'Abbasids, Buyids, and Seljuqs 750-1095

by Sanderson Beck

'Abbasid Caliphate 750-809

The 'Abbasids began by taking power from the Syrian Arabs as 'Abd Allah ibn 'Ali hunted down the Umayyad leaders. In 750 eighty nobles of the Umayyad house were in ited to a ban!uet in Syria. All were murdered e"#ept $ahman ibn %u'awiya& who es#aped and made his way to Spain& where he be#ame an independent Umayyad go ernor in 75' with his #apital at (ordoba. In the rest of the Islami# empire under the 'Abbasids many )ersians gained prominent positions. The religious Shi'a& led in Ira! by Abu*Salamah& relu#tantly a##epted the 'Abbasid #hief as (aliph. The 'Abbasids +ustified their #laim to the #aliphate as the des#endants of the prophet %uhammad's un#le al*'Abbas. The first 'Abbasid (aliph's name al* Saffah means ,the bloodshedder-, he did not trust .ufa and built his pala#e at al*Anbar north of the /uphrates& but he died in 750. 1is brother Abu 2a'far su##eeded him& taking the name al*%ansur& whi#h means ,the i#torious., 1e agreed to make his nephew 'Isa ibn %usa his heir but later in 7'0 terrified him into retiring on a pension. Al*%ansur persuaded Abu %uslim to lead his army against the rebelling for#es of 'Abd Allah& who was defeated at 3isibin in 750 and fled to 4asra. Then the (aliph in ited Abu %uslim to his #ourt and had him killed by his guards- his followers in .hurasan also had to be !uelled. After two (hinese prisoners re ealed the se#ret of making paper& the first %uslim paper mill was founded at Samarkand in 755. Ibn al*%u!affa' wrote in 4asra while Sulayman go erned there 6755*7577- but he was e"e#uted soon after Sulayman was remo ed. In his Risala fi'lsahaba (Epistle on the Companionage)& ibn al*%u!affa' ad ised separating fis#al and military duties be#ause #olle#ting the land ta" (kharaj) was a #orrupting o##upation. 1e re#ommended religious and ethi#al edu#ation for offi#ers and regular salaries. Ibn al*%u!affa' ad ised the (aliph to #ompile the laws so that +udges would not be guided merely by their own opinions. The #ommon people should also be edu#ated by professional tea#hers. Al*%ansur 6r. 750*7757 sent out armies against the 4y8antines that re#aptured forts in Armenia and (ili#ia and penetrated into Tabaristan. 9urther east %uslim troops #aptured :andahar in Afghanistan and went through the .hyber )ass into India& raiding .ashmir. A##ording to a (hinese history of 75;& Arabs and )ersians sa#ked and burned (anton& #ausing this port to be #losed to foreign shipping until 7<=. 'Alid re olts in Arabia and 4asra were iolently put down by 7'>. Al*%ansur also had other religious e"tremists killed& in#luding the $awandiya& who worshipped him as (aliph& and he perse#uted the %ani#haeans. Al*%ansur kept on the #apable .halid ibn 4armak& who had been the #hief ad isor of his prede#essor. .halid's father was said to ha e been a 4uddhist priest at 4alkh& and he was well edu#ated. In 7'= the (aliph began building a new #apital at 4aghdad near the sites of the illustrious an#ient #ities of Akkad& 4abylon& Seleu#ia& and (tesiphon& using 500&000 laborers. To gain funds he appropriated =&700&000 dirhams from his own brother Abbas that he had gained as ?o ernor of %esopotamia& and he took nine*tenths of the assets

from the wealthy des#endants of Abu 4akr at 4asra. 4aghdad would soon be#ome home to about 000&000 people& the largest #ity outside of (hina. Al*%ansur #entrali8ed power by appointing +udges himself and established a network of spies- but he was fairly parsimonious and left a ri#h treasury to his son& who took the presumptuous name of al*%ahdi& ,the guided one., @hen the 2ewish /"ilar#h Solomon died in 7'5& the ?eonim leaders& 2udah the 4lind at Sora and Audai at )umbeditha& pre ented Anan ben Aa id from su##eeding by #hoosing his younger brother (hananya. Anan re+e#ted the 2udaism of the Talmud and wanted to return to a stri#t adheren#e to the Bible& whi#h had re#ently been made more a ailable to non*s#holars by adding a system of owel points. The followers of Anan #alled themsel es .arais and their ad ersaries $abbanis& meaning ,partisans of authority., Anan was put in prison- but he was released by the (aliph when he #laimed that he was not a rebel against 2udaism but the founder of a new religion. After the time of Anan the /"ilar#hate was no longer hereditarybut the presidents of the a#ademies dire#ted the ele#tion of the /"ilar#h. 9or many #enturies the Arab #on!uerors ruled as an elite& and #on ersion of 2ews& (hristians& and Boroastrians to Islam was gradual. %uslims did not be#ome a ma+ority in their empire until the ele enth #entury. In northern %esopotamia and Syria& (hristians remained the ma+ority until the late 5>th #entury. %u!atil ibn Sulayman 6d. 7'77 suggested that the Qur'an #ould be interpreted histori#ally and allegori#ally as well as literally. 2a'far al*Sadi! 6d. 7'57 was the si"th imam in the line of 'Ali. 1e and others found four le els of meaning. After 2a'far died& the Shi'i #ommunity di ided into followers of his sons 'Abdallah and Isma'il. In the <th #entury the Isma'ilis proselyti8ed peasant tribes in Arabia& Syria& Ira!& 3orth Afri#a& and Iran& prea#hing reform and trying to organi8e them politi#ally. The %a8dakis formed the Shi'i se#t .hurramiyya. They also belie ed in rein#arnation and embodiment of the di ine in periodi# prophets. After the Umayyad #aliphate #ollapsed& the %a8dakis supported Abu %uslim& who was murdered by the 'Abbasid al*%ansur in 755. 1is general Sunbad took up the re olt in $ay and was a##used of being a libertine. In 777 al* %u!anna was #alled ,the eiled prophet of .hurasan, and led the %a8daki rebellion in Transo"iania for eight years before they were defeated. After the .hurrami 2a idan ibn Shahrak died about ;5'& 4abak #laimed that 2a idan's soul had passed into his body. 1e re olted against the 'Abbasid (aliph Al*%a'mun and his su##essor for twenty years in 2ibal and A8erbai+an- but his defeat and e"e#ution in ;>7 ended %a8daki hopes to o er#ome the aristo#rati# 'Abbasids. The .aisani Shi'is #hanged their loyalty to the lineage of Isma'il ibn 2afar& and the .hurramis de eloped their theories of esoteri# interpretation and be#ame known as 4atinis. The #ity of .ufa be#ame a #enter for these ideas& and in the <th #entury 1amdan :armat formed the first #ommunisti# illages there. They formed a union and #hose one reliable person to re#ei e and distribute goods for the needs of all. )eople worked hard for the honor of benefiting the #ommunity. The impo erished or indebted were helped to be#ome sol ent& and they only had to repay the #apital. Cike the %ani#haeans& the %a8dakis belie ed in the two basi# prin#iples of Cight and Aarkness. They sought to pra#ti#e the four di ine powers of dis#ernment& understanding& perse eran#e& and +oy. These were analogous to the king& the #hief priest or +udge& the army #ommander& and the entertainment master. The human who be#omes godly is no longer

sub+e#t to religious rituals. In the tenth #entury 3aubakhti and %a!disi des#ribed the tenets of the .hurrami. %a!disi wrote they belie ed that souls return and that re elation by prophets #omes from one sour#e and ne er ends. They a oided shedding blood e"#ept when re olting and e"pe#ted hea enly rewards if they did not in+ure #ommunity or religion. Some of them engaged in free se" and belie ed in en+oying all pleasures as long as they did not harm others. 3aubakhti e"plained that their interpretation of the resurre#tion is that souls transmigrate and thus re#ei e the rewards of hea en and the punishments of hell in this world. ?od #an in#arnate as imams& prophets& apostles& and angels. The writing of Shahristani also indi#ates that the .hurramis repla#ed the day of +udgment with rein#arnation. Al*%ahdi 6r. 775*7;57 made .halid's son Dahya al*4armaki his i8ier 6prime minister7& and he also appointed him to tutor his son 1arun. This (aliph patroni8ed the arts and s#ien#es and built 4aghdad into a thri ing #ommer#ial #enter. Ibadi .hari+i leader 'Abd al*$ahman ibn $ustam founded an independent state in the #entral %aghrib 6Algeria7 by 77;- but al*%ahdi suppressed the messiani# mo ement led by al*%u!anna 6the Eeiled Fne7 in the east in 77; and had the )ersian prophet Salik ibn Abdul :uddus #ru#ified as a indi! 6e"tremist7 in 7;>. Det he tried to mollify the 'Alids with gifts and positions at #ourt. In 7;= al*%ahdi left his son %usa as regent in 4aghdad while he led his army against (onstantinople. 1is younger son 1arun gained the name al*$ashid 6the upright7 for ad an#ing to (hrysopolis and for#ing /mpress Irene to pay an annual tribute of <0&000 dinars. Al*%ahdi died while hunting and was su##eeded by his oldest son %usa in 7;5. %usa imprisoned Ei8ier Dahya ibn .halid al*4armaki for re#ommending 1arun as the ne"t #aliph& and he turned to military leaders to put down an 'Alid rebellion at %edina led by al*1usayn ibn 'Ali- but when he plotted against his own younger brother 1arun& their mother apparently had %usa suffo#ated in 7;'. 1arun was pro#laimed (aliph& and he had %usa's son 2a'far arrested and Dahya al*4armaki released from prison. 1asan's grandson Idris ibn 'Abd Allah es#aped from the %edina battle& and in 7;; he and his son Idris II founded the Idrisid dynasty in %oro##o. /ast of there in 7<> the people of Tunis rebelled and mar#hed on the Ifri!iya #apital at :airawan& ending the go ernment by the 1atim family. 1arun sent his ?eneral 1arthama& who restored order but resigned as ?o ernor in 7<7& being repla#ed by 1arun's foster brother %uhammad ibn %u!atil. )eople rebelled against his rule& and in ;00 Ibrahim ibn al*Aghlab established his Aghlabid dynasty at :airawan. 1arun al*$ashid 6r. 7;'*;0<7 ruled at the height of 'Abbasid wealth and power in 4aghdad& and his #ourt be#ame the setting of the popular Thousand and "ne #ights. ?o ernment was e en more #entrali8ed under the powerful i8iers Dahya al*4armaki and his son 9adl. %any go ernors were repla#ed& and /gypt was in estigated to make sure that re enues were sent to 4aghdad. 2a'far al*4armaki sent 'Umar ibn %ahran to repla#e the ?o ernor of /gypt& and he only a##epted gifts in bags. Then later those saying they #ould not pay ta"es were gi en their bags ba#k so that they #ould. Dahya was appointed ?o ernor of .hurasan& where he re#ruited 50&000 new men& and =0&000 of these were sent to 3orth Afri#a. Strife between two tribal groups broke out at Aamas#us in 7<= and lasted two years. In 7<0 a .hari+i rebellion led by @alid ibn Tarif in 2a8ira pre ented the #olle#tion of ta"es in that region until the 4edouin #hief Da8id ibn %a8yad al*Shaybani was able to defeat the rebellion and kill @alid. The 4armaki family was dominant for si"teen years- but after al*9adl ga e Dahya ibn 'Abd Allah safe #ondu#t from his mountain refuge& the (aliph had the 'Alid e"e#uted. After that& 1arun turned more to his military #ommanders su#h as Da8id ibn %a8yad.

