivity,
and non-linearity coefficients that are used to calculate unknown pressures. The following
Fig.1. 8-Channel Pressure Measurement System
Electronic
Pressure
Scanners
Digital Interfacing
and
Line Driver Unit
PC-Based Data Acquisition System
1-8 Scanners
Software
(DAQ)
Board
Host Computer
and Application Software
(Lab VIEW)
Design and Implementation of a High Speed Pressure Measurement System
174
second-order polynomial resulting from calibration is used to calculate pressure during data
acquisition.
P
x
= C
0
C + C
1
(V
x
) + C
2
(V
x
)
2
where Px is the pressure measured, C0, C1, and C2 are calibration coefficients, and Vx
is the sensor output voltage at pressure Px.
2.2 Digital Interfacing and Line Driver (DILD) Unit
The DAQ board provides 5 volt (TTL) logic level signals through its digital input/output
(I/O) lines whereas the ESP pressure scanners require 12 volt (CMOS) logic level signals for
binary addressing. Thus, there is a logic (TTL-CMOS) level mismatch between the DAQ board
and ESP pressure scanners. The logic level shifters of the DILD unit compensates for this
logic level mismatch. This unit also provides digital fan out to drive eight pressure scanners,
and long cable (30 feet) drive capability. The regulated DC power supplies (12 V and +5 V)
required for the operation of the pressure scanners are also supplied by this unit.
The detailed circuit diagram of the DILD unit is shown in Fig. 3. This unit is connected
to DAQ board installed in PC through 50pin FRC connector. The digital address lines D
0
-D
5
from DAQ board (digital I/O port) are fed to a 3-state line driver (IC- 74HCT241N
4
) whose
outputs drive eight open collector buffers (7407
5
). The outputs of each buffer are connected
to the digital address lines (A
0
- A
5
) through voltage dividers to get CMOS logic levels. The
voltage divider consists of two resistors of 1.2 kW and 3.3 kW. The +12 volt DC supply is
connected at the upper end of 1.2 kW resistor and the lower end of 3.3 kW is connected to
supply ground. This configuration provides 8.8 volts DC voltage (CMOS high logic level) at
Fig.2. ESP Electronic Pressure Scanner Schematic Diagram
1
175
the junction of these two resistors (Fig. 3). The DILD unit also routes the analog pressure
voltage output signal lines from the scanners to the analog input channels (ACH
0
-ACH
5
) of
the DAQ board. All the required electrical inputs and outputs are brought out on a 15-pin D-
connector for each channel to connect the ESP pressure scanner.
Fig.3. Circuit Diagram of Digital Interfacing and Line Driver unit
2.3 PC-Based Data Acquisition System
The Virtual Instrument (VI) based data-acquisition and presentation techniques form the
heart of this pressure measurement system. The measurement system has been made automatic
by Virtual Instrument (VI) application software developed using Lab VIEW. Lab VIEW uses
graphical programming language G and links the host computer to the sensors of the scanners
through DAQ board and DILD unit. It sends port address to the scanners through the digital
I/O lines of the DAQ board.
Application software developed using Lab VIEW, as shown in Fig. 4, performs all the
required functions like multiple scanner test, scanners calibration, continuous data acquisition
and monitoring from multiple scanners, processing the data and storing in the required format.
176
The surface pressure distribution on a GAW-2 airfoil model and wake survey results using
this pressure measurement system are shown in Fig. 5.
Fig.4. Lab VIEW - based Pressure Measurement System
Fig.5. An application example of Pressure Measurement System
177
3. CONCLUSIONS
The automatic pressure measurement system developed at the National Wind Tunnel
Facility (NWTF), IIT Kanpur using eight ESP pressure scanners (having 64 ports each) and
home-built hardware and application software based on Lab VIEW is capable of scanning
pressure from 512 points. However, this application software is capable of supporting up to
16 pressure scanners without any change in the DAQ system. Thus, in principle up to 1024
points (16 scanners with 64 ports each) can be supported. This pressure measurement system
is currently being used for various applications at NWTF, IIT Kanpur.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the help provided by the NWTF, IIT Kanpur staff members. Second
Author would also like to acknowledge the financial support from AR & DB and DST.
REFERENCES
1. Pressure Systems, Inc., ESP-Miniature Pressure Scanners Users Manual.
2. National Instruments, USA, DAQ PCI-E Series Users Manua.
3. National Instruments, USA, Lab View User Manua.
4. Philips Semiconductors, 74HC/HCT241 Octal buffer/line driver; 3-State; Product specification
sheet, September 1993.
5. D.A.T.A. Book : Electronic Information Series, Digital ICs, Vol. 27, Book 16, June 1982.
178
A RUGGED AND INTELLIGENT RADIATION
MONITORING INSTRUMENT FOR
THE BATTLE TANKS
Ashok Kumar Yadav, Chiman Singh, Mishri Lal, Anuja Vyas,
V.K. Chouhan and Ajay Singh Rathore
Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur 342011.
ABSTRACT
A dual microcontroller based, intelligent radiation monitoring instrument named
RADMAC (Radiation Detection Measurement And Control unit) has been designed and
developed to address all the nuclear related challenges. This State-of-the-art instrument
can detect intense burst of gamma radiation in the environment and activates automatic
collective Nuclear, Biological and Chemical (NBC) protection system of the tanks. It
measures the gamma radiation dose rate and commutative dose due to gamma 8c neutrons
and displays the information on its bar- graph, seven segment and alphanumeric digital
display. The instrument can be connected to a computer for calibration and diagnostic
purposes. It also provides situation dependent helpful tips in the form of audio alarms
and text. The compact and rugged design of the instrument can withstand the harsh
environmental specification of tracked vehicles. The problems of severe temperature
dependence and dead time problems of semiconductor detectors and Geiger Mueller (GM)
have been effectively solved in this instrument.
1. INTRODUCTION
The tanks are considered as hardened targets from battlefield point of view. However in
a nuclear battlefield scenario, they are susceptible due to devastating effect of blast and radiation.
In order to provide some degree of protection to the crew and the tank, collective NBC
protection system is employed which consist of prompt gamma sensor, NBC filters, sealing
and over pressure system, activation mechanism and radiation measurement instruments. These
subsystems operate in a definite sequence to provide the desired protection. A rugged and
intelligent radiation monitoring instrument named RADMAC has been designed and developed
for detecting prompt Initial Nuclear Radiation (INR), measuring radiation levels and activating
the NBC control system of tanks in the desired sequence. The RADMAC provides some degree
of protection from blast by activating the NBC protection system that halts the tank and stops
all mechanical system before the arrival of blast wave. The protection from radiation and
radioactive contamination is provided by means of activation of collective protection system
and various radiation threshold alarms.
179
The block diagram of the system is shown in fig.1. It has two microcontrollers- one
dedicated for data acquisition and the other for controlling display and other devices. The
various sections of block are described below in brief.
Fig.1. Block diagram of RADMAC
3.1 Prompt INR Stage
It comprises of g sensitive silicon PIN (6-PIN) diode operating in photovoltaic mode.
The signal from the detector after passing through buffer 8c peak hold stage goes to a
comparator. The threshold of comparator is set at 4 R/s and is temperature compensated
according to temperature characteristics of the G-PIN detector as shown in fig. 2. The
comparator drives a relay generating a 24 V pulse for automatic activation of NBC system in
Nuclear Explosion (N. EXP) mode.
Fig.2. Temperature compensated INR stage in RADMAC
A Rugged and Intelligent Radiation Monitoring Instrument for the Battle Tanks
180
3.2 Neutron Detector Stage
This stage comprises of a neutron sensitive silicon PIN diode (N-PIN) operating in forward
bias. When a constant current of 100 mA passes through the N-PIN diode it generate a forward
voltage and the change in fonvard voltage is proportional to the neutron dose absorbed by the
N-PIN diode as per the following equation [1..3].
dv = 0.67 N
Where dV = change in forward voltage of diode in mV and N = neutron dose in Rads.
The forward voltage is read by the microcontroller through ADC and the neutron dose is
computed.
3.3 G.M. Tube Stage
The RADMAC employs 2 energy compensated GM tubes to measure the dose rate from
1 mR/h to 1000 R/h. The pulses of the GM tubes aAer necessary discrimination and shaping
are fed to two separate counters for dose rate measurement. The frequency of pulse is
proportional to the gamma dose rate. The frequency of these pulses is measured and the dose
rate is calculated by the microcontroller through a look up table.
3.4 Power Supply
The instrument operates on 18-32 V DC vehicle battery supply. A DC-DC converter
generates the necessary power supply of 5 V and 12 V for digital and analog circuits
respectively. Another DC-DC converter generates the required 500 V DC for the GM tubes.
The power supply stage has adequate filters and spike suppressers
3.5 Display
The RADMAC has 4 bright LED warning indicators, a 32 segment bar graph and 4 digit
7 segment display indicates the gamma dose rate in analog and digital form respectively. A
general purpose 2x16 Alphanumeric LED display is employed for displaying cumulative dose,
program menus, data and text messages.
3.6 Digital Hardware
The instrument employs 2 microcontrollers (Atmel- 89LV52) operating at 6.144 MHz and
a Real Time Clock (RTC) (PCFS583) operating at 32.768 kHz . ICL 721S display driver
controls the seven-segment display and the bar graph. The speaker and keyboard are controlled
by the microcontrollers. RADMAC contains two circuit boards, which are interconnected
through suitable connectors. The first board contains all the detectors, power supply, ADC,
memory and the associated digital hardware. The second board contains all the display devices,
interface for keyboard & speaker and associated digital hardware. The microcontroller of first
board acquires and records all the sensor data in the memory at regular intervals. The
microcontroller on the second board reads the data from this memory and outputs it on
respective display device.
