Lecture 1

CHEM 1331 Fall Semester 2011
Chemistry for Science and Engineering Majors Instructor: Prof. Geanangel Office: 123B-Fleming
Sections: MWF 10:00 -11:00 AM & 1:00-2:00 PM 160F Office Hours: MWF 11:00 AM - 12:00 PM
Read your syllabus! Keep it for reference. Please use Blackboard mail to contact me. www.uh.edu/blackboard (Take PA by Fri. 5 PM!)
If you have an incomplete in CHEM 1331, send your name and PS number to me today.
UH Department of Chemistry
CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel
CHEM 1331 Fall Semester 2011 Chapter 2: The Components of Matter

2.1 Elements, Compounds & Mixtures: An Atomic Overview* 2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 2.3 Daltons Atomic Theory 2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 2.5 The Atomic Theory Today 2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding 2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 2.9 Mixtures: Classification and Separation* * Required for self study - not covered specifically in lecture
Observations that led to an atomic view of matter

Conservation of Mass (nothing is lost, unless...) The total mass of substances does not change during chemical reactions The number of substances may change, but the total quantity of matter remains constant
reactant 1 + reactant 2 +... total mass reactants calcium oxide + carbon dioxide CaO 56.08g + + CO2 44.00g = product(s) total mass products calcium carbonate
CaCO3 100.08g
Example: When 0.2250 g Mg was heated with 0.5331 g N2 gas, all the Mg was consumed forming 0.3114 g Mg3N2. What mass of N2 is left over?
Mg(s) Start 0.2250g End 0g + N2(g) ! Mg3N2(s) ( not balanced) 0.5331g Xg 0g 0.3114 g
Definite Composition (Whats in it and how much?)

A chemical compound is always composed of the same elements in the same fractions by mass. Experimental analysis of the elemental mass composition of 20.0 g calcium carbonate: Mass Fraction Mass Analysis Percent by Mass
(grams/20.0 g) 8.0 g calcium 2.4 g carbon 9.6 g oxygen 20.0 g total Lab measurement (parts/1.00 part) (parts/100 parts) 0.40 calcium 40% calcium 0.12 carbon 12% carbon 0.48 oxygen 48% oxygen 1.00 part by mass 100% by mass
8.0 g Ca = 0.40 20.0 g total MF x 100% = % by mass
MF =
Mass of an Element X in Compound XYZ

mass fraction X in XYZ = mass of X in XYZ mass of XYZ
mass of X in sample = mass fraction x mass of sample

!
Galena, a mineral, consists of Pb and S. A 1.27 g quantity of Galena contains 1.10 g of Pb. How many grams of S are present in a 1 kg sample of Galena (G)?
Problem: A 1.27 g sample of Galena contains 1.10 g of Pb. What is the mass percent of S in Galena?
If elements A and B react to form two compounds, masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A are found to be in a ratio of small whole numbers. Consider two compounds of elements carbon (C) and oxygen (O); call them carbon oxides I and II. Carbon oxide I: 57.1 mass %O and 42.9 mass %C Carbon oxide II: 72.7 mass %O and 27.3 mass %C Use %C and %O to find masses of C and O
The Law of Multiple Proportions
From %, find masses of C and O in 100 g of I and II Carbon Oxide I Carbon Oxide II g O/100g compound 57.1 72.7 g C/100g compound 42.9 27.3 g oxygen/g carbon 57.1/42.9 72.7/27.3
= 1.33
= 2.66
Dividing the g O/g C ratio in II by that in I gives a ratio of small whole numbers:
2.66 g O/g C in II = 2 1.33 g O/g C in I 1
Daltons Atomic Theory (1808) Four postulates help explain the emprical laws
1. Matter consists of atoms, tiny, indivisible particles of an element that cannot be created or destroyed. 2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another element. 3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties and are different from atoms of other elements. 4. Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio of atoms of different elements.
10
Daltons postulates help explain mass laws