1arun #onferred generous gifts on the #elebrated musi#ian Ibrahim al*%awsili and the poet Abu*3uwas. The (aliph sponsored the #onstru#tion of numerous a#ademies and uni ersities& beginning the work of translating the great books from ?reek and Sanskrit. In 7<5 1arun ordered all pro in#ial go ernors to en#ourage learning by gi ing pri8es in state e"aminations. An outstanding book on Arabi# grammar was written by al*.isa'i& and +urispruden#e was ad an#ed by dis#ussions with his #hief +udge Abu*Dusuf& the most distinguished +urist after the liberal Abu*1anifa 6700*7'77 of Ira!. 1arun asked Abu*Dusuf to write a book defining religious ta" #olle#tion so that human rights #ould be preser ed. At %edina the influential +urist %alik ibn Anas 6d. 7<57 formulated a #omprehensi e #olle#tion of legal pre#edents based on the traditions of the prophet and his %edina #ommunity. %uhammad ibn Idris al*Shafi'i 6d. ;=07 studied with %alik at %edina. @hile an offi#ial in Demen al*Shafi'i +oined a moderate Shi'i rebellion and was imprisoned during the #aliphate of 1arun al*$ashid. After learning from 4aghdad +urists& al*Shafi'i went to /gypt to tea#h. In his ma+or work& $itab al-%mm& he tried to show that the entire %uslim law (Shari'a) #ould be deri ed from the Qur'an in order to eliminate the arbitrary use of personal +udgment (ra'&) by using reason ('a!l) and analogies (!i&as) from the a##epted traditions. 9or the ultimate authoritati e prin#iple he suggested the #onsensus (ijma') of the %uslim #ommunity (umma). @hate er all the a##epted %uslim s#holars ('ulama) re#ogni8ed be#ame binding law. Al* Shafi'i also sought to establish the #redibility of the traditions (hadith) by authenti#ating its transmitters (isnad). As an alternati e to %alik the legal ethi#s of al*Shafi'i be#ame an established system of +urispruden#e (fi!h). The four sour#es of this +urispruden#e are the Qur'an& the traditions& #onsensus& and analogy. Although the Qur'an forbade drinking wine& the 1anifi legal iew allowed al#oholi# drinks made from dates& honey& or figs. Apparently 1arun began to drink more in the later years of his reign. The (aliphate go ernment took ten per#ent of imported mer#handise as #ustoms dues& but most of the re enue #ame from the imperial land ta" and the poll ta" on non* %uslims. Auring 1arun's reign the annual go ernment in#ome has been estimated at 0=&000&000 gold dinars& and the historian Tabari stated that when 1arun died& the treasury #ontained <00 trillion sil er dirhams& though 500&000&000 dinars is a more reasonable estimate. 1arun married his #ousin Bubayda& who like his mother 6her aunt7& had e"tensi e estates to manage all o er the empire. Bubayda used her own resour#es to build #anals& mos!ues& hostelries& and monasteries- she had the pilgrims' <00*mile road from .ufa to %e##a impro ed. As affluen#e spread in 4aghdad& more people wanted to borrow money& whi#h was loaned by 2ews not bound by the Qur'an's in+un#tion against usury. 1arun's two regular pro+e#ts were atta#king the 4y8antines in the north and leading the pilgrimage south to %e##a. In 7<7 the Abbasids' first prisoner e"#hange with the 4y8antines freed >&700 #apti es. Although %uslims #ould not be made sla es& many were imported from outside the empire or were #aptured in war. Sla es a#tually li ed rather well among %uslims who followed the ethi# of making them part of their families. This pro ided se#urity& and religious merit was gained by freeing them. %ales were often adopted as sons& and females who bore a #hild be#ame respe#ted mothers in the household run by the women. Det male sla es #ould be beaten for being disobedient or idle. 4esides his prominent wife Bubayda& 1arun's #losest #ompanion was al*9adl's brother 2a'far& who was edu#ated by the famous +udge Abu*Dusuf and married 1arun's fa orite sister Abbasa. So +ealous was the (aliph o er 2a'far's #ompanionship that he forbade him from being alone with his own wife& and he was ery upset when he learned that Abbasa had borne

2a'far two #hildren. The 4armakis had their own pala#es& and 2a'far's #ost twenty million dirhams to build and an e!ual amount to furnish. In 7<; when 'Abd Allah al*%a'mun was 5=& 1arun made 2a'far his tutor& and together they began go erning .hurasan. Dahya's elder son al*9adl be#ame the mentor of al*Amin. In ;0= 1arun di ided his empire in half between his two 5'*year*old sons& gi ing al*Amin Ira! and the @est& while al*%a'mun maintained .hurasan and )ersia. In %e##a that year 1arun ga e away a million gold dinars in #harity. 1arun had %usa al*4armaki and 2a'far arrested. In ;0> 1arun had his best friend 2a'far suddenly killed& probably be#ause he suspe#ted that the powerful 4armaki family was fomenting a Shi'i rebellion in .hurasan. Dahya& his three other sons& and their relati es were put in prison& and the in entory of their estates #ame to >'&'7'&000 dinars. 4elie ing his former Ei8ier was still holding out& 1arun had al*9adl gi en =00 lashes& whi#h nearly killed him. 4ehind these arbitrary a#tions may ha e been a dispute o er the su##ession. 1arun fa ored his oldest son %uhammad& who later be#ame al*Amin- but the 4armakis and .hurasani soldiers wanted his other son 'Abd Allah 6al*%a'mun7 at least to rule o er .hurasan as an independent pro in#e. 1arun sent an enemy of the 4armakis& 'Ali ibn 'Isa ibn %ahan& to go ern .hurasan. In ;05 a rebellion broke out in Samarkand led by $afi ibn Cayth& grandson of their last Umayyad ?o ernor 3asr ibn Sayyar. 1arun's ?o ernor 'Ali ibn %ahan had e"ploited the resour#es there and had to be repla#ed by ?eneral 1arthama ibn A'yan. %ahan's son Isa had stolen >0&000&000 dirhams before he was killed fighting $afi& and %ahan was found with another ;0&000&000 dirhams himself. In ;0' 1arun with about 5>5&000 men led the largest military e"pedition against the 4y8antine empire during the Abbasid era- the raids #aptured 1era#lea and Tyana while the %uslim na y plundered (yprus in ;05 and $hodes in ;07. 4y8antine /mperor 3i#ephorus agreed to pay an additional >00&000 dinars tribute in e"#hange for a tru#e. @ith re olts in Syria and 3orth Afri#a as well as in .hurasan& 1arun be#ame in#reasingly paranoid and e en suspe#ted his two sons of plotting against him. 1arun mar#hed east from 4aghdad with his army in ;0;. 1e sent 50&000 men to suppress a re olt by .hurramiya hereti#s in A8erbai+an- all prisoners were killed& and their property was sold at au#tion. 1arthama was besieging $afi at Samarkand- when $afi's brother was #aptured and sent to 1arun& the (aliph had him e"e#uted. 1arun was the only reigning 'Abbasid #aliph to isit .hurasan& and he died there of illness in ;0<.

Abbasid Caliphate 809-945

1arun's son by his wife Bubayda be#ame (aliph with the name al*Amin while 1arun's son by a )ersian sla e named al*%a'mun #ontinued to go ern .hurasan. Al*%a'mun pro#laimed himself imam& the spiritual leader& and in ;55 al*Amin appointed 'Ali ibn 'Isa ?o ernor of .hurasan and sent him east with an army of 00&000- but they were defeated at $ay by a mu#h smaller for#e led by al*%a'munGs ?eneral Tahir. Then the ne"t year Tahir's for#es were augmented by a large army #ommanded by 1arthama ibn A'yan& who defeated Shi'i rebellions in southern Ira!. $ebellions against al*Amin also o##urred in /gypt and Arabia. Tahir's army besieged 4aghdad for more than a year& and al*Amin was killed. Al*%a'mun 6r. ;5>*;>>7 tried to rule from %ar in .hurasan for se eral years. Al*9adl ibn Sahl's brother al*1asan go erned in 4aghdad but was disliked. @hen al*9adl persuaded the (aliph to imprison 1arthama& al*1asan was temporarily dri en out of 4aghdad. After these rebellions al*%a'mun pro#laimed 'Ali ibn %usa& an 'Alid des#endant of 1usain as his heir in ;57. That year the (aliph had his Ei8ier al*9adl ibn Sahl put to death& and his #ourt arri ed at 4aghdad in ;5<.