Ashok Kumar Yadav, Chiman Singh, Mishri Lal, Anuja Vyas, V.K. Chouhan and Ajay Singh Rathore
181
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Gamma Dose Rate Measurement
The GM tubes used to monitor dose rates have non linearity in their characteristics at
higher dose rates due to dead time problem. The typical Dead Times of GM tubes LND716
and LND71313 from LND INC. Are 13 and 45 microseconds [4]. When the time period of
pulses become comparable to these dead times, considerable number of pulses are not detected
resulting in non linearity in dose rate Vs Counts Per Second (CPS) characteristics. This has
been corrected by implementing a look-up table in the memory of microcontroller. The dose
rate and the corresponding observed CPS of pulses is experimentally observed and the data is
feed in the microcontroller. In the measurement mode the microcontroller measures the CPS
and indicate the dose rate on seven-segment display and bar graph as per the interpolated
values from the look-up table. Fig 3 shows the CPS of the two GM tubes and the dose rate
indicated by the instrument at various radiation intensities. It can be seen from the graph that
the non-linearity of CPS is corrected using the look-up table. When the dose rate exceeds a
pre-set value (default 50 mR/h), the microcontroller gives audio and visual warning of HDR
and also energizes a relay which gives a 24V pulse output for automatic activation of NBC
protection system in fallout mode.
Fig.3. Graph showing the CPS of the two GM tubes used and the indicated Dose rate
by the instrument
182
4.2 Cumulative Dose Measurement
The RADMAC is capable of showing cumulative gamma and neutron dose. For calculating
the cumulative gamma dose, the microcontroller increments a counter as per the corrected
dose rates from the look-up table. Thus, the cumulative dose recorded by instrument does
not have non-linearity in the high dose rate fields. The results are given in Table 1.
The neutron sensitive diode is inherently dose rate independent and the neutron dose is
reflected in change in forward voltage. When the total dose is reset to zero, the microcontroller
measures the forward voltage of PIN diode and records it in memory as zero dose voltage.
The observed forward voltage at a particular moment is measured and the neutron dose is
computed after subtracting the zero dose voltage. The results are given in Table 2.
5. CONCLUSION
A rugged and intelligent radiation monitoring instrument has been designed and developed
to address all the nuclear related challenges in an NBC environment for the battle tanks. The
instrument is capable of measuring gamma dose rate from 1 mR/h to 1000 R/h and cumulative
neutron and gamma dose upto 1000 R. The system can generate signals for automatic
activation of NBC system on detecting prompt INR and on encountering fallout radiation fields
>50 mR/h. The non linearity in dose rate measurement due to dead time of GM tubes can be
effectively corrected using the look up table and interpolation methods. The temperature
Table 1 : Cumulative dose measurement results for gamma radiation.
Table 2 : Cumulative dose measurement results for Neutrons.
Ashok Kumar Yadav, Chiman Singh, Mishri Lal, Anuja Vyas, V.K. Chouhan and Ajay Singh Rathore
183
compensation provided in the instrument makes the semiconductor detectors to operate reliably
from 30
O
C to +65
O
C.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Shri R.K. Syal, Director DL Jodhpur and Dr. M.P. Chacharkar,
Head Isotope Division for their encouragement and support in the successful development of
RADMAC. The authors are also thankful to Shri. P.K. Bhatnagar, head Radiation Dosimetry
group for providing the N-PIN diodes developed by them.
REFERENCES
1. P.K. Bhatnagar et.all Fast Neutron dosimetry with silicon diodes, Bulletin of Radiation
Protection Vol.13, No-2, April-June 1990, pp-34-37.
2. D.K. Thakur et.all Silicon dosimetry diode: Neutron monitoring. Conference record IEEE
Transactions IAS, pp 1653-1665, (1990).
3. P.K. Bhatnagar, Fast neutrons irradiation for fabrication of narrow forward voltage p-i-n diode
Nuclear Instruments and methods in physics, A329, (1993)
4. LND INC. Nuclear Radiation Detectors, 3230 Lawson Blvd. Oceanside New York 11572, (1986).
5. Samuel Glasstone k Philip J Dulan, The effects of Nuclear Weapons, Third edition, Castle
house publication Ltd., (1974).
6. G.C. Messenger & M.S. Ash, The Effects of Radiation on Electronic systems, Van Nostrand
Reinhold co., New York, (1986).
7. Millman & Halkias, 1ntegrated Electronics, Mc. Graw Hill, New Delhi, Seventh reprint, (1995).
8. L.W. Rickets, Fundamentals of Nuclear Hardening of Electronic equipments, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, (1972).
9. Glen F. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, John Wiley & Sons, New York, (1979).
184
APPLICATION OF GABOR SPECTROGRAM IN
SCIENTIFIC AND ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS
S. Ananthi and K. Padmanabhan
Central Instrumentation Research Department, University of Madras, Chennai-25
ABSTRACT
While Fourier spectra are useful for relating the frequency components of a signal,
they suffer from defects due to the finite windowing of samples over a time period.
Gabors principle is a joint time-frequency spectral evaluation using a Gaussian quadrature
function and provides a better spectrogram as has been noted recently in literature for
speech processing.
When this principle is applied to the signals obtained from a Fourier transform based
scientific or analytical instrument such as the IR Spectrophotometer or the
NMR instrument, there is a better resolution of the signal components. A
typical analysis with data from an FT NMR instrument indicates how the Gabor
method provides additional information from its spectrum for a chemical under analysis.
When applied to data from an echo-Doppler Ultrasonograph, it was possible to show
the fine details of high velocity blood jets with better temporal relationships for diagnostic
applications than the conventional FT spectral displays presently shown in the commercial
high-end Ultrasonography machines.
1. INTRODUCTION
Present day signal processing has dealt with new methods of mathematical algorithms
and concepts based on signal and set theory, transforms of functions and so on. Concepts
of time and frequency signal analysis have been old and need better representation in modern
work. Such new methods need suitable examples for testing their validity, usefulness or
superiority over conventional ones. In this context, we need suitable signals of causal
phenomena from systems to test the new processing concepts. Chemistry has been known
for its variety of signals in its several analytical and laboratory techniques of measurement,
both qualitative and quantitative, in addition to molecular structural analysis which it
requires.
The Gabor transform, which remained obscure for over 50 years since Gabor
originally proposed it in 1946, [1] has recently been considered in the several IEEE
publications mostly by theoreticians and mathematicians to be calculable using computers
185
today. The concept Gabor introduced in his transform is based on signals with minimum
uncertainty and the examples of these can be had from typically from N.M.R. signals for
chemicals. It is those signals which arise from a large number of contributing molecules
that behave in a manner that fits the Gaussian distribution and hence Gabors transform
based on the modulated Gaussian wavelet should prove its usefulness in analysing the
short time (transient ) signals from the chemicals in the NMR instrument.
Fig.1. Block diagram of FT NMR machine.
Fig.1. Shows the block diagram of FT NMR machine The Fourier Transform Based
Nuclear Magnetic Spectrometer (FTNMR ) signals are generally shown as per the Fourier
Spectrum. In this paper, when the Gabor Transform based on the concepts of time frequency
analysis is applied on the Free Induction Decay signal data (FID) of the FTNMR machine,
we get the spectrum which has got the following important features as listed below.
1. Extra information on Time constants of groups
2. Integrals on
13
C Spectra
3. 3-D plots from the same FID data
4. Better identification protocols
2. GABOR TRANSFORM
Gabors expansion is based on Gaussian functions, because it was proved by in his
classical paper [1] to minimise the joint time-frequency uncertainty product. Fourier
transforms, based on continuous sinusoidal functions, are presently in use for all the signal
processing applications, including NMR signals we are concerned. Fig.2a. shows the Gabor
grid in the Time-Frequency plane and the Modulated Gaussian functions are shown in Fig.2b.
Application of Gabor Spectrogram in Scientific and Analytical Instruments
186
Gabor shows the product of Dt.Df <1 and he proved that the uncertainty principle is resolved
with minimal error with the use of the Gaussian function which is having a statistical
characteristics, i.e., it has got a symmetric waveform and it is a function based on the
statistical properties of random signal having a normal distribution. Particularly when a signal
originates from a large number of entities ( molecular group (CH3 CH2 etc.,) their nature
is described as Gaussian distribution. So Gabor spectrum gives best results for such signals
like NMR, FID signal, etc.,
Fig.2a. Gabor grid in the Time-Frequency plane.
Fig.2b. Modulated Gaussian Functions
187
2.1 Gabor Spectrum Implementation
For a simple time varying signals, the impulse response g(t) of a complex exponential
function modulated by a Gaussian
1 j
0
t
h(t) = exp {-t
2
/2o
2
} e .(1)
v2o
where
0
t is the frequency and s
2
is the standard deviation of the Gaussian.
The Gabor expansion for a continuous time function is given by

s(t) = l l C
m,n
h
m,n
(t) .(2)
m,n = -
where h
m,n
(t) = h(t - ma) exp(j2nbt)
for m,n = ...... -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3.....
For samples of t, the h function is a collection of window sequence points h(k).
h
m,n
(k) comprises of a collection of joint time frequency sequences {h
m,n
} defined by
the above equation. The Gabor Synthesis window function h is called Gabor atom or
Gabor (mother) wavelet. The coefficients C
m,n
are referred to as Gabor coefficients.
The Gabor expansion for discrete samples was given first by Wexler and Raz [2] as

s(i) = l l C
m,n
h
m,n
(t) .(3)
m, n = -
where the signal is assumed to be periodic with period L such that
s(i) = s(i+L)
and there are M points of time and N points of frequency on the Gabor grid.
The function C can be written in terms a new collection of sequences g
u,v
such that
j
u,v
(k) = exp(j2vk/N) j(k-uM) ...(4)
The Gabor coefficients C
m,n
are evaluated via several methods as found in literature.
1) Biorthogonal function method
2) Theory of Frames
3) Use of Zak Transforms.