Mass conservation Atoms cannot be created, destroyed (post.1) or converted into other types of atoms (post. 2)
Atoms have fixed masses (post. 3). In chemical rxns., atoms are just rearranged, - mass doesnt change.
Definite composition Compounds are combinations of a specific ratio of different atoms (post. 4), each of which has a particular mass (post. 3). Multiple proportions Different numbers of B atoms combine with each A atom in the two oxides giving a small, whole-number ratio. A simple arrangement consistent with the mass data has 1 atom of O combined with 1 atom of C in I. Two atoms of O combine with one atom of C in II.
11
Workshop on Empirical Mass Laws What set of the three mass laws are illustrated by this reaction?
Workshop
What set of these statements contains all that correctly describe the change shown below and no others? Assume A = orange atoms and B = blue atoms
i) A mixture of A2 and B2 molecules reacts to form the compound AB ii) The Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed during the change iii) Since 3 A2 and 3 B2 combine to form 6 AB, the change illustrates the Law of Multiple Proportions
UH Department of Chemistry CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel 13
Review: Static Electric Charges and Coulombs Law Neutral matter contains equal numbers of + and - charges Friction can separate some charge between objects.
According to Benjamin Franklin: Rubbing glass with silk gives the glass a positive charge. Rubbing plastic with fur gives plastic a negative charge.
14
The S.I. unit of charge is the Coulomb (C). Coulombs Law (Charles Coulomb, 1736-1806)
q1 r q2 q = charge (C)
k " q1 " q2 F= r2
+ + +
PE =
_
+ !
k ' "q1 " q2 r
F > 0, repulsive force F < 0, attractive force F < 0, attractive force F > 0, repulsive force
_ _
15
Observations that Led to a Nuclear Model of the Atom Sir William Crookes built a glass tube fitted with metal electrodes and pumped most of the air from it.
Cathode (-) Ring Anode (+)
Vacuum pump
Battery
16
With power on, Crookes saw a bright spot due to a ray striking the phosphor on the end of the tube.
Cathode rays moved from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive electrode in a straight line.
17
Cathode rays were deflected by magnetic fields and electric fields. All cathode rays behaved the same, no matter what metal was used for the cathode. Particles in the beam were attracted to a positively charged plate, so they must be negatively charged.
mass = "5.7 x10" 1 2kg / C charge

Identified by J. J. Thomson, (1897) as electrons.
18
Milikan Oil Drop Expt (whats the electron charge?)

1 Fine mist of oil is sprayed into apparatus 2 Oil droplets fall through hole in positively charged plate
(+) X-ray source () 3 X-rays knock electrons from surrounding air, which stick to droplet
4 Electrically charged plates influence droplets motion
5 Observer times droplets motion and controls electric field

9 8 7 6 5 4 0 1 2 3
Charges on all droplets were some whole-number multiple of a minimum charge. Oil drops pick up different numbers of electrons; the minimum charge must be that of one electron. Millikans value was within 1% of the modern value of the electrons charge, -1.602 x 10 -19 C (Coulomb) From Thomsons mass/charge ratio value and the charge, Millikan determined the electrons mass:
mass of e _ =
mass x charge charge
Electron mass ! 10-30 kg!
20
Atoms are electrically neutral. So, what positive charges balance the negative electrons? If electrons have such tiny masses, what accounts for the remainder of an atoms mass? positive charge Thomson proposed a spherical atom model composed of diffuse, positively charged matter, in which electrons were embedded like plums in pudding.
electron
21
Rutherford Scattering Experiment

A Hypothesis: Expected result based on plum pudding model
Incoming ! particles
B Experiment
1 Radioactive sample emits beam of ! particles 2 Beam of ! particles strikes gold foil Almost no deflection Lead block
Cross section of gold foil composed of plum pudding atoms
Gold foil
5 Major deflections of ! particles are seen very rarely 4 Minor deflections of ! particles are seen occasionally
3 Flashes of light produced when ! particles strike zinc-sulfide screen show that most ! particles are transmitted with little or no deflection.
Data showed that most ! particles werent deflected but that 1 in 20,000 was deflected by more than 90. Could only happen if nearly all mass and positive charge reside in a tiny region within the atom.
23 UH Department of Chemistry CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel
Rutherfords results suggested: -volume of atoms are mostly occupied by electrons; within that lies a tiny region, the atomic nucleus. - atomic nucleus contains all the positive charge and almost all the mass of the atom. - positive particles (protons) occupy the nucleus. Rutherfords model explained the charged nature of matter but didnt account for all the atoms mass. Later, Chadwick discovered the neutron: an uncharged particle in nucleus; about same mass as proton, accounted for the missing mass.
24
Approximately 1010 m
Approximately 1015 m
Nucleus
Electrons, e (negative charge)
Proton, p+ (positive charge)
Neutron, n0 (no charge)
A Atom
B Nucleus
+ +
26
Isotopes (Dalton got this wrong)

Atoms with the same number of protons (p+) but different numbers of neutrons (no) are called isotopes.
Mass number (p+ + n0) Atomic Number (p+) A Z
6e
An atom of carbon-12
6p+ 6n0 8e
12 6
An atom of oxygen-16
8p+ 8n0
16 8
92e 92p+ 143n0