Syria& )alestine& and /gypt still remained outside his #ontrol. Al %a'mun appointed Tahir go ernor of the @est& then poli#e #hief at 4aghdad in ;=0& and ?o ernor of .hurasan in ;=5though Tahir died the ne"t year& he was su##eeded by his son Talha. The (aliph sent his brother 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir to for#e a re#on#iliation on northern Syria in ;=0& and 'Abd Allah also brought /gypt ba#k into the (aliph's empire before returning to the #apital in ;=7. @hen his brother died the ne"t year& 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir was appointed ?o ernor of .hurasan. Ifri!iya was not regained and was #ontrolled by the Aghlabid family& though the %uslim na y dominated the %editerranean Sea. %uslims from Spain #on!uered (rete in ;=5 and ruled it until <'5 while the Aghlabids o##upied all of Si#ily by ;>5. At 4aghdad al*%a'mun established a hall of wisdom to promote s#ien#e and philosophy& sponsoring translations from ?reek& Syria#& )ersian& and Sanskrit. 1e pro ided endowments for se eral #olleges and en#ouraged free dis#ussion on theologi#al and other issues. (hildren of both se"es were taught the Qur'an in mos!ue elementary s#hools& but few girls had edu#ation beyond that. Aristo#rats usually were edu#ated by pri ate tutors. Al %a'mun appointed 2ews& (hristians& Barathustrians& and Sabaeans to his #oun#il in e!uality with %uslims. 1is edi#t of ;=7& de#laring the Qur'an a #reation rather than the eternal word of ?od& #hallenged the fundamentalists& allowed for future #hange& and a#knowledged free willthus he fa ored the %u'ta8ili. 1owe er& in his last year he may ha e gone too far in ordering an in!uisition (mihna) to hunt down re#al#itrant traditionalists. )rofessionals had to a#knowledge that the Qur'an is a #reation or lose their +obs. The +urist Ahmad ibn 1anbal 67;0*;557 was perse#uted& and he be#ame imam for a dissident legal s#hool. In the north the s#hismati# 4abak had re i ed the ideas of al*%u!anna and allied with the 4y8antine army of Theophilus& beginning a ma+or re olt in ;5'. Al %a'mun died on a #ampaign against them after #apturing Tarsus in ;>>. Al*%u'tasim's mother had been a Turkish sla e and as (aliph he fortified his rule 6;>>*;0=7 by a#!uiring an army of Turkish sla es. .hurasanGs ?o ernor 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir sent him =&000 ea#h year as tribute. A8erbai+anGs ?o ernor 1atim ibn 1arthama ibn A'yan had re olted when he learned that his father had been imprisoned and killed by al*%a'mun- +oining with 4abak& they #ontrolled most of Aberbai+an and some of 2ibal by ;>>. Al*%u'tasim sent UshrusanaGs .ing al*Afshin& and 4abak was finally defeated in ;>7. Al*Afshin probably en#ouraged TabaristanGs ?o ernor %a8yar to re olt against the Tahirids in ;>< by refusing to pay the land ta"& and many peasants o erthrew their illage #hiefs to plunder their goods. Seeing the danger of this re olution& the (aliph helped 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir to defeat them. Al*%u'tasim a##used al*Afshin of #onspiring with this re olution& and he was tried and e"e#uted in ;05. Al*%u'tasim had built a new #apital at Samarra in ;>'. Salaries that had traditionally gone to Arab %uslim families now went to Turkish soldiers. ?o ernment was e en more #entrali8ed as e en fairly independent .hurasan sent funds to Ira!. The ri#h mer#hant %uhammad ibn al*Bayyat be#ame Ei8ier in ;>' and held that important position also through the reign of al*%u'tasim's son al*@athi! 6;0=*;077. 4oth these #aliphs #ontinued the in!uisition began by al*%a'mun. Al*@athi! also tried to for#e his liberal iews on the #lergy and e en had the fundamentalist Ahmad ibn 3asr .hu8ai beheaded- but his su##essor al*%utawakkil 6r. ;07*;'57 reasserted the orthodo"y of the Sunni ma+ority. 1e ended the in!uisition in ;0; but perse#uted dissent and non*%uslims. )rofessional s#hools of law de eloped& and no theology was #onsidered legimitimate if it was not asso#iated with one of the four Sunni s#hools. The Turkish Itakh be#ame ?o ernor of the @est in ;00& but the (aliph and the Tahirids had him assassinated in ;0<. @hen .hurasanGs ?o ernor 'Abd Allah ibn Tahir died in ;05& he was su##eeded by his

son Tahir& #ontinuing that family's #ontrol of the east during al*%utawakkil's reign. Three #aliphal armies were sent to defeat a rebellion in A8erbai+an& and they were i#torious in ;0<. In his Book of 'roof al*2ahi8 677'*;'<7 wrote that Arabs #ould be preser ed from de#line if they did not fall prey to the fools' sense of honor& whi#h is to regard forgi ing another as wrong. 1is ,%erits of the Turks, and other essays were written for the sophisti#ated Arabs who feared the Turks. @hen the (aliph #onfis#ated the estates of Turkish leader @asif to gi e them to al*9ath& @asif and other Turks murdered al*%utawakkil and al*9ath in ;'5. In the ne"t nine years four different (aliphs attempted to rule from Samarra& and three of them were murdered. Utamish be#ame the first Turkish Ei8ier- but he was assassinated in ;'> by troops doing the bidding of his ri als @asif and 4ugha the Dounger. (aspian pro in#es rebelled and gained their independen#e in ;'0. A igilante leader named Da'!ub ibn Cayth in ;'5 had sei8ed the pro in#ial #apital of Baran+& and by ;'5 the #oppersmith (saffar) had defeated kharijis and #ontrolled Sistan& founding the Saffarid dynasty. Two years later he in aded Taharid .hurasan- the Saffarids took .irman and 9ars& and in ;70 Da'!ub's for#es in aded ?ha8na& .abul& and 4amyan. Al*%untasir 6r. ;'57 had lasted only si" months as (aliph- but the Turks #hose his brother al*%u'ta88 to #hallenge (aliph al*%usta'in& who had been sele#ted by @asif& 4ugha& and the Tahirids in ;'5. They besieged 4aghdad& for#ing al* %usta'in into e"ile at @asit& where he soon died. In ;'7 @asif was murdered by ri als& and the ne"t year 4ugha the Dounger died in prison while 4ugha's elder son was e"iled to 1amadhan. As Tahirid power de#lined& al*%u'ta88 was murdered in ;'<. 1is su##essor al* %u!tadi& son of al*@athi!& was soon deposed by Turkish offi#ers led by %usa ibn 4ugha& who appointed as (aliph al*%utamid& the eldest sur i ing son of al*%utawakkil. Although al*%utamid was (aliph ;70*;<=& the real power was gained by his brother al* %uwaffa!. A re olution of mostly Afri#an sla es #alled Ban+ 6who had worked sugar #ane in wret#hed #onditions7 began in ;'; led by 'Ali ibn %uhammad& who #laimed to be a des#endant of the 'Alid family. In ;75 the e"*sla es aided by the 4anu Tamim and the 4anu Asad destroyed the large #ity of 4asra& slaughtering a reported !uarter million inhabitants in one day. 'Ali founded a new #apital #alled %ukhtara east of 4asra. In ;7> %usa ibn 4ugha fought the Ban+ for a while but had to resign as ?o ernor of the /ast. That year Da'!ub's for#es took 3ishapur& ending a half #entury of Taharid rule. Al*%uwaffa! and a third party of rebels fought Da'!ub's army in ;75& and Da'!ub was defeated trying to take 4aghdad the ne"t year. In ;7< Da'!ub died and was su##eeded by his brother 'Amr. That year al*%uwaffa! and his son Abu'l*'Abbas led an army of 50&000 against the Ban+- but %ukhtara was not taken until ;;> when 'Ali ibn %uhammad was killed in the fighting. After the ele enth ShiGi imam died in ;70& the 4anu 3awbakht family in 4aghdad suggested that the twelfth imam was hidden- but after <05 this be#ame an e"pe#tation for the future Islami# messiah #alled the mahdi& and those hoping for this are #alled Twel ers. Auring the de#line of the HAbbasid (aliphate& the ShiGi fa#tion of the 4anu 9urat in 4aghdad was opposed by the 4anu 2arrah& whi#h was mostly 3estorian (hristians wanting freedom of religion. Ahmad ibn Tulun& son of a Turkish sla e& go erned /gypt from ;'; and hired a large army to take o er Syria and atta#k the 4y8antines. @hen Tulun died in ;;0& al*%uwaffa! sent his son Abu'l*'Abbas to #hallenge Tulun's son .humarawayh ibn Ahmad and for#ed the Tulunids to pay >00&000 dinars in annual tribute to the #aliphate. Al*%uwaffa! now held the real power until he died in ;<5. Then his son Abu'l*'Abbas took o er& and as the ne"t (aliph he took the name al*%u'tadid 6r. ;<=*<0=7. 1e regained territories taken by the Tulunids& in#reasing

/gypt's tribute to 050&000 dinars per year. Al*%u'tadid also used his armies to bring 2a8ira ba#k under Abbasid #ontrol by o##upying %osul in ;<>- but Armenia and A8erbai+an remained independent. In ;<; the (aliph appointed the Saffarid 'Amr ibn Cayth to repla#e the Samanid Isma'il ibn Ahmad in Transo"iana- but Cayth was defeated and #aptured& and Isma'il was a#knowledged as the ruler of .hurasan. Al*%u'tadid died and was su##eeded by his son al*%uktafi 6r. <0=*<0;7& who made pea#e in the east with Samanids in $ay and the Saffarids in 9ars. As soon as he arri ed in 4aghdad& the new (aliph ordered the prisoners released and the underground dungeons demolished. The :armatian se#t was founded by 1amdan :armat with an e#le#ti# philosophy and se#ret initiations& and they appointed their own #aliph. Their ,Cords of )urity, sent Abu Said ibn 4ahram al*Tannabi to #on!uer 4ahrayn and Bikrawayh al*Aindani with 4edouin for#es that de astated Syria and e en besieged Aamas#us. In <0> an Abbasid army led by %uhammad ibn Sulayman was sent against the :armatians in Syria and defeated them& though the :armatians #ontinued to raid #ities in Syria and Ira!. The Tulunid dynasty was ended in <05& and /gypt was finally subdued the following year. In#reased tribute from these regions enabled al*%uktafi to lea e a treasury of 55&000&000 dinars when he died in <0;. Fffi#ials #hose al*%uktafi's 5>*year*old son Al*%uktadir as the ne"t (aliph. 1e was #hallenged by Amir al*1usayn ibn 1amdan's appointment of ibn al*%u'ta88- but his supporters abandoned him& and he was e"e#uted after one day. Al*%uktadir's Ei8ier al*'Abbas was also killed in the fighting& and 'Ali ibn al*9urat be#ame the powerful i8ier of the young (aliph. 1is ?eneral %u'nis not only sa ed his throne but led the #ampaigns that regained 9ars from the Saffarids in <50 and defended /gypt against a 9atimid in asion& though little re enue was now #oming in from these pro in#es. The (aliph took to #onfis#ating estates of deposed i8iers& taking =&>00&000 dinars from ibn al*9urat. $espe#t for law de#lined& and religious wars between the Sunnis and Shi'as in#reased. Ibn*2arir al*Tabari wrote an e"tensi e #ommentary on the Qur'an& and his #omprehensi e history left e"traordinary details of Arab and %uslim history up to the year <5>. Sa+ids led by Dusuf ibn Abi'l*Sa+ had taken $ay- but after se eral attempts the army of %u'nis finally defeated them in A8erbai+an in <5;& though the new go ernor Sabuk did not send funds to 4aghdad either. @hen Sabuk died in <==& the #aptured Dusuf was released and returned to go ern A8erbai+an& $ay& and other Iranian pro in#es. Al*%uktadir was deposed twi#e temporarily& and it be#ame in#reasingly diffi#ult to raise re enues from the pro in#es. The %adhara'i brothers agreed to #olle#t ta"es and pay one million dinars per year to the treasury while paying the Syrian and /gyptian armies themsel es- but after <5; the threat of a 9atimid in asion di erted in#ome from /gypt& and by the end of al*%uktadir's reign in <>= no re enue had #ome in from /gypt or Syria in four years. In <=> the :armatians began to in ade Ira! from 4ahrayn& and led by Abu Tahir al*2amnabi only 5&700 men were needed to sa#k the re#o ering #ity of 4asra. In <=' Ei8ier al*.hasibi #ould only offer re enues from western Iran to A8erbai+an ruler Dusuf ibn Abi'l*Sa+ to add to his Armenia and A8erbai+anGs if he would fight the rebels threatening the Sawad fields. ?eneral %u'nis got help from 1amdanids in defending 4aghdad in <=7& but that year his (aliph began plotting against him. Already #ontrolling Arabia& the :armatians atta#ked %e##a in <>0& smashed the bla#k stone of the .a'ba and took the fragments to their #apital at al*Ahsa. At the same time their allied 9atimids were o##upying Ale"andria and the 9ayyum in /gypt& and 1anbalis were rioting in 4aghdad. Abbasid rule o er #entral Iran ended in <>5. After three years of struggles in the #apital& %u'nis defeated and killed (aliph Al*%uktadir in