1) The biorthogonal function is defined as follows. Let h(k) and g(k) be two sequences
and let the collection h
m,n
and g
m,n
be defined by (4). It is stated by Morris J,M. and Lu.Y
[3], that {h
m,n
} and {g
m,n
} are a pair of collections of biorthogonal sequences (BS) if
188
< h
m,n
g
m,n
> = d (m-m) d(n-n) ... (5)
This is known as biorthogonality condition, where the quantity within < > is known
as the inner product defined by (in the continuous case)
|h(t) j*
m,n
(t) dt ... (6)
where
j
m,n
(t) = j(t-ma) exp(2nbt) ... (7)
The asterisk denotes the complex conjugation.
Substituting equation (6) in (3) leads to the Completeness relation
l h
m,n
(t) j*
m,n
(t) = 6(t-t) ...(8)
where d is the Dirac delta function.
For notational convenience, a pair of positive constants are introduced.
T
0
= 1/b and f
0
=1/a ...(9)
The values a and b referred to the distance between grid points in the time and frequency
axes. So to refers to the time corresponding to frequency spacing ; w
0
is the frequency
corresponding to the time spacing. In the case of critical sampling, both are equal. In this
case,
j
m,n
(t) = j ( t-mT
0
) exp (2nf
0
t).
Using the so called Poisson sum formula [1] , the biorthonality constraint becomes
1/ab | h(t) j
(0)
*
m,n
(t) dt = 6(m) 6(n) ...(10)
Since analytical solutions for the above equation are not generally available, use of
numerical solutions is made.
The expansion coefficients are obtained for a given signal set s(k), from
M-1 N-1
s(k) = l l C
m,n
h
m,n
(k) ... (11)
m,n = 0
and
N
1
-1
C
m,n
= l s(k) j*
m,n
(k), where N
1
=NM
0
Here, h
m,n
(k)= h(k-mN)W
nk
, where W = exp(2pj/N)
where h(k) = l h(k + lN
1
) = h( k+N
1
) = h(k+2N
1
) ... (12)
is a periodic extension of the sequence of the window h(k).
In addition, j
m,n
(k) = j(k-mN)W
nk
... (13)
189
where j(k) is a periodic sequence satisifying the discrete biorthogonality condition
l h
m,n
(k)j*(k) = 6
m
6
n
. .... (14)
k=0 to N
1
-1
for 0: m : M-1 and 0 : n : N-1
and W = exp(2j/N) usually employed in FFT.
In order to solve for g(k), we need N
1
=M x N equations.
The above takes the form
l [h(k-mN) W
nk
] j* (k) = S [h*(k-mN)W
nk
] j(k) = 6
m
6
n
for m between 0
to M-1 and n between 0 to N-1. ... (15)
In matrix form,
H j = v ... (16)
where, denoting transposition by supT, v
T
= {1,0,0,....} is a vector of length N1,
j
T
= j(0), j(1),,.... j(N
1
-1)
and H is an N
1
N
1
matrix which can be organised in the following.
The n- summation in the above equation (11) can be split into the FFT equation .
1 N-1
l C
mn
exp (j2nk/N) = E* C ... (17)
vN 0
where E is the N x N FFT matrix given by
E(k,n) = N
-1/2
e
(j2
p
/N)kn
(k,n = 0 to N-1) ... (18)
Here C can be written as a column vector, contains the expansion coefficients
[ C
m
] = | C
m,0
C
m,1
....... C
m,n
...|
T
and postmultiplying the E*C operation in (17) by the h(k) function (which actually
provides a window FIR function [Morris and Lu, 96]),
| h(k) 0 0 0 ... 0 |
| 0 h(k+1) 0 0 ... 0 |
| 0 0 | E* C
m
... (19)
| |
| 0 0 ... h(k+N-1) |
in which k = mN.
And treating each of the M sums in the above (15)
N-1
l C
m,n
h(k-mN) exp(2jnk/N)
0
as a matrix product, the overall equation (11) can be written in the form
H E* C = s (all are matrices, s is the signal vector) ... (20)
Here H is a block Hankel type and is easily invertible.
190
The form of the H matrix is a collection of smaller H matrices( as in 19 above) and is
shown below; all are diagonal ones.
0 H
o
H
M-1
H
M-2 ..........................
H
1
1 H
1
H
0
H
M-1
.....................H
2
each H is an N N matrix; diagonal
..................................................... terms only .
.................................................... 0 ....(21)
....................................................
m-1 H
M-1
H
M-2 .... .. ... ... ... ...
H
0
[E]
m,n
= (1/vN) exp(-2 j m n/L)
The matrix E in (20) is also block diagonal as
diag [ E*......................., E*]
The column vector C contains the MN coefficients C
mn
as
C = [C
0, 0,
C
0, N
-
1
, C
1, 0
, C
1,N
-
1
, ..... C
M
-
1,N
-
1
]
T
Finally s is the discrete signal written as a column vector.
Since (E*)

-
1
= E
we get C = (H. E*) -
1
s = E ! s
where H -
1
= the G matrix.
This equation states that the coefficients are obtained by multiplying the shifted versions
of G(k) for successive sections each of length N and by taking the discrete Fourier
transform of the sum. The inverse of H should of course, exist. H is of the order M x N
= N
1
, in this case of critical sampling.
The biorthognal function plotted is given in Fig.2c for M=N=8, L=64.
Fig.2c. Biorthoganality function plotted for M=N= 8 and L=64.
191
2.2 Gabor Spectrum Evaluation Program
The program for Gabor spectral evaluation of NMR Spectrometer FID samples of
data in NUTS format is done by means of the Quick Basic Program and flow chart is
given in Fig.3. The program uses the data file of the bi -orthogonal function chosen and
calculated using That routine directly stores the file in the form of the bi-orthogonal function
obtained by rearranging the H matrix and gives M N coefficients.
Fig.3 Flow chart for the Gabor spectrum implementation for FTNMR FID signal.
abor Spectrum Evaluation Program
Contd. in next page
192
In our requirement for NMR spectra, at least 2048 frequency bins are required in each
time slot. For evaluation of Gabor coefficients, the equation
C = E* ! S
is to be evaluated. Now that G is known and E* is the Fourier transform matrix, the G.
S product is formed by multiplying the elements of the rows of G matrix and the column
vector S of discrete NMR FID signals, in complex form.
Contd. from previous page
193
As in the case of the Fourier spectrum, the 1024 coefficients contain 512 positive
and 512 negative frequency terms. If the Gabor coefficients are plotted at the different time
slots, we get the Gabor Spectrogram. This by itself is found to be better than the conventional
Fourier spectrum. Here we get 16 ( or 8) in place of one.
These are stored in the array p1(32), q1(32).
The mouse program is an interrupt driven routine. For this the necessary initialisation
of the machine code program is done by calling the machine code subroutine .
The user inputs a variable called peaks amplitude factor called FACTOR which
can have a value from 5 to 25. Spectra having small amplitude signals will require a
small Factor.
Then the user enters the file name - the NUTS format based FID data in interleaved
Complex form. The file contains documentation information in the first 258 words. The
relevant information regarding Spectrometer frequency, Name of Chemical, Sweep width,
Reference shift, Reference point, Acquisition time etc are deciphered and saved as string
data for printing on screen.
The data is read in the IEEE floating point format as it is so. This is done by the
subroutine call to label 1001. Each data point is read is saved in the array X(I).
Then the g matrix multiplication is done for the samples of 8K. These products are
done for each block row, which is labeled as kp%. Starting from the leftmost (kp%=-4 ),
the shifted versions of the bi-orthogonal expanded function stored in BEXP array is multiplied
with the samples. That gives 1024 points. These points are Fourier transformed. So, the
FFT is performed for 2048 points each time. The spectrum is plotted in the NMR format
(right to left) and therein the Reference shift frequency is also marked. That makes the
0 p.p.m. reference point on the screen.
While showing a spectrum at any time slot, the user can choose to observe the
expanded view of the peaks. The expansion is done for 25 points on either side of the
chosen peak. For this purpose, the mouse is used. Upon moving mouse near the peak, the
co-ordinates of the peak are visible on the screen. This can be used to find the peak
amplitudes. The program asks if Expansion of PEAK is required. If it is so, then the selected
peak is expanded. The mouse is brought anywhere on the peak and clicked. Then the
mouse is moved to the point where the expanded spectrum at the peak is to be shown.
Then the Enter key is pressed; that causes the expanded peak to be seen on the screen.
Like this one or all the peaks can be seen in the expanded form, so that the information if
the peak is a doublet, triplet etc. is noted.
After finishing of expansions of peaks, the next time slot is invoked by quitting from
the EXPAND subroutine, by entering Q.
Thus, all the time slots can be seen one by one, in a superimposed display, similar to a
stacked 3-D display, each one in a different colour.
Then, the program also calculates the integral values of the areas under the selected d
(two) peaks and shows them at the time slots 1 to (16) or 8.
The programs ends here and can be restarted for another FID file.
194
3. GABOR SPECTRA- TYPICAL EXAMPLES
Nearly 120 samples have been analysed both Proton and
13
C Spectrums. When the results
are compared with the existing FT spectra for NMR the following results were obtained for
some typical chemicals and are given below.
Gabor spectrum can be shown for more time slots and hence something similar to a
2-D spectrum, (Fig. 4a) with multiple spectra for the same FID data. The first time slot spectrum
gives peaks due to coupling better; the later time slots give extra effects, such as long range
interactions better.
Fig 4a. Gabor Spectrum with 8 time Slots for Ethanol.
Examples
1). ETHANOL Spectrum CH
3
- CH
2
- OH
Theory of chemistry says that actually , if the ethanol is very pure, then, the CH
2
would
produce peaks due to interaction also with the OH proton. This is observed as 8 peaks in
such a very pure ethanol [3].
Fig.4b. Ethanol Spectrum for the 8
th
time slot with GABOR Spectrum.