235 92
Atomic symbol
An atom of uranium-235
isotopes
92p+ 146n0
92e
238 92
An atom of uranium -238
How to determine the number of neutrons
A Z
Mass number, A, is sum of protons and neutrons Number of neutrons = A - Z Chlorine-35 atoms have A = 35, Z = 17, and so they have 35 -17 = 18 no Problem: An atom of boron-11 has Z = 5. How many p+, e and no does it contain?
28
Ne + e ! Ne+ + 2e
29
Mass Spectrum of Ne Mass spectra show the abundance (%) of each isotope. How to calculate the average mass of neon from its isotope masses weighted according to their abundances.
Weighted average mass = "(isotope mass x fract. abund.)
30
Problem: Silver (Z =47) has only two isotopes, 107Ag and 109Ag. Given the mass spectrometric data below, calculate the atomic mass of silver: ISOTOPE MASS (amu) ABUNDANCE (%) 107Ag 106.90509 51.84 109Ag 108.90476 48.16 Find atomic mass contribution of each isotope: mass contrib = isotopic mass x fractional abund. For 107Ag: = 106.90509 amu x 0.5184 = 55.42 amu For 109Ag: = 108.90476 amu x 0.4816 = 52.45 amu
107.9
Ag
47
31
The atomic mass standard is the carbon-12 atom; its mass is defined as exactly 12 atomic mass units. So one atomic mass unit (amu or u) is defined as 1/12th the mass of a carbon-12 atom. On this scale, H atoms have a mass of 1.008 amu.
Atomic Mass Scale Today
One amu (u) equals 1.661 x 1024 g (PT/const. sheet) Exercise: What is the mass of one atom of H?
32
Learn names and symbols of the first 36 elements

MAINGROUP ELEMENTS 1A (1) 1 H 1 1.008 Metals (main-group) Metals (transition) Metals (inner transition) Metalloids Nonmetals MAINGROUP ELEMENTS 8A (18) 2 He 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) 4.003 5 6 7 8 9 10 B C N O F Ne 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
2A (2) 3 4 Be 2 Li 6.941 9.012 3 11 12 Na Mg 22.99 24.31
TRANSITION ELEMENTS 13 14 15 16 17 18 Al Si P S Cl Ar 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95 (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 4 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 5 Rb 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3 6 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222) 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt (223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (266) (262) (265) (266) (269) (272) (277) 114 (285)
PERIOD
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 6 Lanthanides Ce 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0 7 Actinides 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr 232.0 (231) 238.0 (237) (242) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260) CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel
Compounds: Introduction to Bonding The Formation of Ionic Compounds Ionic compounds made of ions, charged particles formed when atom(s) gain or lose electron(s). Ionic compounds typically form when a metal reacts with a nonmetal. Each metal atom loses 1, 2 or 3 of its electrons and becomes a cation, a positively charged ion. Nonmetal atoms gain electrons lost by the metal atoms becoming anions, negatively charged ions.
34
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58
Ionic compounds always contain equal numbers of positive and negative charges. Ionic compounds are neutral; i.e., zero net charge. A grain of table salt consists of a large number of Na+ ions and an equal number of Cl ions.58 How can we predict the number of electrons an atom Chapter 2 The Components of Matter will lose or gain when it forms a monoatomic ion?
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Chapter 2 The C
MAINGROUP ELEMENTS
1A (1) 1
Often, ions are formed with the same number of electrons as in the nearest noble gas [Group 8A]
1A (1) 1
MAINGROUP ELEMENTS
Metals (main-group) Metals (transition) Metals (inner transition) Metalloids Nonmetals
MAINGROUP ELEMENTS
8A (18) 5A (15) 7 6A (16) 8 7A (17) 9
Metals (main Metals (trans Metals (inner Metalloids Nonmetals
H
1.008 3
2A (2) 4
H
3
1.008 2
2A (2) 4
3A (13) 5
4A (14) 6
He
22
Li
11
Be
12
4.003 10 10
6.941 9.012 3
TRANSITION EL
3B (3) 21 4B (4) 22 5B (5) 23 6B (6) 24 7B (7) 25
Li
11
Be
12
B
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
3B (3) 21 4B (4) 22 5B (5) 23 6B (6) 24 7B (7) 25 (8) 26 8B (9) 27 (10) 28 1B (11) 29 2B (12) 30 13
C
14
N
15
O
16
F
17
Ne
Period
18
Na
19
Mg
20
6.941 9.012 3
Period
10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
22.99 24.31 4
(8
26
Na
19
Mg
20
Al
31
Si
32
P
33
S
34
Cl
35
Ar
36
K
37
Ca
38
Sc
39
Ti
40
V
41
Cr
42
Mn
43
Fe
22.99 24.31 4
26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55. 5
44
K
37
Ca
38
Sc
39
Ti
40
V
41
Cr
42
Mn
43
Fe
44
Co
45
Ni
46
Cu
47
Zn
48
Ga
49
Ge
50
As
51
Se
52
Br
53
Kr
54
Rb
55
Sr
56
Y
57
Zr
72
Nb
73
Mo
74
Tc
(98) 75
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 5
63.55 65.41 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 6
101
76
Rb
55
Sr
56
Y
57
Zr
72
Nb
73
Mo
74
Tc
(98) 75
Ru
76
Rh
77
Pd
78
Ag
79
Cd
80
In
81
Sn
82
Sb
83
Te
84
I
85
Xe
86
Cs
87
Ba
88
La
89
Hf
104
Ta
105
W
106
Re
107
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 6
101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190 7
10
Cs
87 (223)
Ba
88 (226)
La
89 (227)
Hf
104 (263)
Ta
105
W
106
Re
107
Os
108
Ir
109 (268)
Pt
110
Au
111
Hg
112
Tl
113
Pb
114 (289)
Bi
115 (288)
Po
(209) 116 (292)
At
(210)
Rn
(222)
Fr
(223)
Ra
(226)
Ac
(227)
Rf
(263)
Db
(262)
Sg
(266)
Bh
(267)
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 7 Department Fr Ra of Chemistry Ac Rf UH
(27
Db
(262)
Sg
(266)
Bh
(267)
Hs
(277)
Mt D s Professor Rg CHEM 1331 Geanangel