<>=. 1e was su##eeded by his brother al*:ahir& who had ruled briefly after an earlier deposition. 1is iolent methods and negotiation with the defeated %uhammad ibn Da!ut stimulated %u'nis to re olt- but the ?eneral's throat was #ut in <>>. 1owe er& the ne"t year the pre ious Ei8ier ibn %u!la sei8ed al*:ahir while he was drunk and put out his eyes. In <>0 Al*%uktadir's son al*$adi be#ame (aliph o er a de#aying and shrinking empire. /gypt and Syria were #ontrolled by the ikhshid %uhammad ibn Tugh+ while the 1amdanids had %osul and 2a8ira& and western Iran was in the hands of Aaulami soldiers. In <>5 some fanati#al 1anbalis raided people's houses in 4aghdad& pouring out wine& breaking the instruments of singing girls& and stopping men from going with girls or boys. 4adr al* .harshani& the #hief of poli#e& prohibited the 1anbalis from #ongregating- but their 8ealous rioting #ontinued& and (aliph al*$adi had to denoun#e them. The (aliph appointed ibn $a'i! #ommander of #ommanders in <>'& but the ne"t year he damaged the 3ahrawan #anal that watered the Sawad in order to blo#k the in asion of 4a+kam's army& affe#ting future produ#ti ity. The #ommand passed from the Turk 4a+kam 6<>;*<057 to the 1amdanid 3air al* Aaula 6<0=*<0>7 and then to the Turk Tu8un 6<0>*<057. Al*$adi died in <00 and was su##eeded as (aliph by his brother Al*%utta!i- but he de#lined to flee to /gypt and was blinded and deposed by Tu8un. @hen Tu8un died in <05& the 4uyids took power e en though he had appointed a new #aliph.

U ayyad Spain
The last remaining Umayyad leader 'Abd al*$ahman had won o er the Demeni party and taken #ontrol of %uslim Spain in 75'. An Abbasid e"pedition led by al*Ala ibn %ughith sent to Spain was defeated in 7'5& and the heads of its leaders were sent to the (aliph. In 7'7 'Abd al*$ahman made a =0*year tru#e with the northern kingdom of Asturias. An attempt by (harlemagne in 77; to take Barago8a failed. 'Abd al*$ahman piously tolerated (hristians and allowed 2ews to return- but his son 1isha I 6r. 7;;*7<'7 atta#ked and defeated (hristians in (astile and Ala a& though he was not i#torious against Asturias in 7<5. 1is su##eeding son al*1akam I 6r. 7<'*;==7 suppressed rising religious dissent with for#e& using %amluk sla es in his pala#e guard to intimidate people and to build up a permanent army. Barago8a& Toledo& and %Irida had to be iolently re#on!uered. %any fled Spain to %oro##o or Ale"andria& and refugees #on!uered (rete in ;=5. @hile 'Abd al*$ahman II 6r. ;==*;5=7 de oted himself to learning and poetry& his wife and the Spanish renegade eunu#h 3asar ruled Spain. 9amines were relie ed by the distribution of wheat in ;=> and again in ;0'. Toledo re olted in ;=<& and it took eight years to subdue them. S#andina ian pirates were fought off in ;00 at ?i+on& Ca (oruJa& and Se ille. @hen the (hristian priest )erfe#to denoun#ed the prophet %uhammad& he was e"e#uted- soon 00 others imitated his martyrdom until a (hristian #oun#il #ondemned this beha ior in ;5=. Auring the reign 6;5=*;;'7 of %uhammad I rebellions broke out in Toledo and %Irida& and se eral 4ani :a8i lords be#ame independent on the northern frontier. Southern #ities also gained independen#e during the era of 'Abd Allah 6r. ;;;*<5=7. Doung 'Abd al*$ahman III 6r. <5=*<'57 began ruling only o er the state of (ordoba. 1e suppressed the rebellion in the south led by the apostate 'Umar ibn 1afsun that had lasted more than thirty years. $e olts in Se ille& 4ada+o8& and Toledo were !uelled& and he defeated (hristians in the north at %entona in <5; and at Ealde+un!uera in <=0. )amphona& the #apital of 3a arre& was destroyed in <=0- this region as well as most of Spain was now for#ed to pay tribute. In <=< 'Abd al*$ahman de#lared himself the (aliph al*3asir 6the (on!ueror7. 1e was

defeated by the #ombined armies of 3a arre and Ceon in <><- but when CeonGs .ing $amiro II died in <50& dis#ord between Ceon& (astile& and 3a arre #aused the (hristian kings to submit. The 2ew (hasdai assisted in the diploma#y and was minister of trade and finan#e. 'Abd al*$ahman III spent a third of the re enues on go ernment& deposited a third in the treasury& and used a third for building. A fleet of =00 ships was built at Almeria. The treasury had =0&000&000 dinars& and 'Abd al*$ahman used 50&000 workers for twenty years to build the e"tra agant pala#e of al*Balra. (ordoba's thri ing population passed 500&000& #reated many books with its paper industry& and had 70 libraries and >&000 mos!ues. 1is son and su##essor al*1akam II 6r. <'5*<7'7 established free s#hools& e"panded the uni ersity at (ordoba his father had founded and in#reased its library to 000&000 olumes& making Spain /urope's greatest #enter of learning and attra#ting thousands of students. Al* 1akam II atta#ked (astile in <'> and then negotiated tru#es with (hristian kings& and he ended his father's war with the 9atimids in Tunisia by <7>. 2ews were tolerated and prospered in Spain& and their traders pro ided the Sla onian sla es for the (aliph's bodyguard. 1isham II 6r. <7'*500<7 was only twel e when he su##eeded his father& and the go ernment was dominated by his mother Subh and her lo er %uhammad ibn Abi 'Amir. To please some religious leaders ibn Abi 'Amir had all the books related to philosophy in the library burned. 1e won spoils in i#tories o er (hristians& was made prefe#t of (ordoba& and married general ?alib's daughter. @hen he and ?alib !uarreled& ibn Abi' Amir sei8ed his treasure and killed the ?eneral in battle. (alling himself al*%ansur 6Ei#torious7& he atta#ked (hristians& sa#king Bamora in <;5& #hasing them to Ceon& burning 4ar#elona in <;5& and ra8ing Ceon in <;;. Al* %ansur died in 500= after fighting in fifty #ampaigns& and in a #hroni#le a monk re#orded that he was buried in hell. The Spanish #aliphate gradually broke up into independent states. Al*%ansur's position was taken by his son 'Abd al*%alik& who #ontinued to fight the (hristians until he died and was su##eeded by his brother 'Abd al*$ahman. Turkish bodyguards #ame to dominate the Spanish #aliphs too& and 1isham II was for#ed to abdi#ate in 500<. In the south 'Ali ibn 1ammad go erned Andalusia 6505'*505;7& de#lared himself (aliph at (ordoba& and was su##eeded by relati es until 50=7. That year the Umayyad (aliph 1isham III #ame out of his harem& where he had been in retirement for thirty years- but after four years he was defeated and imprisoned in a dungeon by nobles& who set up a #oun#il of state in 50>5. 4erbers from Afri#a established the kingdom of ?ranada& where 4adis ruled 50>;*507>& repulsing atta#ks from the powerful kingdom of Se ille& where the son of its +udge (!adi) pro#laimed himself al*%utadid in 500=. 1is son al*%utamid was .ing of Se ille 50'<*50<5& and he ended the republi#an #oun#il. Al*%utamid formed an allian#e with Alphonso EI& .ing of Ceon and (astile. @hen Alphonso did not aid him against the in#ursions of the (id& al* %utamid turned to %oro##o's %urabit ruler Dusuf ibn Tashufin in 50;'& and together they defeated the armies of Alphonso EI at Bala#a. 9our years later Dusuf returned to Spain& took al*%utamid prisoner& and anne"ed all of %uslim Spain e"#ept for Toledo and Barago8a. ?ranadaGs .ing 'Abd Allah was also deposed by the Almora id Dusuf in 50<0.

Sa anids! "ha#na$ids! B%yids! and Sel&%'s

In the /ast in ;75 (aliph al*%u'tamid re#ogni8ed the )ersian Samanid state in Transo"iana rather than the Saffarids. The Samanid ruler Isma'il 6r. ;<=*<077 defeated the Saffarids and took o er .hurasan& ?urgan& Tabaristan& and $ay. 1e #orre#ted his own go ernment's #heating by systemati8ing weights and measures. 1is son Ahmad #on!uered most of Sistan by