195
In ordinary ethanol, the effect of OH, though present, (by the OH in the vicinity of CH
2
protons is obscured, when we take a usual Fourier NMR spectrum). That is due to poor time
resolution, uncertainty principle etc., are the causes. Gabor spectrum does show these eight
peaks for CH2 in a later time slot (7
th
time slot). Fig. 4b. Shows Ethanol Spectrum for the
8
th
time slot with GABOR Spectrum with expanded peaks.
2) Integrals for
13
C spectra are obtainable in Gabor spectrum. Fig. 5. Shows the Gabor
spectrum for the TRY methyl pentane with Integrals.
Fig.5. Gabor spectrum for the Trimethyl pentane with Integrals.
Fig.6. Gabor Spectrum for Chlorobenzaldyhyde. (Long range couplings are seen in the
peak expansion for OH).
196
3) Long range couplings are better resolved with Gabor Spectra. Fig. 6. Shows the
Gabor Spectrum for Chlorobenzaldyhyde. ( Long range couplings are seen in the peak expansion
for OH). Proton spectrum shows three peaks at 7.4 ppm (3), 7.9 ppm (1) and 10.5 ppm
(1) are found out from the integrals named groups as A, B, C respectively .
Group A - Benzene ring position
B - ,, ,,
C - Aldehyde
A-B separation is 0.5 ppm suggests splitting of benzene protons by Chlorine. The OH
peak shows multiplets by coupling with the four protons, though long range. As per the
NMR std. Table indicates a ratio of 1:2:7:2:1 as seen in the expanded C curve. (Fig. 6).
4) Satellite peaks due to second order coupling and 13C -1H coupling can be seen in
Gabor spectrum. Fig.7 shows the Gabor spectrum for Isopropylbenzene with satellite peaks
seen at the expansion of the peaks.
Fig.7. Gabor spectrum for Isopropylbenzene with satellite peaks seen at the
expansion of the peaks.
5) Further the CIS and Trans couplings are easily identifiable with the Gabor spectrum
whereas in the FT spectrum these are not visible and one has to do some special operation
is required by giving very high amplification with the machines.
Application of Gabor Spectral technique on Doppler echocardiogram
Present day Doppler echocardiography on the ultrasound machines makes use of the
short-time Fourier spectrograms (STFT) to display the blood velocities of the heart chamber
of the patients. From these, the sonologists infer the functional parameters such as valve
area, that have pathological significance. When the Gabor spectrogram is applied to data from
the echo-Doppler Ultrasonograph, it was possible to show the fine details of high velocity
197
blood jets with temporal relationships for diagnostic applications. Fig. 8a. Shows the
ultrasonograph machine giving Doppler display for patient with mitral stenosis.
Fig.8a. Ultrasonograph machine giving Doppler display for patient with mitral stenosis.
8b. PC-based spectrogram for same insonation data. Display also shows additional parameters.
8c. PC-based Gabor Spectrogram for same data. E and A waves appear separated.
198
4. CONCLUSION
With the simple examples of typical chemicals, the usefulness of the Gabor spectrum
has been illustrated which is definitely be a powerful tool for the NMR chemists. Also, this
finds very good application in the medical diagnosis, especially in the Doppler echocardiogram.
With the Gabor spectrum for Doppler echocardiogram signals of forward and reverse
components showing a more refined spectrum shape.
REFERENCES
1. Gabor. D. Theory of Communications Jl. of Elec. Engg., London, 93, 429-457, 1946.
2. Wexler. J and Raz. S., Discrete Gabor expansions, Signal Processing, 21(11), 206-219, 1990.
3. Graham Soloman T.W., Organic chemistry, 6
th
edition, John Wiley & sons Inc., 1995.
4. Ananthi. S and Padmanabhan.K, Application of Gabor spectrum for NMR signals, Oriental
Journal of Chemistry, India, Vol.15 (1), pp 01-12, Jan-Apr. 1999
5. Padmanabhan.K., Nedumaran.D., Ananthi.S., Gabor spectra for Doppler.
6. Echocardiography, Jl. of Medical and Biological Enginnering & Computing, U.K., Vol.
36(3) May 1998.
199
MODELLING OF BOILER DRUM USING PARALLEL
NEURAL NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
Lavanya Krishnaswamy and S. Renganathan
Madras Institute of Technology, Anna University, Chrompet, Chennai - 44
ABSTRACT
In this paper an attempt is made to model the Boiler drum by using conventional and
neural network techniques. The conventional model based on the basic equations (Mass
balance and Energy balance equations) is a differential equation model. The output
responses for various step changes in inputs were obtained. The training data set and
test data set required for the neural network model is obtained from the conventional
model. The output of the neural model matches that of the actual conventional model
for five to ten percent changes in the input. Thus this paper demonstrates that neural
modelling can model highly complex and non-linear systems. If real time input output
data is used to train the neural network, the neural network model is expected to be
superior to the conventional model.
I. INTRODUCTION
Modelling has become an increasingly important training, designing and analysis tool, not
only for boiler but for many systems. The methods of obtaining a model are not readily found
in literature and are often specific to a particular application. In this paper an attempt is made
to develop a neural model for a boiler drum.
Boilers are generally used to produce steam. Heat energy released by burning of fuel is
transferred to the water in the boiler drum. This converts water into steam at the required
pressure and temperature. Steam generated by boiler is used for a wide variety of applications,
including heating and driving turbines, which in turn drive pumps, compressors, engines and
generators. Hence a boiler is an important unit in any process industry. The conventional drum
model used in this paper, has all the essential features of the actual boiler dynamics, including
non-linearities, non-minimum phase behavior, instabilities and load disturbances.
2. MODEL DERIVATION USING BALANCE EQUATIONS
The Feed water from the economizer (w
e
), its enthalpy (h
e
) and the heat trarisferred to
the riser from the furnace chamber are considered as the inputs to the drum. The steam that
is vented from the drum, which has a flow rate of (w
d
), is considered as the major load
variable. It is assumed that the two phases of water inside the drum are in a saturated
thermodynamic state. With this assumption, all thermodynamic properties can be characterized
200
by one or two independent variables. The steam density (o
d
) and the water volume inside the
drum (V
dw
) are chosen as the state variables. The state of a system is best described with its
mass and energy. The balance equations are obtained from the basic principles governing the
system. The mass balance equation of the drum system neglecting the mass relationship of
steam water mixture can be written as,
Mass Balance
W
e
-W
g
= d/dt{(V
d
-V
dw
) *od+V
dw
*o
dw
} (1)
The heat balance equation of the system is obtained assuming that all the energy is used
in forming steam. It is given by
Energy Balance
w
D
h
W
-(WD-We)*h
dw
-W
d
*h
d
= d/dt{(V
d
-V
dw
)*od*h
d
+V
dw
*o
dw
*h
dw
} (2)
Output equation[3]:
Main steamflow(sf) from the drum is a function of the steam density, and is given by, s
f = 0.1825*(273.5*o
d
+539.5)
The block diagram of the model with inputs and outputs is shown in Fig.l
Fig.1. Block Diagram of Conventional Model of Boiler drum
3. NEURAL NETWORK INTRODUCTION
An artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a massive, parallel interconnected network of simple
elements whose hierarchical organization are reminiscent of biological neural systems. By
looking only at the input and output data a neural network can model and predict complex
non-linear systems. Depending on the nature of the application and the strength of the internal
data patterns the neural network does the training. ANNs provide an analytical alternative to
conventional techniques, which are often limited by strict assumptions of normality, linearity,
variable independence etc. Because an ANN can capture many kinds of relationships it allows
the user to quickly and relatively easily model phenomena which otherwise may have been
very difficult or impossible to explain. A simple neural network architecture with two hidden
layers is shown in Fig.2.
201
3.1 Neural Modelling of Boiler Drum
Neural network technology has several advantages over conventional methods. The main
feature of the neural networks is the establishment of complex relationships between data
through a learning process, with no need to previously propose any model to correlate the
desired variables makes this technique very attractive in the modelling of processes where
traditional mathematical modelling is difficult or impossible. Besides that, they are almost
immune to noise or spurious data [5]. The development of neural network models is relatively
quick and, in most cases, simple. Various network algorithms, network architectures and
activation functions has been experimented in this paper and finally the network with the best
combination has been chosen for discussion and a neural model has been developed for the
same.
3.2 Neural Model Formulation
The data set used for training the neural network is obtained from the conventional model.
Various architectures have been experimented. The activation functions used in the network
are tansig and purelin functions. Back propagation algorithm has been used to train the neural
model.
3.3 Neural model with Parallel architecture
The conventional model has four inputs and three outputs. Training a neural network
with many numbers of inputs and outputs is difficult. Combinations of various numbers of
inputs and outputs to be chosen for training the net were initially done when designing the
neural model. Hence a network with parallel architecture, that is one input and three outputs
has been developed, thereby four nets have been trained, one for each input. Here while
generating the training data, the outputs were obtained by giving a step change to the first
input while keeping the other inputs constant. Similarly data for the other networks were
generated and were trained with that data. The architecture is as shown below (Fig. 3). For
Fig.2. A simple Neural Network Architecture with 2 hidden layers
Modelling of Boiler Drum using Parallel Neural Network Architecture
202
each input a cascaded feed forwarded neural network with one hidden layer was designed
and was trained using back propagation algorithm.
For each cascaded feed forward network, with one hidden layer, various parameters were
chosen to train the network. The performance goal for all the four nets was chosen as
0.00001(i.e 10
-5
). For the first network with w, as input, Learning rate = 0.1, Momentum
parameter = 0.01 and the performance goal was met in 443 epochs. The net with h, as input
has learning rate = 0.01, Momentum parameter = 0.01, number of epochs = 753. For the net
with air as input the learning rate = 0.01, Momentum parameter = 0.001, number of epochs
for training = 857 and finally for the net with w~ as input, the learning rate = 0.2, Momentum
parameter = 0.1 and the number of epochs for training = 460.