(281) (272) (285)
(284)
35 INNER TRANSITION ELEM

58 6 Lanthanides 59 60 61 62
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63
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 6 Lanthanides
Ce
90
Pr
91
Nd
92
Pm
(145) 93
Sm
94
Eu
140.1 140.9 144.2
150.4 152
Exercise: What monatomic ions do the elements below form? Chapter 2 The Components of Matter 58 Figure 2.9 The modern periodic table. a) iodine (Z= 53) Metals (main-group) MAINGROUP b) strontium (Z = 38) Figure 2.9MAINGROUP The modern periodic table. ELEMENTS ELEMENTS Metals (transition) c) aluminum (Z = 13) Metals (inner transition)
Ce
90
95
Pr
91
Nd
92
Pm
93
Sm
94
Eu
95
Gd
96
Tb
97
Dy
98
Ho
99
Er
Tm
101
Yb
Lu
Actinides
140.1 140.9 144.2
(145)
150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0 100 102 103
Th
Pa
Np
(237)
Pu
(242)
Am
232.0
(231)
238.0
(24
The table consists of ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups ( cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains atomic the number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in pa The table consists of eleplaced below the main body of the table but actually t between is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that elem ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (vertielements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of theses the thick periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes c cal columns) and periods (horizontal rows). Each box contains the staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in PeriodThe 6] and infamilies ) have a number-letter designation and a new group numb atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in parenclude main-group metals ( purple-blue ) , transition elements ( blue ) , and Metalloids 8A 1A parentheses. theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.) inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right The A groups are the main-group elements; the B gr (18) (1)numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called Nonmetals transition elements. Two series of inner transition element The periods are of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss are the the place7 Actinides
Th
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
232.0
(231)
238.0
(237)
(242)
(243)
(247)
(247)
(251)
(252)
(257)
(258)
(259)
(260)
families) have a 1 number-letter designation and a new group number in parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups 1 H 2A Two series of inner transition elements are are the transition elements.
ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116 had not been named.
2 6A (16) 8 7A (17) 9
1.008 3
(2) 4
3A (13) 5
4A (14) 6
5A (15) 7
He
4.003 10
Li
11
Be
12
6.941 9.012 3
Period
Na
19
Mg
20
22.99 24.31 4
3B (3) 21
4B (4) 22
K
37
Ca
38
Sc
39
Ti
40
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 5
Rb
55
Sr
56
Y
57
Zr
72
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 6
Cs
87
Ba
88
La
89
Hf
104
B elements C is their N At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the 10.81 12.01 14.01 classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs 14 13 in Period from the TRANSITION top of Group ELEMENTS 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) 615 is a dividing line (three2B shadesAl of blue) Si appear P in 5B 6B for this 7B classication. 8B The metals 1B 30.97 the(5) large lower-left About three-quarters of the28.09 elements are (8) of the (9)table. (10) (6) (7)portion (11) (12) 26.98 metals, many main-group and inner 33 tran29 all the 23 including 25 27 elements 24 26 32 28 30transition 31 and sition They generally at room (mercury V elements. Cr Mn are Fe Co shiny Ni solids Cu Zn temperature Ga Ge As is the only 52.00 liquid) that conduct and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets 50.94 54.94 55.85heat 58.93 63.55 69.72 74.92 58.69 65.41 72.61 (malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small 41 43of the 46 generally 51 at 48 or dull, 42 44 47 gases 50 solids 49 brittle upper-right portion table. 45 They are Nb temperature Mo Tc Ru is the Rh only Pd Ag Cd In and Snelectricity Sb room (bromine liquid) and conduct heat 92.91 Along 95.94 the (98) 101.1 107.9 112.4 114.8 121.8 poorly. staircase line102.9 lie the 106.4 metalloids (green; also called118.7 semimetals ), elements that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several 73 75 77 78 80 81 83 74 76 79 82 Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi
105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 (285) 113 (284) 114 (289) 115 (288)
O
16
F
17
Ne
18
16.00 19.00 20.18
S
34
Cl
35
Ar
36
32.07 35.45 39.95
Se
52
Br
53
Kr
54
78.96 79.90 83.80
Te
84
I
85
Xe
86
At this poi classication a from the top o dividing line fo the large lower metals, includin sition elements the only liquid) (malleable) an upper-right por room temperat poorly. Along t elements that
127.6 126.9 131.3
Po
(209) 116 (292)
At
(210)
Rn
(222)
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 7
Fr
(223)
Ra
(226)
Ac
(227)
Rf
(263)
Db
(262)
Sg
(266)
Bh
(267)
Hs
(277)
Mt
(268)
Ds
(281)
Rg
(272)
36
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
(53I) is SAMP 62 Chapter 2 Th this group, it gain e any member of e p+ p+ + + p p PROBLE Group 8A(18) member, inSAMPLE this cas (a) Iod + 2 e p+ p e PROBLEM Formation of Covalent (b) Ca Calcium (20Ca) is am PLAN W SAMPLE P (a) Iodine Compounds Ap No any Group 2A member, it loses 2 e + + interaction B Attraction begins its grou p PROBLEM W PLAN We trons gas, in this case, 18Ar. (a) (l Z itsIodine groupto In covalent compounds, atoms A No interaction 3 in Grou PLAN We us trons to (c) Al Aluminum (13Al) is a at m share pairs of electrons. A No interaction SOLUTI its group lie in Groups e attain the same e 3+ electrons to num e me tronsany to attai +
e e
e
SOLUTION (a) I
e Iodine
Usually occurs between p+ p+ nonmetals, C-H, Cl-Cl, etc.