<55- but when Tabaristan and ?urgan re olted& Ahmad was assassinated by his sla es in <50. 1is eight*year*old son 3asr ibn Ahmad relied on his )rime %inister Abu 'Abd*Allah al* 2aihani until <==& Abu'l*9adl al 4al'ami <==*<>;& and al*2aihani again <>;*<05. Tabaristan was not re#on!uered until <00. 3asr's #ourt sponsored )ersian %uslim #ulture in both Arabi# and )ersian. A library was assembled at the #apital 4ukhara& and e en sla es through edu#ation #ould rise to positions of authority. Su#h Turkish offi#ials and generals imported more sla es and #ame to dominate the administration. The Samanids e"tended their power by assal relationships. 3asr was su##eeded by his son 3uh ibn 3asr in <0>. Abu 'Ali was reappointed go ernor of .hurasan in <0;& and he& instigated by the Biyarids of Tabaristan& atta#ked the 4uyids- but his #ompromise with the 4uyids in $ay #aused him to be deposed. After 3uhGs death in <50 his son 'Abd al*%alik was dependent on the Turks& and Alp*Tegin was appointed go ernor of .hurasan. The death of 'Abd al*%alik in <'5 split the Turks& and Alp*Tegin left .hurasan's #apital 3ishapur for ?ha8na& where his independen#e enabled his son Sebuk*Tegin to found the ?ha8na id empire in <77. The .hurasan army dominated the Samanid empire and atta#ked the 4uyids in <;=& but it was defeated. .hurasanGs ?o ernor Tash was summoned to restore order in 4ukhara. @hen his go ernorship was taken away& Tash #alled in the 4uyids- but they were defeated in <;7. Struggles in the #apital led to :arakhanid ruler 4ughra .han in ading and taking 4ukhara in <<=. ?ha8na's Sebuk*Tegin was #alled in and defeated the rebels in .hurasan in <<0- his son %ahmud was appointed ?o ernor of .hurasan. %ahmud gained power in ?ha8na by defeating his brother and others& and in <<< he deposed and blinded the Samanid ruler %ansur II. The last Samanid ruler %untasir appealed to Fghu8 Turks- but after defeating the %uslim Turks& the :arakhanids& his army deserted him. The :arakhanids #ame ba#k to defeat %untasir& who fled to %ar and was killed by their #hief in 5005. %ahmud 6r. <<;*50>07 e"panded the militaristi# ?ha8na id empire by #on!uering Sind and the )un+ab of India in the east& .hwara8m in the north& and .hurasan as far as $ay in the west. @hile he was in India in 500'& the :arakhanids o##upied 4alkh- but he returned and defeated them in 500;. 1owe er& his #ampaign against 'Ali*Tegin in Transo"iana failed. %ahmud in aded and anne"ed .hware8m in 5057. %ahmudGs for#es sa#ked $ay in 50=<& deposing the 4uyid ?o ernor %a+d al*Aaula $ustam ibn HAli 6r. <<7*50=<7 and anne"ing the pro in#e of $ay and 2ibal. ?ha8na ids pra#ti#ed an aristo#rati# militarism that dominated the #i ilian population while adhering to #onser ati e Sunni orthodo"y. The army was reported to ha e had as many as 50&000 #a alry and 5&>00 elephants near ?ha8na in 50>;. )lunder from their #on!uests enabled them to pay their army with #ash while the 4uyids and Sel+u!s resorted mostly to granting re enues from land. 1owe er& ?ha8na id ta" #olle#tors #aused misery and depopulation in .hurasan& supporting a standing army of 50&000. %ahmud entertained at #ourt and patroni8ed the poet 9irdausi& the geographer al*4iruni& and historians. %ahmud wanted to be su##eeded by his son %uhammad& but %uhammad was imprisoned after a few months by Sebuk*Tegin's #hoi#e& the more #apable %as'ud. The Sel+u! Turks defeated the ?ha8na ids at Aandan!an in 5000& and %as'ud retreated to India& where he was killed by rebels in 5005. %uhammad #ame out of prison to rule again- but the Sel+u!s #ontinued to fight the ?ha8na ids& and their kingdom was diminished to eastern Afghanistan and northern India. There Ibrahim 6r. 505<*50<<7 was able to e"ploit the wealth of the 1indus to pay his mountain military men. The mountain people south of the (aspian Sea #alled the Aaulamis arose between the Samanids and the de#lining Abbasid #aliphate to fight the Turkish ?eneral Da!ut from

4aghdad who was e"ploiting the re enues with his pri ate army. Three sons of 4uyeh +oined %arda i+ and then headed their own for#es in <>> when the wealthy landowner Bayd supported them in 9ars- Da!ut's larger army was defeated by them the ne"t year& enabling the 4uyids to enter the 9ars #apital at Shira8. The (aliph re#ogni8ed the 4uyid 'Imad al*Aaula's #laim to 9ars& but he still ga e .hu8istan to Da!ut. %arda i+ was murdered in Isfahan in <>5& and his offi#ers Tu8un and 4a+kam fled to 4aghdad. Internal disputes there fa#ilitated a 4uyid atta#k on that #apital in <05& and the last effe#ti e Abbasid (aliph they repla#ed named the three 4uyid brothers %u'i88 al*Aaula& 'Imad al*Aaula& and $ukn al*Aaula. The ne"t year the 1amdanids failed to e"pel the 4uyids from 4aghdad& and in <07 %u'i88 defeated the 4aridis and go erned in Ira!. $ukn al*Aaula had established #ontrol o er #entral Iran& ruling from $ay and Isfahan& while the oldest brother 'Imad ruled 9ars from Shira8. 'Imad died in <0< and was su##eeded by 'Adud al*Aaula. $ukn had to agree to pay the Samanid ?o ernor of .hurasan tribute in <55& though this was de#reased in <75. $ukn was ser ed by the Ei8ier Abu l*9adl ibn al*'Amid for thirty years. @hen =0&000 men from .hurasan wanted to pass through his realm to fight the 4y8antines& al*'Amid ad ised they be permitted to go only in groups of =&000. $ukn re+e#ted this ad i#e& and at $ay the .hurasanians demanded money and atta#ked the #ity& defeating $ukn al*Aaula. Ibn al*'Amid died on an e"pedition to the 2abal aimed at pa#ifying the .urdish leader 1asanawayh in <70. At 4aghdad #onfli#t arose between the Aaulami infantry and the Turkish #a alry be#ause the infantry were paid only si" dinars a month& while the #a alry re#ei ed forty. The Aaulamis rebelled in <5'- but %u'i88 fa ored the Turks& and the Aaulamis were dispersed to li e on re enues from poor farmers and mer#hants in southern Ira!. The historian %iskawayh #riti#i8ed %u'i88 al*Aaula for allo#ating the Sawad land in grants& whi#h #aused irrigation to be negle#ted and re enues to de#line. 1e also wrote that %u'i88's gifts to the army made the demand for greater emoluments grow un#ontrollably into e"tortion. %u'i88 died in <'7 and was su##eeded in 4aghdad by his son 'I88 al*Aaula 4akhtiyar& who tried to atta#k %osul in <7> and was beaten so badly he had to retreat to @asit as Sabuktakin's Turks o##upied 4aghdad. Sabuktakin organi8ed 4aghdad's Sunnis into atta#king the 4uyid Shi'a as hereti#s in a jihad. 4akhtiyar was helped by 'Adud& who took o er 4aghdad in <7; and ordered his #ousin 4akhtiyar e"e#uted. 'Adud's army #on!uered northern %esopotamia& and the 1amdanids left in Aleppo had to pay tribute. 'Adud was #rowned shahanshah 6king of kings7 in 4aghdad and built an imperial pala#e& as he had sponsored mu#h building& trade& and #ommuni#ations during his many years in 9ars. 'Adud maintained good relations with the (aliph& fa oring neither Sunni nor Shi'a& and he banned inflammatory prea#hing. 'Adud tolerated the minority religions& and his Ei8ier 3asr ibn 1arun was a (hristian. @hen %uslims plundered the homes of %a8daeans in <7<& 'Adud punished them se erely. 'Adud al*Aaula made his #ourt at Shira8 a #enter for the #ultural a#ti ities of theologians& grammarians& and poets. 1is library filled a pala#e of >'0 rooms. 1e founded a hospital in @est 4aghdad that was staffed by =0 physi#ians. 'Adud used for#e to dri e out marauding tribes and repla#ed them with pea#eful farmers. 4edouins& :ufs& and 4ala#h were atta#ked in <70& and his army besieged the 4anu Shayban& the .urds north of %osul& and the Asad bands in <7<. @hen 'Adud died in <;>& he was su##eeded by his brother 9akhr& whom he had sent into e"ile at 3ishapur. Some wealthy e"iles from Ira! in <;7 persuaded 'Adud's son Sharaf to atta#k Ira! so they #ould regain their estates. 4aghdad had been impo erished by fre!uent fighting and

had diffi#ulty paying soldiers& while pea#eful 9ars had larger re enues- so the Aaulami troops mutinied and went o er to Sharaf. The ne"t year Sharaf died at 4aghdad when he was only =;. 1is sons were too young to rule& and the throne was passed to the last effe#ti e shahanshah& 'Adud's son 4aha' al*Aaula. Samsam al*Aaula& partially blinded& had es#aped and #ontrolled 9ars& .irman& and .hu8istan. Samsam agreed to gi e Ahwa8 to 4aha'- but the Aaulamis in 9ars would not relin!uish the pro in#e& and the 9ars army took possession. The Turks of 4aghdad then dro e out the Aaulamis with great slaughter. This #aused the Aaulamis to massa#re the Turks in 9ars. 4y <<5 9ars had a Aaulami army while 4aha' in 4aghdad was dependent on Turks. Det when 9akhr tried to se er 4aghdad from Shira8 by in ading .hu8istan& Samsam and 4aha' +oined for#es and made him withdraw. 9akhr still ruled Iran for the 4uyids and atta#ked the ?ha8na id Sebuk*Tegin in .hurasan but failed and died two years later in <<7. 4aha' was aided by the .urd 4adr ibn 1asanwaih when he in aded 9ars in <<;- while Samsam was fleeing Shira8& he was assassinated by a son of 'I88 al*Aaula& who had es#aped #apti ity. 4aha' took Shira8 and subdued the opposition of 'I88's sons- 4aha' remained in that #apital until his death in 505=. )owerful 4edouin tribes surrounded 4uyid #ontrol in 4aghdad& and in 500= Aaulami leader Abu 'Ali ibn Ustadh*hurmu8 entered 4aghdad& punished its numerous bandits& and abolished pro o#ati e religious a#ti ities. After 5007 9akhr's .urdish widow Sayyida entrusted the go ernment of Isfahan to the .urdish prin#e 2a'far 'Ala' al*Aaula. The .urds' %arwani family established a dynasty in southeastern Anatolia at %ayyafari!in& where 3asr al*Aaula ruled from 5055 to 50'5. Although the 4uyids were Shi'a& the absent 4aha' allowed the 1anbali (aliph al*:adir 6<<5* 50>57 to #odify Sunni do#trine and rituals in a way that #onfli#ted with Shi'i ideas. In 500> the (aliph was able to blo#k the appointment of an 'Alid as #hief +udge. (aliph al*:adir spoke for both Sunnis and the Shi'i Twel ers when he #hallenged 9atimid theology and genealogy in 5050. 1e #ondemned both Shi'i and the #ompromising %u'ta8ili do#trines in 505;& and in 50=< he denoun#ed the do#trine that the Qur'an was #reated. %uslims now tended to be either Sunni or Shi'a. 1is (aliphate #oin#ided with Sunni #hampion %ahmud's #on!uest of Iran. After 4aha' died in 505=& 4uyid #ontrol deteriorated. In 505' 9akhr al*%ulik was e"e#uted by his son and su##essor Sultan al*Aaula. After sporadi# warfare Sultan died of drink at age >= in 50=5. @hile Abu .ali+ar go erned 9ars& the Turks in 4aghdad appointed his un#le 2alal al* Aaula& who go erned there 50=5*5000. 2alal was so poor that in 50>5 he had to dismiss his ser ants and free his horses be#ause he #ould not afford to maintain them. 4aghdad was terrori8ed by the bandit al*4ur+umi from 50>0 to 50>0 until the 'U!aili 4edouin leader :irwash finally drowned him. @hen the Turkish ?eneral 4arstoghan mutinied in 50>'& Abu .ali+ar mar#hed on 4aghdad but failed to o##upy it. Instead the 'U!ailids and another Arab tribe reinstated 2alal. After 2alal died& Abu .ali+ar tried to sustain 4aghdad with his resour#es from Shira8- but when he died in 500;& the 4uyids had to gi e way to the ad an#ing Sel+u!s. Al*%alik al*$ahim #laimed to rule from 4aghdad while Abu %ansur 9ulad Sutun su##eeded Abu .ali+ar- but these two fought ea#h other& and Abu %ansur turned to the Sel+u! Tughril* 4eg for help. In 5055 Tughril*4eg entered 4aghdad and founded the Sel+u! regime& and mu#h of 9ars was #ontrolled by the .urd leader 9adluya ibn 'Ali. Al*:adir was su##eeded as (aliph by his son al*:a'im& who outlasted the Shi'i 4uyids and wel#omed the Sunni Sel+u!s before he died in 5075. Al*%awardi 6<70*505;7 wrote 'rin(iples of 'o)er for al*:a'im about 5050& and his Condu(t in Religion and the *orld was on #ourtly ethi#s. 1e argued that in a religious so#iety the (aliph should be in #ontrol& but he #an appoint