4. SIMULATION RESULTS
Here as a parallel architecture network is considered, change is given to all the four inputs
simultaneously and tested. Fig. 4(a-c) shows the response of water volume, steam density
and steam flow respectively, for a +5% change in feed water flow, +10% change in feed
water enthalpy, +10% change in heat transfer to riser, +10% change in steam flow (load
variable). We can see that there is an initial rise in water volume, this is because of +5%
change in feed water flow, and then it decreases gradually due to +10% change in feed water
enthalpy and heat transfer to riser. Fig. 5(a-c) shows the response of water volume, steam
density, steam flow for +10% change in feed water flow, +10% change in feed water enthalpy,
-5% change in heat transfer to riser and +10% change in steam flow (load variable). Here
water volume steadily increases due to+ 10% change in feed water flow and -5% change in
heat transfer to riser aids the rise in volume. Similarly by applying - 10% change in feed water
flow, +10% change in feed water enthalpy, +10% change in heat transfer to riser, +10% change
in steam flow (load variable) we observe a decrease in water volume and increase in the other
outputs which is shown in Fig. 6(a-c) respectively. By giving this combination of
variation (+10%, +10%, -10%, +10%), to the inputs we get the output responses as shown
in Fig. 7(a-c).
Fig. 3. Neural model of boiler drum using parallel architecture
203
Fig.4a. Water volume for +5% in we
and +10% change in other inputs
Fig.5a. Water volume for -5% in Qir
Fig.4b. Steam density for +5% in we
Fig.5b. Steam density for -5% in Qir
Fig.4c. Steam flow for +5% in we and
+10% change in other inputs
Fig.5c. Steam flow for -5% in Qir and
204
Fig.6a. Water volume for -10% in we
Fig.7a Water volume for -10% in Qir
Fig.6b. Steam density for -10% in we
Fig.7b Steam density for -10% in Qir
Fig.6c. Steam flow for -10% in we and
Fig.7c Steam flow for -10% in Qir
205
5. CONCLUSION
The work reported in this paper is a starting point for the research that can be done in
this area. The conclusions drawn from the completed work is that, neural networks can be
trained to learn any function provided, that enough information is given during the training
process coupled with judiciously selected data sets. The model is useful for evaluating plant
performance, providing insight into physical processes, designing and evaluating multivariable
plant controllers, and for evaluating changes in plant design. We also come to a conclusion
that these networks once trained can be used for online modelling of the systems, thereby
improving the performance of the entire boiler plant.
REFERENCES
1. A.W. Ordys, A.W. Pike, M.A. Johnson, R.M. Katebi and M.J. Grimble, Modelling and
Simulation of Power Generation Plant, Springer- Verlag London Ltd, (1994).
2. Shivakumar. L, and Bhattarcharya. R. K., Dynamic Analysis of a power boiler through a Non-
Linear Mathematical Model, Report No.136, BHEL/ESNP, September (1977).
3. Mc Donald, J.P., Kwatny. H. G., and Spare. J. H., A non-linear Model for Reheat boiler-turbine
generator systems-Part-I and Part-II, Paper No.3-D4, JACC, (1971).
4. Sam.G.Dukelow, The Control of Boilers, Second Edition 13, 16, 21, Instrument Society of
America, (1991).
5. Antonio Augusto Gorni, The Modelling of Hot Rolling Processes using Neural Networks,
A Bibliographical review, Brazil, available in the internet, (2002).
6. Deepak Shukla, Darren M. Dawson and Frank W. Paul, Multiple Neural-Network Based
Adaptive Controller Using Orthonormal Activation Function Neural Networks, IEEE
Transactions On Neural Networks, Vol 10., No. 6, November (1999).
206
ON ESTIMATION OF LEAD ANGLE FOR ANTI
AIRCRAFT FIRE CONTROL SYSTEM
Ashok Kumar
Instruments Research & Development Establishment, Dehra Dun - 248008
ABSTRACT
Fire control is the process of determining the future weapon pointing direction for
accurately hitting the target by a projectile. This involves the computation of kinetic
lead in bearing and elevation.
In a ground based anti aircraft engagement scenario, the simplified target model may be
taken as a straight-line path with constant velocity. A more involved scenario will consist
of a maneuverable target aircraft (changing velocity, orientation & curved/curvilinear path).
This will call for an extended target model. The extended target model is, however, derived
from the simplified model. One such simplified model has been developed by IRDE. The
model uses iterative techniques to compute the lead angles. Initially a time of flight is
guessed for targets present position. On the basis of guessed time of flight, future target
position is predicted. Given the predicted position, the time of flight of the projectile is
determined by looking at the Range Table of the anti aircraft gun using table
functionalisation technique. The error between guessed time of flight and computed time
of flight is then applied for correction of the initial guess. The algorithm terminates when
projectile flight and target travel times match. Finally, bearing and elevation angles of
the gun corresponding to this target position are determined and fed to the gun control
system in real time for target engagement.
1. INTRODUCTION
The basic problem of fire control appears in various forms: it may involve surface-to-
surface, surface-to-air, air-to-air or air-to-surface operations with bullets, rockets, bombs or
missiles as the projectile. All these fire control problems are but variations of the same single
basic solution: the launching of a projectile from a weapon station (that may be moving) at a
target (that may also be moving) so as to score a hit on the target. Underlying this situation
is a certain element of probability: the target position at the time of hit must be predicted and
there is certain interval between the launching and the hit, called the time of flight, during
which the projectile is wholly or partly under the influence of natural phenomenon outside the
launchers control.
Antiaircraft artillery systems fire gun-launched projectiles at air targets. Gun projectiles
follow an unguided, ballistic flight path. Gun azimuth and elevation aiming angles are the only
207
controls over this path. Computation of these angles must be based on precise data concerning
target position, velocity and acceleration. The angles also depend on atmospheric conditions,
initial projectile velocity, and projectile weight. The algorithms for calculating the firing angles
are very critical in air defense system. It requires accurate target position in terms of either
Spherical or Cartesian coordinate system.
The classical fire control question is: given a target with known position, velocity and
acceleration component, what bearing and elevation angles should a gun be aimed at so the
projectile path and the target path meet? This problem can be solved analytically for projectiles
in a vacuum; for flight through the atmosphere, no exact solution exists.
2. LEAD ANGLE
Lead angle is the angular correction needed to compensate for the effects of target motion
during the time of flight of the projectile. As seen from the fig. 1, it is the angle between the
present and future line of sight. The present line of sight is the direction from the gun to the
target at the instant of firing. The future line of sight is the direction in which the observer
would see the target at impact.
Fig.1. Lead Angle
On Estimation of Lead Angle for Anti Aircraft Fire Control System
208
3. TABLE FUNCTIONALISATION
The basis for most fire control solutions is a tabular listing of numerical data giving gun
pointing angle and time-of-flight as a function of horizontal range and altitude or slant range
and elevation angle. For guns, this table is called a range table. In table functionalisation,
the range table data may be represented by some equations. Since range table contains three
variables (slant range, angle of elevation and time-of-flight), a suitable surface fitting technique
has been adopted for fitting the data given in the range table for 30mm air defense gun. The
entire range was divided in two segments so as to give the computed time-of-flight with
acceptable accuracy. These surface fitting equations use non-linear Lorentzian Quadratic
functions containing two independent variables i.e. slant range & angle of elevation.
In the equations given below x and y are independent variables representing slant range
and angle of elevation respectively. Variable z represents time of flight.
4. ALGORITHM
In this algorithm we start with the present target position (point 1), guess a projectile
time of flight T
1
and compute the targets future position variables (point 2). Given that
information, the time of flight T
2
of the projectile to that point is determined by looking at
range table, using table functionalisation scheme. The error in T
2
is used to form a correction
to the first guess, and the problem is reworked until projectile and the target time match at
the point 2 position. Fig. 2 shows the flow chart of the algorithm. Let X
1
, Y
1
, Z
1
represent
the present position of the target and X
2
, Y
2
, Z
2
the future position then the future position
can be determined in the following ways:
X
2
= X
1
+ (VelX)(T
1
)
Y
2
= Y
1
+ (VelY)(T
1
)
Z
2
=Z
1
+ (VelZ)(T
1
)
Where VelX, VelY and VelZ are velocity components
Ashok Kumar
209
Fig.2. Flow Chart of the Algorithm
210 Ashok Kumar
The algorithm converges faster when initial guess for the weapon time of flight is good
i.e. it is close to the calculated time of flight. In this algorithm, fire control process assumes
a target model in which target moves in straight-line path with constant velocity. Fig.3 shows
the schematic diagram for target engagement. Point O denotes the weapon station. Point P
1
and P
2
denote the targets present and future position respectively. Line OS represents the
Line-of-Sight for the target moving along the line from P
1
and P
2
.
Fig.3. Schematic Diagram of Target Engagement
5. ERROR ANALYSIS
Since the algorithm is based on iterative technique, converging rate of the algorithm depends
upon the initial guess of time-of-flight. Truncation error is generated due to trajectory
computation at every iteration for time-of-flight. Errors in target position propagate directly
from present position (point 1) to future position (point 2). Errors in the target rate components
also result in position errors at point 2; these errors are proportional to time of flight T2. The
time-of-flight essentially magnifies the rate errors. From analytical solution, it is found that
the truncation error is of the order O(time-of- flight
3
) .
6. NUMERICAL RESULTS
The algorithm has been implemented in C language. For each set of data, rate of change
for slant range, azimuth and elevation angles have been taken separately. Fig. 4 shows the
results in terms of firing lead angles (azimuth k elevation), time of flight and miss-distances.
These results have been computed using range table of 30mm air defense Gun.
211
(b) Results
Fig.4. : Performance Results of the Algorithm
(a) Input Data in Spherical Coordinate System
7. CONCLUSIONS
The importance of accurate target state measurement, particularly for anti-aircraft gun
fire control, can not be overstated. Errors in the target tracking, filtering, and prediction
processes have a significant effects on accuracy. The miss-distance are very less as given in
the fig. 4 and acceptable for the firing ranges which are about 4 Kms. Computation time for
lead angle computation is also very small. This simplified model can be extended to cover
different parameters like targets maneuverability, variation in speed, curved path.