e
Simplest case: electron sharing occurs two hydrogen Cbetween Covalent bond atoms to form H2 molecule.
e p+ p+ e
form: many combinations to ments form av The F The simplest case of electr The For C Covalent bond Covale e two hydrogen atoms (H; Z The Form Covalent betwee e D Interaction of forces + + p p between n each other, as in Figure 2.14. A Covalent co many c p+ e p+ e many com between no Th the p electron of the other atom + Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent e p+ many comb The s twooth hy bond between two H atoms. A, The D Interaction begin to each e interpenetrate of force s The sim two hydr each ot of forces distance is too great for the atoms to D Interaction the two atoms form a covalen two hydrog each theothe ele D Interaction forces Figure 2.14ofFormation of a covalent affect each other. B, As the distance deeach other, the electr Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent the two nuclei. The result is bond between two H atoms. A, The begin ta creases, the consists nucleus of each begins the electron Figure 2.14 Formation of a covalent Hydrogen gas of atom many bond between two H atoms. The to begin to i distance is too great for the A, atoms longer belongs to a particular the bond between two H atoms. A, The to attract the electron of the other. C, The distance is too great for the atoms to begin to two int diatomic hydrogen molecules, H . the two a 2affect each other. B, As the distance dethe tw distance is too great for the atoms to affect each other. B, As the distance denuclei. Repulsions between the the two ato covalent bond forms when the two nuclei creases, the nucleus of each atom begins the two n affect each other. B, As distance decreases, the nucleus of the each atom begins longer the twotha nu to attract the the electron of the other. C, attract pair of electrons at net attraction isThe greater These mutually behave as the independent H units longer b creases, ofof each 2 to attractthe thenucleus electron the atom other.begins C, The nuclei. covalent bond forms when the two nuclei longer bel some optimum distance. D, The H2 molto attractbond the electron of the other. C, The -not separate hydrogen atoms. nuclei. Ri covalent forms when the two nuclei covalent bonds in great detail mutually attract the pair of electrons at the net nuclei. Rep covalent bond forms when the two nuclei mutually attract the pair of electrons at ecule is more stable than the separate some optimum distance. D, The H mol- the net at A sample of gas 2hydrogen mutually attract distance. the pair ofD, electrons at the net attr covalen some optimum The H molcovalent atoms because the attractive forces ecule is more stable than the separate Other diatomics are some optimum distance. D, The H molcovalent bo ecule is more stable than that the separate A ofstable atoms are chemically bo A sam atoms because the attractive forces arrows) between each nucleus and ecule is more than the separate N2, O(black , F , Cl , Br , I atoms because the attractive forces A samp 2 2 2 2 2 atom (black arrows) between each nucleus and nonmeta atoms because the attractive forces of of atoms arate H each atoms. Other the two electrons are greater than the (black arrows) between nucleus and of atoms th arate H (black arrows) between each nucleus and the two electrons are greater than the arate H a the two electrons are greater than the repulsive forces (red arrows) between the ), oxy perature are nitrogen (N arate H ato 2 the two electrons are greater than the repulsive forces (red arrows) between the perature peratur repulsive forces (red arrows) between the a Memorize the 7 Famous Diatomics electrons and between the nuclei. repulsive forces (red between the ), and perature are electrons and between the nuclei. ), arrows) bromine (Br iodin (Cl ), b (Cl 2 2 electrons and between the nuclei. 2bro (Cl electrons and between the nuclei. 2), ), brom (Cl 2(P ), an a (P4), and sulfur and selenium and (P 4), 4 (P 4), and su At roo At room At room temperature, covalent At room te
CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel 37
SOLUTION in Groups 5A Group 8 any memb p+ p+ SOLUTION ( (b) Ca e e Group 8A ments form: (a) S; (b) any Rb; 2 member 37 any Gro p+ p+ 16 B Attraction begins (b) Ca(c) Group 8A(1 gas, in any Group B Attraction begins 2 3 (b) Ca C (c) gas, in Al thi any Group 2 3 B Attraction begins electr (c)3 Al e gas, in this c 3 electrons + + 3 p e p (c) Al A FOLLO + + Covalent compounds form whe p p e 3 electrons t FOLLOW ments f e e ments form between nonmetals. Even thoug p+ p+ FOLLOW-U
p
e e
FOLLOW-UP PROBLEM 2.6
The Formation of Covalen
C Covalent bond e C Covalent bond
molecules.
Figure 2.15
Figure Figure 2.1 Figure 2.15 Elements that occur molecu molecules molecules. a
Diatomic m
UH Department of Chemistry CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel 38
Tetratomic Octatomic
Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses Chemical formulas: symbols + numeric subscripts Empirical formulas show the simplest ratio of numbers of atoms of each element in the compound. Empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO Molecular formulas show the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of a compound. Molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide is H2O2 Structural formulas show actual number of atoms and the arrangement of the atoms in the molecule. Structural formula of hydrogen peroxide H-O-O-H.
H2O CaCO3 H2SO4
39
Names of compounds with monatomic ions. Rules for binary ionic compounds, (MX). Ionic compound names give positive ion (cation) first, followed by negative ion (anion). Metal cation name is the same as that of the metal. Ca Ca 2+ Anion takes the root of the nonmetal name and adds the suffix -ide. Br Br The compound formed from the metal calcium and the nonmetal bromine is calcium bromide. Learn all the monatomic ions in Table 2.3
40
Exercise (assumes that you learned 1st 36 elements) Name the binary ionic compound that forms from:
siL48593_ch02_040-088
a) strontium (Z =38) and N c) Al and fluorine MAINGROUP