a i8ier to administer the go ernment and a #ommander of the army. If a sultan usurps power #ontrary to religion and +usti#e& then the (aliph may #all for aid in ending his domination. Thus he +ustified the Sel+u! o erthrow of the 4uyids. The Sel+u!s are named after a #hief of the ?hu88 Turks who led his tribe down from the steppes of Turkistan. Sel+u!'s grandsons Tughril*4eg and (haghri*4eg led the #on!uest of .hurasan in 50>7& defeating the ?ha8na id %as'ud in 5000. They #laimed power as Sunni %uslims& and they respe#ted Sufi pirs. Ibn al*%uslima& a#ting as the de#lining Abbasid (aliph's Ei8ier& in ited Tughril*4eg into 4aghdad in 5055& and the ne"t year (aliph al*:a'im #rowned Tughril*4eg .ing- but ibn al*%uslima's attempts to gain money for his intrigues resulted in his being killed by Tughril*4eg's ri al al*4asasiri in 505<. Al*4asasiri o##upied 4aghdad for forty weeks& fa oring the 9atimids- but Tughril*4eg brought the Abbasid (aliph ba#k to 4aghdad& defeating and killing al*4asasiri near .ufa. (haghri*4eg go erned .hurasan and was su##eeded by his son Alp*Arslan about 50'0. Tughril*4eg appointed his nephew Sulayman as his heir& and his Ei8ier al*.unduri pro#laimed Sulayman sultan in $ay- but they were defeated by Alp*Arslan's for#es& and al* .unduri was put to death. The other Sel+u! #ousin :utlumush of $um was defeated in 50'>. Fther #ontenders for power then go erned pro in#es under the so ereignty of Alp*Arslan 6r. 50'>*507=7& who e"panded the Sel+u! empire by atta#king the 9atimids in Syria and the 4y8antines in the north. In 5075 at %an8ikert the Sel+u!s ga e the 4y8antine army its worst defeat e er. $oman /mperor $omanus IE Aiogenes was #aptured and promised a ransom of a million gold pie#es- but raising only =00&000& he died a #apti e. Alp*Arslan now ruled o er 5&=00 prin#es and had an army of =00&000& but he did not attempt to destroy the 4y8antine empire. Alp*ArslanGs daughter married (aliph al*:aGimGs son al*%u!tadi& who be#ame (aliph in 5075. Alp*Arslan #rossed the F"us $i er with his army in 507= but was killed by a prisoner. :arakhanid ruler Shams al*%ulk 3asr 6r. 50';*;07 then in aded the Sel+u! side of the F"us& #apturing Tirmidh and pushing Aya8 ibn Alp*Arslan out of 4alkh. Alp*ArslanGs son %alik* Shah 6r. 507=*<=7 be#ame sultan and for#ed the :arakhanids to retreat. 3i8am al*%ulk got him re#ogni8ed in 4aghdad& and %alik*Shah went to 3ishapur to gain its treasure& whi#h 3i8am used to win o er the soldiers with 700&000 dinars. :a urt argued that he should su##eed as Alp*ArslanGs oldest brother before a youthful son- but he was defeated& #aptured& and strangled with a bow*string at the insisten#e of 3i8am. :a urtGs sons were partially blinded& but later they were allowed to go ern .irman. %alik*Shah e"panded the Sel+u! empire. 1is ?eneral Atsi8 #on!uered 2erusalem in 507> and Aamas#us in 507'- but two years later %alik*ShahGs brother Tutush was appointed ?o ernor of Syria and killed Atsi8. @hile the 4y8antines were busy with a struggle for power that made Ale"ius /mperor in 50;5& %alik*ShahGs sons Sulaiman and %ansur in aded Anatolia. The Sultan himself led the #ampaign that se#ured Syria by #on!uering %osul& 1arran& Aleppo& and Antio#h& and he #ampaigned in Arabia. %alik*Shah isited 4aghdad twi#e. %alik*ShahGs daughter married (aliph al*%u!tadi. In 50;< %alik*Shah in aded Transo"iana and took Samarkand by for#e from the :arakhanids. 4oth Alp*Arslan and %alik*Shah were aided by the #apable Ei8ier 3i8am al*%ulk& who was de oted to learning and was tutor (atabeg) to prin#e %alik*Shah. 1e sponsored madrasas 6religious law s#hools7& and the 3i8amiyya he founded at 4aghdad in 50'7 was named after him. 1e patroni8ed both 1anifi and ShafiHi legal s#hools by endowing madrasas in e ery ma+or #ity in the Sel+u! empire& pro iding free edu#ation with generous li ing allowan#es for

the students. )roperty dedi#ated to su#h s#hools& mos!ues& hospitals or other publi# ser i#e #alled )a!f #ould not be inherited nor sei8ed by the go ernment. 3i8am pla#ed his many sons and grandsons in powerful positions and #olle#ted as mu#h as ten per#ent of the re enue for his own use. 1e restored the barid& a #entral intelligen#e ser i#e& though the real power lay with the Turk military that #rushed any rebellions. In 507< two of 3i8am al*%ulkGs enemies& the shahna of 4aghdad and the ?o ernor of 9ars and .hu8istan& killed his 2ewish ta" #olle#tor in 4asra and took his wealth. After %alik*Shah dismissed 7&000 Armenian mer#enaries against the ad i#e of 3i8am& two ri al parties emerged. The #ourt +ester satiri8ed 3i8am& whose son 2amal al*%ulk& the ?o ernor of 4alkh& #ut out his tongue and killed him. %alik*Shah then had his .hurasan ?o ernor se#retly poison 2amal al*%ulk and grie ed with 3i8am. Auring this era a nefarious group of se#ret Assassins arose from the IsmaGili se#t led by the 9atimid propagandist 1asan ibn Sabah& operating from a fortress in the /lbur8 mountains. 1e used hashish and pleasant gardens to persuade his followers to #ommit assassinations. They were responsible for killing 3i8am- when %alik*Shah atta#ked them in retribution& he died too about a month later. After these two were killed in 50<=& the Sel+u! empire broke up in a power struggle. %alik*ShahGs brother Tutush pro#laimed himself Sultan in 4aghdad in 50<>& and he #rushed the Arabs of %osul. (aliph al*%u!tadi #rowned 5=*year*old 4erkyaru! Sultan in 50<0 and died the ne"t day. The (aliph was su##eeded by his son al*%usta8hir& but the ri alry between the Sel+u!s left him little #ontrol. )artisans of the #hild %ahmud nearly blinded 4erkyaru! but #hanged their minds when the #hild Sultan died of small po". Tutush withdrew to $ay but was defeated and killed in 50<5 after 4erkyaru! raised >0&000 troops. The sons of %alik*Shah be#ame independent go ernors of Ira!& Anatolia& A8erbai+an& %esopotamia& Syria& .u8istan& 9ars& .irman& and .hurasan.

(irrors )or *rinces

)robably the first ma+or Islami# work in the genre of ad ising rulers was Ibn al*%u!affa's al+dab al-kabir& whi#h dis#ussed the #ondu#t of go ernment by the ruler and his asso#iates and also friendship. 1e was the pri ate se#retary to the un#le of (aliph al*%ansur but was murdered at the age of >' in 75<. Al*%u!affa translated a Sasanid royal #hroni#le and other treatises from )ersian into Arabi#& in#luding the Testament of +rdashir& whi#h suggested the unity of religion and monar#hy. 1e argued that knowledge was more important than +usti#e& and he attempted to #odify laws through the (aliph so that +udges in arious pro in#es would be applying the same laws. Abu Dusuf 67>5*<;7 wrote $itab al-kharaj for (aliph 1arun al*$ashid as a handbook for +uristi# administration& emphasi8ing that the ruler must be pious and +ust as he is responsible to ?od. Al*2ahi8 677'*;';7 was from 4asra& and his writing +ustified the 'Abbasids' o erthrowing of the Umayyad dynasty. The duty of sub+e#ts to obey their so ereign ends if he negle#ts his duties and abuses his power. In those #ir#umstan#es they ha e the right and duty to depose and repla#e the ruler. Al*2ahi8 wrote that the imam should ha e e"#ellent intelle#tual and moral !ualities with deep and broad religious knowledge. In 5070 Dusuf .hass 1a+ib& a :arakhanid Turk from 4alasaghun& presented to .ashghar prin#e Ta gha#h 4ughra .han his book *isdom of Ro&al ,lor& ($utadgu Bilig)& and he was rewarded with the title )ri y (hamberlain 6.hass 1a+ib7. The :arakhanids were a northern #onfederation of Turkish tribes that had yielded to the more powerful Sel+u!s. The :arakhanids had be#ome %uslims in the middle of the tenth #entury but #ontinued to use the