212
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author is thankful to Shri J.A.R. Krishna Moorty, Director IRDE, Dehra Dun, for giving
permission and facilities to publish this paper.
REFERENCES
1. Robert H.M. Macfadzean, Surface-Based Air Defence System Analysis, Artech House
Publications.
2. Walter Wrigley and John Hovorka, Fire Control Principles, McGraw Hills Publications.
3. Table Curve 3D v1.0, Automated Surface Fitting Software, Jandel Scientific, San Rafael, CA.
4. N.F. Lavrov, Problems pertaining to the Theory of Anti-aircraft, Fire Control Instrumentation,
PUAZO publications.
Ashok Kumar
213
DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND FABRICATION OF
DEFORMABLE MIRROR
Sandeep Shinde, Shubha Gokhale and Shireesh Phadke
Department of Instrumentation Science, University of Pune, Pune 411 007
ABSTRACT
Adaptive optics have been used for imaging through the atmosphere using the basic
components that consists of a wavefront sampler, a wavefront corrector like a Deformable
Mirror and a control computer to perform the real-time numerical calculations. Correction
to the wavefront on most adaptive optics system is based on the principle of adding a
correcting device to the beam of light. We have developed a continuous facesheet
multiplayer multiactuator Deformable Mirror, which can give surface deformation +10
to 1 at 632.8nm. Indigenously developed piezo-based actuators are used for the
construction of Deformable Mirror. Total structure of Deformable Mirror is supported
by stainless steel flanges and studs. Active area of Deformable Mirror is 60mm. Front
coated glass, copper, silicon, molybdenum are tested as a facesheet material.
1. INTRODUCTION
Adaptive optics refers to optical systems, which adapt to compensate for optical effects
introduced by the medium between the objects and its image
1
. Adaptive optic system works
on determination of the shape of the distorted wafefront and using an adaptive optical element,
usually a Deformable Mirror
2
, to restore the uniform wafefront by applying compensating
distortion. We describe here the design, development and fabrication of continuous facesheet,
PZT-actuator based Deformable Mirror.
a. Basic Design of Indigenously developed PZT-Based Actuators
Edward Kibblewhite
3
used a tube of PZT 5H material for basic design of deformable
mirror. We have developed indigenously, stack type piezo-actuator
4
that can effect 10um
displacement wit application of 400V. The minimum actuation imparted is less than 30nm.
The force applied by this actuator is 450N. The rugged mechanical housing makes this actuator
suitable for application in vibrating, mobile environment. These actuators are proven to be
functional under high vacuum conditions as well. Fig.1. describes the Design of PZT-based
actuator. Table 1 describes the summary of Piezo-actuator characteristics.
214 Sandeep Shinde, Shubha Gokhale and Shireesh Phadke
b. Fabrication of Appropriate Facesheet with Necessory Surface Finish
Various materials were considered to find out the suitable candidate for the facesheet.
The most important parameters governing the suitability as facesheet material are elastic modulus,
thermal conductivity and thermal expansion coefficient
5
. The most suitable candidates on this
basis were found to be molybdenum, copper and silicon. Initial experiments were carried out
with the help of single side Mirror polished Silicon and polished molybdenum. Later on good
quality surface finished Copper Mirror were used. Fig. 2 shows the Photograph of Face-
Sheet. The Finite element calculations prove that the force required to deform the face sheet
increases as a cube of the thickness of the face sheet. The following table 2 gives the force
required to be applied in the center of Cu face sheet of various thicknesses in order to deform
a 60 mm diameter Cu plate by 10 um.
Fig.1. Design of PZT-
based actuator
Table 1 Summary of Piezo-actuator characteristics
Fig.2. Photograph of Face-Sheet Table 2
215
c. Basic Design of Deformable Mirror
Typical Deformable Mirror consists of metal facesheet as a reflector, PZT actuator to
deform the optical surface, a rigid base structure to provide a thrust base for the actuators.
A large base provides a reaction mass against which the actuator push, which ensures that all
the displacement force goes into the facesheet rather than the backing structure.
Fig.4. Photograph of Deformable
Mirror
Fig.3. Overall Mirror Schematic
1. Face-sheet, 2. Actuator Head, 3. PZT-based
actuator with casing, 4. Rigid Housing,
5. A. large base, 6. Provision for the alignment
Above figure 3 describes the overall Mirror schematic. Figure 4 shows the photograph
of Deformable Mirror. We have used Copper Mirror with good quality surface finish, (//10
at 632 nm with reflectivity 98%) and thickness 1.3 mm. User can select any type of actuator
head, as there is provision for mounting on the actuator with the help of threading. Indigenously
developed PZT-based actuators are used. The whole assembly of faceplate and actuator is
placed in rigid housing. A firm base has provided at the base of actuator. A fine alignment
can be done at the base of actuator during experiments on optical bench.
3. CHARACTERIZATION OF DEFORMABLE MIRROR
Michelson Interferometer is used to characterize the Deformable Mirror. The
interferogram obtained by applying the control voltage to Deformable Mirror is obtained with
the help of CCD Camera. (DALSA CA-D6-0256). Fig. 5 shows the ray-diagram for
characterization of deformable mirror.
Finite Element Analysis is used to know the displacement and force calculations for the
actuators. The Radius of Curvature (ROC) for 10um displacement for 50mm active area
face sheet comes out to be 45m. The plots shows the voltage applied to the actuator so that
the face-plate perfectly assumes the 45m Radius of Curvature (ROC). The doted plot shows
Design, Development and Fabrication of Deformable Mirror
216 Sandeep Shinde, Shubha Gokhale and Shireesh Phadke
the expected ROC for 10um displacement of central actuator in every plot. Fig.6. shows the
plots for (a) single actuator actuated, (b) 1+6 actuators actuated and (c) 1+6+12 actuators
actuated.
Fig.5. Ray-Diagram : Characterization of Deformable Mirror
6(a) : single actuator actuated 6(b): 1+6 actuators actuated 6(c): 1+6+12 actuators actuated
Fig.7. Photograph of Michelson Interferometer
setup for characterization of Deformable Mirror.
Fig. 8.Interferograms : (a) Zero
Voltage to all actuators. Interfero-
gram Showing parallel fringe pattern;
no actuation for the actuators. (b) :
Interferogram showing curved fringe
pattern due to application of 400V to
middle ring of actuator.
Fig.7 shows the photograph for characterization set up. Fig. 8 (a) shows interferogram
with parallel fringe pattern, because actuators are not actuated with voltages. Fig. 8(b) shows
interferogram with curved fringe pattern due to application of 400V to middle ring of actuator.
a b
217
4. CONCLUSION
Deformable Mirror can be used in adaptive optics to correct the laser beam profile, as
well as to test the optical components such as lenses and Mirrors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been carried out under financial support from LASTEC, Delhi. Authors
are thankful for the financial support as well as their scientist for the discussions.
REFERENCES
1. Robert Tyson, Principles of Adaptive Optics. 2
nd
Edition, Academic Press, USA, 1997.
2. Pascal Jagourel, Jean-Paul Gaffard, Adaptive Optics Components in Laserdot, SPIE Vol. 1543
76-87 (1991).
3. Edward Kibblewhite, Michael F. Smutko, Mark Chuss, Deformable Mirrors for astronomy,
SPIE Vol. 1920 (115-120), (1993).
4. Mark A. Ealey, Continuous Facesheet low voltages Deformable Mirrors, Optical Engineering,
Oct. 1990, Vo. 29, No. 10.
5. Mark A. Ealey, Deformable Mirrors, Design fundamentals, key performance, Specifications
and parametric trades, SPIE Vol. 1543 (1991).
Design, Development and Fabrication of Deformable Mirror
218
RPM MEASUREMENT SYSTEM USING IN-HOUSE
DEVELOPED Si BASED HALL SENSOR
S.R. Joshi and S.A. Gangal
Department of Electronic Science, University of Pune, Pune 411 007
ABSTRACT
Hall sensors find extensive use in scientific and research as well as in the industrial and
related applications e.g. RPM of motor/wheel measurement, Magnetic field measurement,
proximity switch and many more. The commercially available sensors are fabricated with
silicon or III-V compound semiconductor materials
1
. Silicon magnetic sensors are by far
the least expensive because highly reliable and well- established standard integrated
circuit technology is available. In the present work, both silicon based Hall sensors and
RPM measurement system are developed in-house. The paper describes the selection of
the wafer, electrode material and configuration, characteristics of developed sensor and
the details of circuit configuration for the RPM measurement system. The results obtained
are given and discussed. Finally specifications of the developed system are tabulated.
1. INTRODUCTION
All the materials show Hall effect to a smaller or larger extent
1
. Amongst all,
semiconductors exhibit this effect to the maximum extent. Semiconductor Hall sensors can
be fabricated using silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and III-V compound materials (InSb, InAs,
GaAs). III-V compounds are more sensitive to the magnetic field because of relatively higher
carrier mobility in these materials. But a great majority of contemporary Hall sensors for
magnetic sensor applications are made of Si and GaAs, in spite of the fact that these materials,
in particular Si, have rather low carrier mobility. Its large band gap and possibility of using
silicon fabrication technique outweigh the drawback of small carrier mobility
1
.
Fig.1. Hall Effect
Magnetic Field B (K Gauss)
I (mA)
V
h
219
As shown in Fig 1, if current (I) is passed through the material in X direction, in presence
of magnetic field (B) perpendicular to it (along Z axis), then the voltage will be developed in
the direction perpendicular to both I and B i.e. along Y axis. This voltage generated is known
as Hall voltage and is given by
V
h
= R
h
x B x I / T ................................eq. (1)
where V
h
= Hall voltage (Volts), R
h
= Hall coefficient (Volt meter / Ampere Gauss),
B = Magnetic field strength (Gauss), I = Current flowing through the sample (Amperes),
t = Thickness of sample (meters).