ELEMENTS
1A (1) 1 1
30:11:07 metal
10:53pm
Page 58
nonmetal
b) S and Zn d) oxygen MAINGROUP and Li

ELEMENTS
8A (18) 2 3A (13) 5 4A (14) 6 5A (15) 7 6A (16) 8 7A (17) 9
nm
58
nm
Chapter 2 The Components of Matter

Metals (main-group) Metals (transition) Metals (inner transition) Metalloids Nonmetals
nm
H
1.008 3
2A (2) 4
He
4.003 10
Li
11
Be
12
B
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
3B (3) 21 4B (4) 22 5B (5) 23 6B (6) 24 7B (7) 25 (8) 26 8B (9) 27 (10) 28 1B (11) 29 2B (12) 30 13
C
14
N
15
O
16
F
17
Ne
18
6.941 9.012 3
Period
10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Na
19
Mg
20
Al
31
Si
32
P
33
S
34
Cl
35
Ar
36
22.99 24.31 4
26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
K
37
Ca
38
Sc
39
Ti
40
V
41
Cr
42
Mn
43
Fe
44
Co
45
Ni
46
Cu
47
Zn
48
Ga
49
Ge
50
As
51
Se
52
Br
53
Kr
54
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 5
63.55 65.41 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
Rb
55
Sr
56
Y
57
Zr
72
Nb
73
Mo
74
Tc
(98) 75
Ru
76
Rh
77
Pd
78
Ag
79
Cd
80
In
81
Sn
82
Sb
83
Te
84
I
85
Xe
86
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 6
101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
Cs
87
Ba
88
La
89
Hf
104
Ta
105
W
106
Re
107
Os
108
Ir
109
Pt
110
Au
111
Hg
112 (285)
Tl
113 (284)
Pb
114 (289)
Bi
115 (288)
Po
(209) 116 (292)
At
(210)
Rn
(222)
41
132.9 137.3 138.9 UH Department of Chemistry 7
178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel
Fr
(223)
Ra
(226)
Ac
(227)
Rf
(263)
Db
(262)
Sg
(266)
Bh
(267)
Hs
(277)
Mt
(268)
Ds
(281)
Rg
(272)
How to Predict Formulas of Ionic Compounds INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS PositiveCe charges ofSm cations in a Pr Nd Pm Eu Gd Tb Dy formula Ho Er Tmmust Yb Lube balanced by the negative charges of the anions.
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 6 Lanthanides 140.1 140.9 144.2 90 91 92 (145) 93 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Calcium bromide is composed of Ca ions + Lr Br ions. Figure 2.9 The modern table. The table consists of eleplaced below the main body of the table but actually Two Br periodic ions are needed to balance each Ca2+, t between the ment boxes arranged by increasing atomic number into groups (vertielements indicated. Metals lie below and to the left of the thick cal columns) periods (horizontal rows).is EachCaBr box contains . the staircase line [top of 3A(13) to bottom of 6A(16) in Period 6] and inso and the formula formula) 2 (empirical atomic number, atomic symbol, and atomic mass. (A mass in parenclude main-group metals ( purple-blue), transition elements (blue), and
7 Actinides
Th
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
232.0
(231)
238.0
(237)
(242)
(243)
(247)
(247)
(251)
(252)
(257)
Fm 2+ Md
No
(258)
(259)
(260)
theses is the mass number of the most stable isotope of that element.) The periods are numbered 1 to 7. The groups (sometimes called families) have a number-letter designation and a new group number in parentheses. The A groups are the main-group elements; the B groups are the transition elements. Two series of inner transition elements are
of the line. Metalloids ( green) lie along the line. We discuss the placeDeduce other ionic formulas by the same method. ment of hydrogen in Chapter 14. As of mid-2007, elements 112116 had not been named.
inner transition elements ( gray-blue). Nonmetals (yellow) lie to the right
At this point in the text, the clearest distinction among the elements is their classication as metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. The staircase line that runs from the top of Group 3A(13) to the bottom of Group 6A(16) in Period 6 is a dividing line for this classication. The metals (three shades of blue) appear in the large lower-left portion of the table. About three-quarters of the elements are metals, including many main-group elements and all the transition and inner transition elements. They are generally shiny solids at room temperature (mercury is the only liquid) that conduct heat and electricity well and can be tooled into sheets (malleable) and wires (ductile). The nonmetals (yellow) appear in the small upper-right portion of the table. They are generally gases or dull, brittle solids at room temperature (bromine is the only liquid) and conduct heat and electricity poorly. Along the staircase line lie the metalloids (green; also called semimetals), elements CHEM that have properties between those of metals and nonmetals. Several42 1331 Professor Geanangel