Turkish s#ript now #alled Uighur. Dusuf's book begins by praising ?od& the #reator of all and then the prophet %uhammad and the first four #aliphs. 1e alued the intelle#t and wisdom greatly and belie ed that the main sour#e of ine!uality among people is the amount of wisdom. 1e ad ised using wisdom to #ontrol #riminals and #i ilian turmoil- but if that failed& he appro ed the use of for#e to restrain fools. Aoing good will result in being praised- but doing wrong will get one #ursed. Dusuf warned against anger and misuse of the tongue. 1is book displays dialogs between four main #hara#ters*the king $ising Sun stands for 2usti#e- his ad isor 9ull %oon represents 9ortune- after he dies& he is repla#ed by his son 1ighly )raised& signifying Intelle#t- his re#lusi e brother @ide Awake is des#ribed as the Cast /nd. 9ull %oon #omes to ser e $ising Sun and with his skill and patien#e helps the .ing to maintain +usti#e. 9ull %oon knows the alue of spee#h& and he re#ommends listening to the wise and speaking to the ignorant. 1e tea#hes his son 1ighly )raised not to be heedless like he was in a#!uiring wealth. 4efore he dies& 9ull %oon writes a testamentary letter to the .ing ad ising him to a oid what is forbidden& not #ommit in+usti#e& not shed blood& not seek re enge& and not indulge in al#ohol or se". After mourning for 9ull %oon& $ising Sun summons his son 1ighly )raised& who also ser es the .ing. 1ighly )raised re#ommends good #hara#ter& modesty& and uprightness while a oiding stubbornness& telling lies& and miserliness. 1e des#ribes the intelle#t and suggests that the lo ers' hearts may be seen by looking at the eyes. 1e agrees with his father that the prin#e needs wisdom to keep the people in #he#k and that by modesty he #an a oid what is improper. 2usti#e and wakefulness are the root of go ernment and hold the state together. 1e also tells the prin#e that troops gain the treasure that pays them. This wealth is maintained by prosperous people& who must ha e +usti#e in order to prosper. 2usti#e makes the people happy& and sil er satisfies the soldiers. 1ighly )raised summari8es the good !ualities of a prin#e as followsK
The prin#e should be intelligent& wise& and +ustalso #unning and #ourageous to gain good repute. 1e must be generous and forbearing& modest and purekindly and prote#ti e& full*eyed& patient& and humblesparing and forgi ing& and !uiet*mannered. 1e must be a paragon of irtue among men& and deal +ustly with people.5

1ighly )raised says the i8ier should be of good #hara#ter& literate& intelligent& upright& modest& #ompassionate& honest& alert& knowledgeable& dis#erning& dutiful& de oted& self* effa#ing& and trustworthy. 1e says the #a alry #ommander should be truthful& generous& #ourageous& #le er& and determined. The #hamberlain should not take bribes be#ause that makes the prin#e a laughing*sto#k. 1e should be humble& mer#iful to the poor& skillful and knowledgeable about #ustoms and eti!uette& patient& self*restrained& alert& broad*minded& e en*tempered with his tongue and heart in a##ord& with writing ability& and wise in e"e#uting duties. A king should make sure that he does not gi e any offi#es to those who lie or are #rooked. /n oys need to be wise& intelligent& #ourageous& loyal& reliable& sin#ere& upright& modest& dis#reet& knowing how to read& write& listen& and speak well. The royal se#retary must be able to keep se#rets& and the treasurer must be honest& upright& of sound #hara#ter& loyal& alert& igilant& good at arithmeti#& and wise. 1ighly )raised also e"plains the !ualifi#ations of the #hief #ook& #upbearer& and other ser ants. In return the prin#e is obligated to treat them with kindness and #onsideration. @hen .ing $ising Sun learns that 1ighly )raised has a wise brother named @ide Awake& he writes him a letter in iting him to ser e in his #ourt. 1owe er& 1ighly )raised is unable to

persuade him to gi e up his as#eti# life of religious de otion. @ide Awake argues that the faults of the world are not worth the allure of the #ity be#ause the ne"t life after death is all important. The .ing sends 1ighly )raised to his brother a se#ond time& and he e"plains to him the proper way to ser e the prin#e and how to #ondu#t himself with all sorts of people- but @ide Awake has renoun#ed the world and will not go there. The third time $ising Sun asks @ide Awake to #ome only for a isit to gi e him ad i#e& and @ide Awake #onsents to this %uslim duty. @ide Awake ad ises the .ing to s#atter his wealth in order to gain religious merit while staying on the path of re#titude and +usti#e. 1e should keep his spiritual heart ali e and not fall into #arnal passion but be #ompassionate to all his people. 4y straightening his own #ondu#t& their #ondu#t will straighten itself. The king should be like a physi#ian& healing the poor& the hungry& the naked& and those suffering arious ills. 1e should not make enemies nor spill blood. 1e should be aware of what is going on in his realm and let his #ompassion flow e erywhere. An e il king destroys the realm be#ause no one will restrain him. @ide Awake ad ises him to eat little and pray mu#h& taking #are of the needy& widows& and orphans. 1e should seek to benefit the people rather than himself be#ause his benefit #omes from theirs. )assion #an be o er#ome with the intelle#t. After @ide Awake lea es& the .ing is disheartened. 1e still belie es that a ruler #annot go ern without troops and that to hire troops he needs money. So 1ighly )raised ad ises him to gi e his troops treasure and ask them to spread Islami# law without fighting other %uslims. 1e says the king has three basi# duties to his people*keeping the #oinage pure& gi ing them +ust laws and not allowing iolen#e to ea#h other& and maintaining se#ure roads. 1is three #laims upon his sub+e#ts are that they must #arry out his #ommands& pay their ta"es on time& and bear arms against his enemies and lo e toward his friends. 1ighly )raised regrets his past life and de#ides to repent by taking refuge in ?od. 1e goes to @ide Awake for #ounsel. Det he ad ises 1ighly )raised to #ontinue his benefits to the realm be#ause for him to lea e his work would #ause harm. @ide Awake be#omes ill and dies. The .ing #onsoles 1ighly )raised. Det #ustoms are de#aying& and the world is be#oming more #orrupt. The author Dusuf #on#ludes that wisdom needs to be learned& and he prays to ?od. *isdom of Ro&al ,lor& has mu#h sound pra#ti#al wisdom for monar#hi#al go ernment. Det it also #ontains the mysti#al themes of the Sufis& who trans#end the sorrows of this world with spiritual wisdom. In 50;= .ai .a'us ibn Iskandar wrote Qabus-nama (+ -irror for 'rin(es) as ad i#e for his son ?ilanshah. The author was the prin#e of ?urgan and part of the Biyarid dynasty that ruled pro in#es south of the (aspian Sea. 1is grandfather :abus ibn @ashmgir was a #ruel warrior but also a patron of poets and knowledgeable in Arabi# s#ien#es and arts- e en the great A i#enna had spent time at his #ourt. The prin#e ?ilanshah was the last of the Biyarid lineafter ruling for se en years& he was o erthrown in 50<5 by 1asan ibn Sabah and his Assassins. In the prefa#e to Qabus-nama .ai .a'us asks his son to benefit from this book he wrote e en though the #urrent fashion is for sons to ignore the ad i#e of their fathers. In the first #hapter he obser es that e erything #an be known by humans e"#ept the (reator of all. 3othing #an ade!uately des#ribe the oneness of ?od. / erything else has duality& but ?od is free of asso#iation and likeness. As one in#reases in wealth& he should employ his bounty to #arry out the Cord's work. 1e should help those worse off than himself. If he is poor in material things& he should seek wisdom& whi#h is better than ri#hes and helps one gain wealth. In addition to

the fi e physi#al senses& one #an use the fi e fa#ulties of thinking& memory& obser ation& imagination& and spee#h. 4y studying the faults and merits of the irtuous he #an learn from their su##esses and failures. Fne #an e en #on ert an enemy or ri al into a friend by helping to deli er one from diffi#ulty. Some things should not be understood nor spoken& su#h as those that imperil the faith. Those that benefit the faith should be both understood and spoken. The blunder of a friend or publi# person may be understood but should not be spoken& and fourthly the traditions of %uhammad that are not #omprehended may be spoken. Ao not utter unpleasant remarks whi#h may produ#e enmity. The wise reali8e that they do not know& and the gates of instru#tion open to them. (hapter ; re#ounts many pro erbial sayings of the Sasanid Shah 3ushirwan that were ins#ribed on the wall of his tomb. Fne ad ises not being friends to those without merit. Ao good on your own so that you will be free of the lawgi er. Speak the truth e en if it is bitter. If you do not want your enemy to know your se#ret& do not tell your friend. Ao not rely on the untrustworthy. Sla es bought and sold are freer than one ensla ed by one's gullet. To be happy& be free of en y. To gain respe#t& be +ust. 4e generous if it is in your power. Ao not argue with fools. The prin#e reali8es that his son will a#t like a young man& but he urges him to pra#ti#e self* restraint. 4e prudent when young and #ompassionate to the aged. Cife as#ends to the age of forty and then de#lines. 1e warned his son not to get drunk away from home. 1ospitality is an important duty. 1e warns him that romanti# passion is a kind of madness. 1e dis#usses the eti!uette of games su#h as #hess and polo& hunting& bathing& and sleeping. 1e should not be eager to shed blood& and it is not lawful to kill %uslims unless they are brigands or #riminals. 1e ad ises sa ing money to a#!uire wealth and gi es his philosophy on how to pur#hase sla es. 4e #areful about loaning money to a friend& and do not ask for it ba#k. 3o matter how mu#h money one has& if one has a bad reputation and does not speak the truth& then one is poor. Those who are trustworthy and honest ha e the wealth of the whole world. )eople re#ei e the treatment they gi e to others. A pretty woman #an be a mistress& but a wife should be #haste& of good faith& #apable of managing the household& fond of her husband& modest& la#oni#& and e#onomi#al. The prin#e dis#usses how to raise #hildren and the importan#e of friendship. )unishment may be infli#ted for serious #rimes& but pardoning is better. .ai .a'us des#ribes the appropriate beha ior for arious o##upations. A religious +udge should be self*#ontrolled& pious& and able to e"plain the law. A mer#hant who is dishonest will not be trusted again. A physi#ian must understand the body and the regimens of health. Astrology is #ompli#ated and re!uires detailed #al#ulations. )oets and musi#ians should de elop their own talent& and telling amusing tales is helpful. To be the boon #ompanion of a king re!uires mu#h knowledge and many abilities. A se#retary must ha e e"#ellent literary skills and a oid forgery. A i8ier needs to maintain his authority and appoint suitable people to offi#es. 9inally .ai .a'us ad ises his son on the #ondu#t of a king. 1e should be wise& a oid haste& be #ir#umspe#t& speak rarely and only the truth& be mer#iful e"#ept to those who are mer#iless& maintain dis#ipline& and make sure his #ommands are effe#tual. The si" most important !ualities of a king are awesomeness& +usti#e& generosity& respe#t for law& seriousness& and truthfulness. In the last #hapter of Qabus-nama .ai .a'us emphasi8es wisdom& truth& and irtue as he dis#usses the errant knights& who benefit the poor at the e"pense of the ri#h& and the poor Sufis& who seek ?od and irtue. These noble knights are neither selfish nor obedient like soldiers. The Sufi master al*:ushayri died in 5070 but left behind rules for the der ishes and

their supporters. 4eing free of possessions is the essen#e of Sufism. The der ish should be trustworthy& polite& pious& #lean& and pure in regard to se"uality. 1e tra els with only a staff& water*pot& loin*#loth& shoes& prayer*mat& #owl& #omb& tooth*brush& needle& and nail*#lippers. 1e should make no demands and be a##ommodating. 1e understands fi e aspe#ts of thingsK !uiddity 6essen#e7& !uality& !uantity& reason& and purpose. The prin#e warns his son to #ontrol his eye& his tongue& and his hand- ne er lie- do not a enge past in+ury nor plan trea#hery- be kind- but if you #annot do good& at least do no harm- and to be #ontent& ne er be en ious. After gi ing his son all this ad i#e& the prin#e reali8es that he #an not make him wise and intelligent be#ause they do not #ome by #ompulsion. 1e must learn to the best of his ability& and he hopes that he will apply his ad i#e and thus a oid folly.