From eq(1) it is clear that Hall sensor can be used in the applications like magnetic field
measurement and current measurement in direct way or combined with permanent magnet it
can be used as sensor for position (rotation), speed (RPM) or angle in indirect way. It has
advantages over other sensors, including optical sensors, used for the same purpose. Some
of them are possibility of integration of the sensor and the signal processing circuit on a single
chip because of the matured Si technology, its robustness and insensitivity to dust. The present
paper describes the fabrication of the Hall sensor including selection of the wafer, electrode
material and configuration, characteristics of developed sensor and the details of circuit
configuration for the RPM measurement system. The results obtained are given and discussed.
Finally specifications of the developed system are tabulated.
2. FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF HALL SENSORS
The material selected for the present work is silicon (Si). The use of Si, not only makes
it possible to apply the highly developed and sophisticated batch production methods of
integrated circuits to transducer field, but also makes it feasible to integrate the sensor and
signal processing circuits on a single chip. Silicon is therefore selected for this work. n-type
single crystal Si with (100) orientation, thickness t = 500 um and resistivity o = 3 - 5 O-cm
is used as Hall sensor material. n-type substrate is selected because of higher mobility of
electrons and <100> orientation is selected because the samples give rectangular chips after
cleaving along the cleavage planes <110>.
Structure of Hall sensor along with its dimensions used for the intended application is
shown in the Fig.2. Fig 2a shows the dimensions of single Hall sensor (4 mm x 4 mm). It
consists of 2 pairs of ohmic contacts (with dimensions 1 mm x 1 mm), perpendicular to
each other, made on the silicon wafer. One pair is for passing the current and other for
measuring the voltage developed. The Hall voltage is developed only in the presence of magnet.
Fig.2b shows Multi device mask used for fabricating large number of devices simultaneously
on a silicon wafer.
Commonly used contact pad materials are n
+
- Al, n
+
- Au, Ti - Pt - Au etc
3
. For contacts
to be ohmic, the work function of the metal (
m
) has to be less than that of semiconductor
(
sc
) i.e
m
<
sc
1
. Fabrication of Hall sensors with Aluminum as the electrode material is
reported elsewhere . Hall sensor with Ti - Pt - Au as the contact pad material is used in the
present work. Thin films of Ti, Pt and Au are deposited on Silicon wafer by e - beam
evaporation technique. Contact pad pattern of Fig 2(b) is transferred on Si wafer of 3 diameter
by lift off technique
4
. Titanium is used because it has work function of 3.9 - 4.15 eV which
is less than that for the silicon substrate, 4.32 eV. As stated before, this satisfies the requirement
RPM measurement system using in-house developed Si based Hall sensor
220 S. R. Joshi and S. A. Gangal
Fig.3. Circular PCB mount with bonded wires
for the ohmic contact. Titanium also adheres well to the silicon substrate better as compared
to Au. Typical thicknesses of the different deposited layers are -Ti - 600A
, Pt - 300 A
,
Au - 4500 A
.
Fig.2. Pattern design on Hall sensor
(a) Single device pattern for Hall sensor (b) Multi device mask
(a)
(b)
Single Hall sensor is separated by scribing the wafer along <110> planes. The single Hall
sensor is to be mounted on proper support for connecting it to the external circuitry. For the
present application sensors are mounted on circular PCB patterned in the way shown in Fig.3.
Wires to the contact pads are bonded with Silver epoxy curable at 150
O
C for connecting them
to signal processing circuit. The Hall sensor fabricated is then encapsulated in commercially
available epoxy resin curable at room temperature for easy handling.
The ohmicity of the contact is tested. Fig. 4 shows the V - I characteristics of the current
and voltage probes. The characteristic is linear indicating that the contacts are ohmic (hysterisis
= 0 very negligible). Slope of the graph gives the resistance between the contact pad. The
resistance between the current and voltage probes is observed to be the same of the order of
(= 50 - 60 O). This also is found equal to the calculated value. The dimensions and material
constants are o = 3 - 5 (O-cm), I = 4mm = 0.4 cm, A = 4 mm x 500 um = 0.4 x 0.05
221
(cm
2
), w = 4mm = 0.4 cm, t = 500 um = 0.05cm. Resistance between two electrodes
calculated from above given values using the formula R = o x I /A = 60 O which is well in
agreement with the measured value. The minor difference seen between the expected (60 O)
and observed resistance (between 50 - 60O) may be attributed to the deviation from the exact
value of the resistivity of the wafer, finite contact resistance and/or accuracy of measurements.
Once the contacts are proved to be ohmic, the Hall sensor is tested for hall characteristics.
The current in the range of 1 mA to 10 mA is passed through the current probes of sensor
and voltage is measured across the voltage probes in presence of magnetic field. Fig. 5 shows
Hall characteristics of the sensor. i.e. voltage across the voltage probes versus current through
the current probes. It is observed that in absence of magnetic field the sensor gives some
Fig.4. V-I Characteristic of contacts
(a) Offset voltage
(b) Hall voltage (B = 4.5 kgauss)
Fig.5. Hall characteristics
(a)
(b)
output voltage called offset voltage (curve a in Fig.5). This is of the order of 0.2 - 1 mV.
This offset voltage may be thought to be developed because of the dimensions of the sensor,
resistivity of sensor, its magneto- resistance and the misalignment of the electrodes on the
sensor w.r.t. Si crystal planes. Further, when it is exposed to a magnetic field of 4.5 Kgauss
(rear earth magnet of diameter = 10 mm and length = 10mm) it gives Hall voltage of 0.2 mV
to 15 mV in the current range of 0 to 10 mA. From the graph it is clear that relation between
V> and I is linear in the given range of current. The offset voltage generated is sufficiently
less in magnitude as compared to Hall voltage. This is necessary for its application as a switch
for RPM measurement.
The developed sensors are tested for their stability over a longer time period of 24 hours.
It is observed that Hall voltage generated is very stable with the time at constant temperature.
Offset voltage is found to remain constant with temperature upto 55
C (=0.7mV) and after

that it increases to 0.9 mV till 70
O
C for the current of 5 mA. The Hall voltage is found
to vary from 7.3 mV to 7.6 mV over the temperature range of room temperature (27
C)
to 70
C. The changes in offset voltage and Hall voltage with temperature may be attributed
to the change in the mobility of majority carriers, which is the main cause of Hall effect,
with temperature.
3. RPM MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
These thoroughly tested Hall sensors are used for the measurement of rotation per minute
(RPM). Required signal conditioning circuit, counter display unit are designed and developed
in-house and the circuit developed is calibrated for RPM. Following paragraphs describe the
details of development of RPM measurement system for the in house fabricated sensors. The
specifications of the system are given at the end.
Fig. 6 shows the block diagram of RPM measurement system. It consists of Hall sensor,
rear earth magnet fitted on the wheel of the motor, constant current source, signal conditioning
unit and counter display unit. A magnet mentioned above, is attached to the wheel of which
RPM is to be measured. The distance between the magnet and the sensor is kept to be 3 - 4
mm. When measured with the gaussmeter magnetic field was found to be 4.5 Kgauss at the
Fig.6. Block diagram of RPM measurement system
223
surface of the magnet while it was 500 gauss at the surface of the sensor. This is expected
as magnetic field decreases with the increasing distance. As the magnet on the wheel passes
over the Hall sensor one gets a pulsating output riding over the offset voltage. In absence of
magnetic field, output of the Hall sensor is equal to offset voltage and in presence of magnetic
field (500 gauss), in addition to offset voltage, Hall voltage is generated. This pulsating output,
for a current of magnitude 5 mA passing through the Hall sensor, is of the order of 2 3 mV.
This is processed through a signal-conditioning unit (SCU) to make it TTL compatible. Now
the simplest technique to measure RPM is to measure these TTL compatible pulses in one
minute or a part of that. In the present work, pulses coming out of the SCU are sampled
during 1 sec for easy multiplication by 60. Number of pulses counted is shown on a four
digit seven segment display. RPM is this number multiplied by 60.
Fig.7. Circuit diagram of Signal conditioning unit
4. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
Circuit diagram of RPM measurement system is shown in Fig.7. Fig 7a shows the signal
- conditioning unit (SCU) and Fig 7b is a counter display unit. Output of the Hall sensor is
fed as input to SCU. First stage of differential amplifier (OPAMP 1) amplifies V
offset
+ V
Hall
.
OPAMP 2 is used in subtractor configuration to eliminate the offset voltage and amplify the
Hall voltage only. Voltage equal to offset voltage is given as reference to one of the inputs of
OPAMP 2. A 10 turn potentiometer is provided to adjust the reference voltage in order to
take care of variation of offset from sensor to sensor. It is adjusted to give output of OPAMP
2 equal to zero in absence of magnetic field. To make the pulsating output TTL compatible
one more stage of amplifier (OPAMP 3) is added. OPAMP 3 is used in comparator mode. It
compares the Hall voltage with zero and gives TTL compatible output.
Output of the SCU unit is fed to the digital counter through opto-isolator in order to
separate the digital and analog grounds. Digital counter unit consists of sampling pulse (f=0.5
Hz) generator, sampling gate and counter and display Unit. Counter and display unit consists
of TTL ICs. The sampling pulse with T = 2 sec is generated using counter divider circuit.
For easy multiplication by 60, the sampling time is selected as 1 sec. Clock to the counter
circuit is derived using crystal oscillator of 5 MHz. This is then divided 10
7
times by using
seven decade counter ICs. The circuit is designed with T
on
= T
off
. The sampling pulse and the
output of the SCU are fed to the AND gate. The pulses coming out of the AND gate are
counted and displayed with the help of counter/display IC.
The control signals, Reset, Latch Enable and Display Select are generated. Latch Enable
and Reset signals are generated using Monostable Multivibrators MMV1 and MMV2. The falling
edge of the sampling pulse is given as trigger to MMV1. This is given as a Latch enable to
the counter. Output of MMV1 is fed as input to MMV2, which generates Reset pulse. Counter/
Display IC consists of a counter, driver and decoder. The outputs are internally multiplexed.