Problem: Write the empirical formulas for the compounds named in the previous problem. Plan: Write the ions and find the smallest number of each that gives a neutral formula. Solution: a) strontium nitride Sr 2+ and N 3 ; three Sr 2+ (6+) balance two N 3 (6 ) ! Sr3N2 b) zinc iodide Zn 2+ and I ; one Zn 2+ ion (2+) balances two I ions (2) ! ZnI2 c) aluminum fluoride Al 3+ and F ; one Al 3+ ion (3+) balances three F ions (3) ! AlF3 d) lithium oxide Li + and O2 ; two Li+ ions (2+) balance one O2 ion (2) ! Li2O
43
Transition elements (B groups), often form more than one ion, with different charges. Naming their compounds: give metals ionic charge in Roman numerals after the metal ions name. For example, iron forms both Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ ions. The two iron-chlorine compounds are: FeCl2, named iron(II) chloride, and FeCl3, named iron(III) chloride. Learn the transition element ions given in Table 2.4
44
Problem: Give systematic names for the formulas or formulas for the names of the following compounds: (a) tin(II) bromide (tin, Z = 50) (b) CrF3 (c) iron(III) oxide (d) MnS
Compounds formed from polyatomic ions Learn the formulas, charges and names of the common polyatomic ions given in Table 2.5 (NO3-) If two or more of a given polyatomic ion are present, put the ion in parentheses with subscript following. Calcium nitrate contains one Ca2+ and two NO3 ions; formula = Ca(NO3)2. Hydrates are ionic compounds having a number of water molecules associated with each formula unit. Epsom salt has the formula MgSO4.7H2O and the name magnesium sulfate heptahydrate. Learn numerical prefixes in Table 2.6.
Most polyatomic ions are oxoanions, in which an element is bonded to one or more oxygen atoms. Families of oxoanions exist that differ only in the number of oxygen atoms. SO32 SO42 Naming convention for these ions: If only two oxoanions are in the family: -the ion with more O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the suffix -ate. -the ion with fewer O atoms takes the nonmetal root and the suffix -ite. Examples: SO42 = sulfate ion; SO32 = sulfite ion.
Families of Oxoanions
47
With four oxoanions in the family: -the ion with most O atoms has the prefix per-, the nonmetal root, and the suffix -ate. -the ion with one less O atoms has the suffix -ate. -the ion with two less O atoms has the suffix -ite. -the ion with three less O atoms has the prefix hypo- and the suffix -ite. Examples: the four chlorine oxoanions, ClO4 is perchlorate ClO2 is chlorite ClO3 is chlorate ClO is hypochlorite
48
Problem: Give systematic names for the formulas or formulas for the names of the following compounds: a) Fe(ClO3)2 b) Sodium carbonate c) Ba(OH)2.8H2O a) ClO3 is chlorate; since it has a 1- charge, the cation must be Fe 2+. Name is iron(II) chlorate. b) Sodium is Na+ ; carbonate is CO32. Two Na+ ions balance one CO32 ion. Formula is Na2CO3 . c) Ba2+ is barium; OH is hydroxide. There are eight water molecules in each formula unit. Name is barium hydroxide octahydrate.
49
Naming acids Acids are a type of hydrogen-containing compound. To name acids, treat them as anions connected to number of H+ ions needed for electrical neutrality. Two main types are 1. binary acids and 2. oxoacids: 1. Gaseous hydrogen chloride (HCl) dissolved in water forms a solution called hydrochloric acid. - name consists of: prefix hydro- + anion nonmetal root + suffix -ic + word acid. Exercise: Name H2S(aq) as a binary acid
(H+)2(S2-) ! hydro + sulfur + ic + acid hydrosulfuric acid