+i#a

al-(%lk's Rules for Kings

3i8am al*%ulk 6505;*50<=7& whose name is a title meaning harmony of the kingdom& go erned the Sel+u! empire as Ei8ier for thirty years. 1is father had been a ta" #olle#tor for the ?ha8na ids. The renowned Sufi Shaikh& Abu Sa'id ibn Abi'l*.hair& was 3i8am al*%ulk's tea#her& and later the Ei8ier founded se eral hospi#es for the Sufis. 3i8am al*%ulk be#ame an ad isor to Alp*Arslan when he was ?o ernor of .hurasan. 1e may ha e been responsible for ordering the death of al*.unduri after Alp*Arslan won the su##ession struggle in 50'>. 3i8am al*%ulk gained prestige in the military #ampaigns in 9ars. 1is influen#e as Ei8ier be#ame espe#ially important in 507= when %alik*Shah #ame to the throne at the age of 5;. In 50;' the .ing #ommanded 3i8am al*%ulk to #onsider the #ondition of the #ountry and make a digest of past and present prin#iples and laws so that the duty of the king #ould be #orre#tly dis#harged& and all the wrong pra#ti#es #ould be dis#ontinued. @ithin a few years 3i8am al*%ulk had written the first >< #hapters of his Si&ar al*%uluk 6$ules for .ings7& whi#h is also known in /urope as the Si&asat-nama 6The 4ook of ?o ernment7. In 50<0 3i8am al*%ulk !uarreled with Sultan %alik*Shah and may e en ha e been repla#ed by Ta+ al*%ulk& who was fa ored by Tarkan .hatun in her hopes to ha e her son %ahmud su##eed to the throne instead of the elder son 4erk*yaru!. /le en additional #hapters #riti#i8ed #urrent #onditions more strongly and were probably ne er read by %alik*Shah be#ause the librarian re#orded that he did not re eal the book until the troubles ended& probably in 5505 when %uhammad be#ame the undisputed Sultan. In the prolog 3i8am al*%ulk des#ribed the purpose of the book as re!uested by Sultan %alik* Shah. 3i8am al*%ulk began by suggesting that in e ery age ?od #hooses one person endowed with irtues to rule as king. Aisobedien#e or disregard of the di ine laws results in retribution for deeds& and in the resulting #alamities inno#ent people may be killed until again one human being a#!uires power and employs subordinates a##ording to merit. A good king has a pleasing appearan#e& is kind& has integrity& is manly& bra e& and skilled in arms and arts& is mer#iful& keeps promises& has sound faith and worships ?od with de otion& prays& fasts& and respe#ts religious authorities& honors the de out& patroni8es the learned and wise& gi es to #harity regularly& does good to the poor& is kind to subordinates& and relie es the people of oppressors. 2usti#e is the most important irtue& and 3i8am al*%ulk re#ommended the king hold #ourt on two days of the week to hear #omplaints personally and redress wrongs so that oppressors would #urb their a#ti ities from fear of punishment. Ta" #olle#tors should take only the amount due and with #i ility. Any peasant in need of o"en or seed should be gi en a loan to keep him iable. / en i8iers should be in estigated se#retly to make sure they are fulfilling

their fun#tion properly. If impropriety is found in the #ondu#t of any offi#ials& they should be remo ed from offi#e and #hastised a##ording to the #rime. A story is told of the +ust .ing 3ushir an 6.husrau I7& who #omplained that his doors were open to oppressors but not to the peasants. The pala#e doors should be more open to the gi ers 6peasants7 than to the takers 6soldiers7. 2udges should also be monitored& and those that are #o etous and dishonest should be repla#ed by the learned and pious. In addition to the ta" #olle#tors and +udges& the #ondu#t of the prefe#t of poli#e and the #ensor should be in estigated. The mysti# Abu 'Ali Aa!!a! asked the ?o ernor of .hurasan if he lo ed gold more than his enemy and then pointed out that he will lea e gold behind him but will take his enemy into the ne"t world. Then the story is told of how Sultan %ahmud& afraid that he was not handsome& was ad ised by Ahmad ibn 1asan to take gold as his enemy so that men will regard him as their friend. %ahmud then be#ame generous and #haritable& and the whole world adored him. 3i8am al*%ulk illustrated his points with numerous stories. In one an amir 6#ommander7 borrows '00 dinars from a man and promises to pay ba#k 700 in one year- but the man is not able to get any money ba#k for many months and finally goes to a poor tailor& who sends a ser ant to the amir. The tailor is su##essful and tells how a pre ious amir took a woman by for#e- he made the #all to prayer during the night so that she #ould return& and her husband would not di or#e her. %u'tasim #alled in the tailor and asked why he made the #all to prayer at the wrong time& and he told him of the amir's offense. The amir was se erely punished& and the tailor was told to make the #all to prayer at the wrong time whene er the Sultan's attention was needed. Thus the new amir knew that he had better pay ba#k the money. Cu!man the @ise noted that knowledge is better than wealth be#ause you ha e to take #are of wealth- but knowledge takes #are of you. 3i8am al*%ulk belie ed that sound +udgment is better for a king than ha ing a powerful army. 1e !uoted the Qur'an to show that ?od #ommanded e en %uhammad to seek ad i#e and #ounsel. 3i8am re#ommended ha ing different ra#es among the troops so that they would #ompete with ea#h other to e"#el. 1e des#ribed Alp*Tegin's rise to power from a sla e and page of the Samanids to a #ommander. 1e punished a page for taking hay and a #hi#ken from a peasant without paying for it as he ordered. This made other soldiers afraid& and the peasants were safe. 1is +usti#e led the #iti8ens of ?ha8nain to take Alp*Tegin as their king. 4e#ause the Samanids tried to destroy the worthy Alp*Tegin& they de#lined and were o er#ome by Alp*Tegin and his su##essor Sebuk*Tegin& who founded the ?ha8na id empire. 3i8am al*%ulk belie ed it was the perfe#tion of wisdom not to be#ome angry at all- but if one does be#ome angry& intelligen#e should pre ail o er wrath. The wise ha e said that patien#e is good& but it is e en better during su##ess. .nowledge is good& but it is e en better with skill. @ealth is good& but it is e en better with gratitude and en+oyment. @orship is good& but it is e en better with understanding and re eren#e for ?od. Det nothing is better than generosity& and kindness& and hospitality. In the se#ond part 6#hapters 00*507 3i8am al*%ulk seems to write from the bitterness of his retirement. 1e wrote that two appointments should not be gi en to one man nor should one position be gi en to more than one person. 1e #omplained that many worthy people remain unemployed when some persons are gi en se eral positions ea#h. 1e lamented that it used to be that those hired followed the 1anafi or Shafi'i tea#hings and were from .hurasan or Transo"iana or a Sunni #ity& and Shi'as were refused- but now someone 6probably Ta+ al*

%ulk7 wants to e#onomi8e by redu#ing 000&000 men on the pay*roll to 70&000 in order to fill the treasury with gold. 3i8am argued that a larger empire re!uired more employees and that e en more men would enable them to go ern India too. 3i8am told stories from history to show that a good era repla#es a si#k time when a +ust king does away with e il*doers& has right +udgments& and a i8ier and offi#ers of irtue- e ery task has the proper worker- hereti#s are put down& and the orthodo" are raised up- tyrants are repressed- soldiers as well as peasants fear the king- the unedu#ated and base are not gi en positions- the ine"perien#ed are not promoted- ad i#e is sought from the intelligent and mature- men are sele#ted for their skill& not be#ause of their money- religion is not sold for worldly things- e erything is ordered a##ording to merit- thus all people ha e work a##ording to their #apability- and all things are regulated by +usti#e and go ernment by the gra#e of ?od. Those under the king should not be allowed to assume power. 3i8am was parti#ularly #riti#al of women& and his pre+udi#e e en went so far as to assume that one should always do the opposite of what a woman re#ommends. 3i8am has 4u8ur+mihr #omplain that .husrau ga e power to his :ueen Shirin. 1e belie ed the Sasanians fell from power be#ause they entrusted important affairs to petty and ignorant offi#ers and be#ause they hated learning and learned people. Thus instead of ha ing wise offi#ers& 4u8ur+mihr said he had to deal with women and boys. 4u8ur+mihr 4akhtgan ad ised the .ing to banish the bad !ualities from himself& whi#h he listed as ,hatred& en y& pride& anger& lust& greed& desire& spite& menda#ity& a ari#e& ill temper& #ruelty& selfishness& hastiness& ingratitude& and fri olity., = The good !ualities he should e"er#ise are ,modesty& good temper& #lemen#y& forgi eness& humility& generosity& truthfulness& patien#e& gratitude& mer#y& knowledge& intelligen#e& and +usti#e.,> 3i8am al*%ulk e"pressed his sharpest enom against the hereti#s by re#ounting his ersion of history& showing how they ha e arisen and ha e been destroyed. 1e goes ba#k to the %a8dak re olution in the last #entury of the Sasanian empire. They offended him not only by their sharing their property but be#ause they belie ed in sharing their wi es also. 3i8am would also a##use some Shi'i hereti#s of pra#ti#ing the same e ils& #harging them with in#est& for e"ample. 1e des#ribed how the e il :armatis and 4atinis arose and were put down in arious regions. 1e noted that the 4atinis were #alled by different names in different pla#es.
In Aleppo and /gypt they #all them Isma'ilisin :um& .ashan& Tabaristan and Sab8 ar they are #alled Se enersin 4aghdad& Transo"iana and ?ha8nain they are known as :armatis& in .ufa as %ubarakis& in 4asra as $a andis and 4ur!a'is& in $ayy as .halafis& in ?urgan as The @earers of $ed& in Syria as The @earers of @hite& in the @est as Sa'idis& in Cahsa and 4ahrain as 2annabis& and in Isfahan as 4atiniswhereas they #all themsel es The Aida#ti#s and other su#h names. 4ut their whole purpose is only to abolish Islam& to mislead mankind and #ast them into perdition.0

3i8am #ommended al*%u'tasim for his three i#tories o er the 4y8antines& 4abak's re olt in A8erbai+an& and the Barathustrian %a8yar in Tabaristan. 3i8am #ited the early (aliph 'Umar's response to the last Sasanian .ing Da8di+urd Shahryar to show that the latter's empire was de#lining be#ause his #ourt was #rowded with #omplainers- his treasury was full of ill*gotten wealth- and his army was disobedient. 3i8am thus be#ame a #onser ati e oi#e for the Sunni tradition and ruled by an absolute monar#h.