These are finally connected to 4 seven segment displays. The number displayed is the number
of pulses in one second. For RPM, this number is multiplied by 60.
The SCU is fabricated using surface mount devices and is mounted in a probe made
specifically for the RPM measurement. Fig.8 shows the completed probe. Counter/display
circuit is mounted in a metal box.
Fig.7b. Digital Counter Circuit
225
5. SPECIFICATIONS OF DEVELOPED SYSTEM
The designed circuit for RPM measurement is tested thoroughly. The system specifications
are given in following table.
Fig.8. Completed Hall sensor
226
6. CONCLUSION
RPM measurement system using Si based Hall sensor has been successfully developed
in house.
REFERENCES
1. S. Middlehoek and S. A. Audet, Silicon sensors Academic Press, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
Publishers.
2. R. Ghosalkar, S. Joshi, S. Gangal, Development of Si based Hail sensor - Study of effect of
electrode geometry on Hall voltage, Proceedings of SPIE, 1999, Vol. 3903, pp 171-175.
3. S. M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor devices, Wiley Interscience Publication,1999
4. Peter Van Zant, Microchip Fabrication - A practical guide to semiconductor processing, -
Mc Graw Hill publication, 1997.
S. R. Joshi and S. A. Gangal
227
PREDICTING THE FAR-FIELD PATTERN OF DOLPH-
CHEBYSHEV LINEAR ARRAYS FROM NEAR-FIELD
DATA USING SCHEKLKUNOFF POLYNOMIALS
J. Subramanyam
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, College of Engineering,
Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, India
ABSTRACT
The array factor of a linear array of N elements is a polynomial of degree (N-1) that has
(N-1) roots and can be expressed as a product of (N-1) linear terms each involving a
root of the polynomial. The roots of the polynomial correspond to the nulls of the pattern.
In this study, the number of nulls and their locations are obtained from the near-field
phase patterns and the far-field pattern is computed using the polynomial representation
of the array factor. Accuracy of the far-field pattern depends on the accuracy with which
the locations of the nulls are determined. Analytically and computationally this technique
is simple and fast. It is suitable only to linear arrays.
1. INTRODUCTION
Radiation pattern of an antenna is traditionally measured in the far-field region. However,
there are disadvantages
1
in measuring the pattern in the far- field. It is, therefore, desirable to
determine the far-field pattern from the data measured in the near-field. Number of exotic
techniques are available
2, 3
to transform the near-field data to the far-field and hence obtain
the far-field pattern. Objective of this paper is to explore the possibility of using
Schelkonoff
4
polynomials for the nearfield-to-farfield transformation of Dolph-Chebyshev linear
arrays. Dolph-Chebyshev linear arrays are chosen, because, they are known to give optimum
FNBW-SLL performance. The nearfield data required for studying the transformation technique
is simulated.
2. SCHEKLKUNOFF POLYNOMIALS
Schelkunoff has shown that the array factor of a linear array of N elements can be
represented as a polynomial of degree (N-1). Any polynomial of degree (N-1) has (N-1) roots
and can be expressed as a product of (N-1) linear terms each involving a root of the
polynomial. The roots of the polynomial correspond to the nulls of the array factor pattern.
Thus, knowledge of the number of nulls and their locations permits the calculation of the
pattern. If the information about the number of nulls and their locations can be obtained from
228 J. Subramanyam
the near-field measurements, then the far-field pattern can be computed using the polynomial
representation of the array factor.
Array factor, for a linear array of N isotropic sources placed along the z-axis, is
N
AF= _ a
n
z
n-1
=a1+a2z+a3z2+.+a
N
z
N-1
(1)
n=1
where
z = e
ju
.(2)
u = 6d cos 0 + o .....(3)
In the above expressions, a
n
is the non-uniform amplitude excitation of each element, d
is the inter-element spacing, and a is the progressive phase shift.(1) is a polynomial of degree
(N-1). Any polynomial of degree (N-1) has (N-1) roots and can be expressed as a product of
(N-1) linear terms. Thus (l)
can be written as
AF = ( z z
1
) ( z z
2
) ( z z
3
).... ( z z
N-1
) ..(4)
where z, z
1
, z
2
...., z
3
, are the roots, which may be complex, of the polynomial.
As can be seen from (4), the array factor of any linear array can be computed if the
locations of the nulls (roots) of the pattern (polynomial) are known. The location of the nulls
may be obtained from the near-field data and substituted in (4) to obtain the far-field pattern.
3. DOLPH-CHEBYSHEV ARRAY
The Dolph-Chebyshev array considered in this study is shown in Fig.1. Salient features
of this array are:
Fig. 1. Dolph-Chebyshev array of (2N+1) point dipoles
229
The elements are placed symmetrically about the origin along the z-axis.
The interelement spacing is uniform.
All the elements are excited in phase.
Current distribution is symmetrical about the origin.
Excitation coefficients of the array are computed using the Nested product Algorithm
given by Bressler
5
. The radiated field component due to the array, at the field point P, is
computed by taking the phasor sum of the field components, due to individual elements, at
point P. The rectilinear field components due to a current element, in its nearfield, are given
in the Appendix.
4. RESULTS
In this study, radiation patterns are computed at 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 D
2
/ l distances
from a Dolph-Chebyshev array with the following specifications:
Type of element = Point dipole
Length of the array, D = 50 /
Inter-element spacing, d = / / 2
Number of elements, P=2N+1 = 101
Side lobe levels, SLL = -30db
Field pattern : E

= E
y
Pattern cut : = 0 plane
The computed patterns are shown in Fig.2. Behavior of these patterns may be explained
as follows: The deviation of the phase of the incident wave over the aperture of the test antenna
Fig. 2. Range length effect on 30dB Dolph-Chebyshev pattern of 101 element array
Predicting the Far-Field Pattern of Dolph-Chebyshev Linear Arrays
230 J. Subramanyam
is known as the phase taper. As the distance to the source antenna decreases, the phase taper
across the aperture of the test antenna increases. It may be observed from Fig.2, that, as the
phase taper is made more severe as a result of reducing the range length, the first side lobe
on either side of the main beam begins to merge with the main beam, thereby forming a
shoulder lobe. Further reduction in range length causes successive side lobes to merge with
the main beam. It may also be observed that, at a range length of 2D
2
//, the errors on the
second and third side lobes are significantly less than the error on the first side lobe. This
means that for low side lobe arrays, the range length of 2 D
2
// can still be used to measure
wide angle side lobes accurately at the expense of losing the first one or two side lobes.
Therefore, the first few nulls next to the main beam are not fully formed in the near-field
and hence cannot be located from the magnitude pattern. Therefore, it may be instructive to
examine the phase pattern for clues about the locations of the nulls. With this objective, the
phase pattern corresponding to the amplitude pattern of Fig.2 for r = 1.5 D
2
/ /, is shown
plotted in Fig.3.
Fig. 3. Phase pattern of Dolph-Chebyshev array
From Fig.3, it may be observed that the phase pattern makes steep excursions between
20 and 160 (corresponding to a phase shift of 180) at the locations of well defined nulls.
In the region 88 : q : 90 the has pattern changes gradually from about 140 to 0 . This
is the region wherein the first null has completely merged with the main beam (Fig.2).
Therefore, the phase pattern in this region requires a closer study.
Phase patterns in the region 88 : 0 : 90 for different range lengths are shown in
Fig.4. This figure clearly shows the transformation of the phase pattern as the range length
increases towards far field values. The most interesting feature is that all the curves, for R up
to 10 D
2
//, intersect at 0 = 88.4. This is the point of inflexion where the curves exhibit a
change in slope. This point gives the location of the first null. Therefore, plotting the phase
231
patterns for at least two values of range length R and finding the point of their intersection
may locate the missing null.
Table 1 gives the 1ocations of all the nulls. As the locations of all the nulls, including the
first null, are known, the far-field pattern is computed using (4). This pattern is shown in
Fig.5.
Fig. 4. Phase patterns at different range lengths
232 J. Subramanyam
233
5. CONCLUSIONS
It may be inferred, from a comparison of the reconstructed pattern (Fig.5) with the true
far-field pattern (Fig.2), that this transformation technique successfully predicts the far-field
pattern. Analytically and computationally this technique is simple and fast. It is suitable only
to linear arrays since non-linear arrays and continuous aperture antennas cannot be modeled
by Schelkunoff polynomials. Multiple scans are required in the near-field because; the locations
of the nulls cannot be determined with a single scan. The accuracy of the predicted far-field
depends on the accuracy with which nulls can be located. In this respect, there is a limitation
since the null locations are determined graphically.
REFERENCES
1. R.C. Johnson, H.A.Ecker, and J.S. Hollis, Determination of far-field antenna patterns from
near-field measurements, Proc.IEEE, 61, 1668-1694 (1973).
2. A.D. Yaghjian, An overview of near-field antenna measurements, IEEE Trans.Antennas
Propagat., 34, 30-45 (1986).
3. J.A. Hansen, E.S.Gillespie, T.G.Hickmann, and J.D.Dyson, Antenna measurements in The
handbook of antenna design, A.W. Rudge, K. Milne, A.D. Olver, and P. Knight, Eds, Second
edition, Peter Peregrinus Ltd., London (1986).
4. S.A. Schelkunoff A mathematical theory of linear arrays, BSTJ, 22, 80-107 (1943).
5. A.D. Bressler, A new algorithm for calculating the current distribution of Dolph-Chebyshev
arrays, IEEE Trans.Antennas Propagat., 28, 951-952 (1980).
Fig. 5. Far-field pattern when the missing null is predicted at 88.39
234 J. Subramanyam
235 Predicting the Far-Field Pattern of Dolph-Chebyshev Linear Arrays
236
237

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OPTIMIZED FUZZY MODELLING OF A BOILER

C (=0.7mV) and after

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