!
50
2. Oxoacid names are based on those of the oxoanions, except for two suffix changes: Anion -ate suffix becomes an -ic suffix in acid. Anion -ite suffix becomes an -ous suffix in acid. Oxoanion prefixes hypo- and per- are retained. BrO4 is perbromate, so HBrO4 is perbromic acid IO2 is iodite, so HIO2 is iodous acid.
51
Problem: Name the following anions and give the names and formulas of the acid solutions derived from them: (a) Br (b) IO3 (c) CN (d) NO2
52
Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds A few simple covalent compounds, have common names: ammonia (NH3) water (H2O) Most are named in a systematic way using 4 rules: 1. The element with the lower group number in the periodic table is named first Important exception: If the compound contains oxygen and a halogen, the halogen is named first 2. If both elements are in the same group, the one lower in the group is named first 3. The second element is named with its root and the suffix -ide 4. Use numerical prefixes (Table 2.6) to indicate the number of atoms of each element in the compound
53
Problem: (a) What is the formula of carbon disulfide?

siL48593_ch02_040-088
(b) What is the name 30:11:07 10:53pm Page 58 of AsF5 ? (c) Give the name and formula of the compound Chapter 2 The Components of Matter formed from two N atoms and five O atoms.
MAINGROUP ELEMENTS
1A (1) 1 1 Metals (main-group) Metals (transition) Metals (inner transition) Metalloids Nonmetals 3A (13) 5 4A (14) 6
58
MAINGROUP ELEMENTS
8A (18) 2 5A (15) 7 6A (16) 8 7A (17) 9
H
1.008 3
2A (2) 4
He
4.003 10
Li
11
Be
12
B
TRANSITION ELEMENTS
3B (3) 21 4B (4) 22 5B (5) 23 6B (6) 24 7B (7) 25 (8) 26 8B (9) 27 (10) 28 1B (11) 29 2B (12) 30 13
C
14
N
15
O
16
F
17
Ne
18
6.941 9.012 3
Period
10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Na
19
Mg
20
Al
31
Si
32
P
33
S
34
Cl
35
Ar
36
22.99 24.31 4
26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
K
37
Ca
38
Sc
39
Ti
40
V
41
Cr
42
Mn
43
Fe
44
Co
45
Ni
46
Cu
47
Zn
48
Ga
49
Ge
50
As
51
Se
52
Br
53
Kr
54
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 5
63.55 65.41 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
Rb
55
Sr
56
Y
57
Zr
72
Nb
73
Mo
74
Tc
(98) 75
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
84
I
85
Xe
86
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94
101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
77 78 80 81 83 76 79 82 6 C s Ba La Hf Ta W Re O s Ir Pt Au H g Tl Pb Bi UH Department of Chemistry CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel 132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 87 7 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
Po
(209) 116
At
(210)
Rn
(222)
54
Fr
Ra
Ac
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
110
111
112
113
114
115
Ds
Rg
Organic Compounds; Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons have only H and C atoms Alkanes are one type of hydrocarbon Methane, CH4, is the simplest alkane Alkane series general formula = CnH2n+2 Ethane, C2H6, (n = 2) is the 2nd member Learn straight-chain alkanes in Table 2.7 Alkanes with branches have a number for branch location. 2-methylbutane
55
Functional Groups
Specific groupings of atoms attached to a carbon chain Alcohols Amines Carboxylic Acids
56
Exercise: What is the structure of 3-pentanol?
Exercise: What is the name of CH3CH2CH2COOH
Problem: Using the PT, calculate the molecular mass of the compound tetraphosphorus trisulfide:
Section 2.9 (p76-79) is assigned for self study.
End of Chapter 2
59
Avogadros Number (NA) Atomic Mass Unit (u) Electron charge (e) Faradays constant (F) Universal gas const. (R) Planks constant (h) Rydberg's constant (R) Speed of light (c)
= = = = = = = =
6.02214 1.66054 1.60218 9.64853 8.20578 6.62607 1.09678 2.99792
x x x x x x x x
10 23 mol-1 10 -27 kg 10 -19 C 10 4 C/mol 10 -2 L.atm/(mol.K) = 8.31451 J/(mol.K) 10 -34 J.s 10 7 m -1 10 8 m/s
60

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CHEM 1331 Fall Semester 2011

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Fall Semester 2011 Chapter 2: The Components of Matter

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Observations that led to an atomic view of matter

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Definite Composition (Whats in it and how much?)

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Mass of an Element X in Compound XYZ

mass of X in sample = mass fraction x mass of sample

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

The Law of Multiple Proportions

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

2.66 g O/g C in II = 2 1.33 g O/g C in I 1

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Daltons postulates help explain mass laws

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

k ' "q1 " q2 r

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

mass = "5.7 x10" 1 2kg / C charge

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Milikan Oil Drop Expt (whats the electron charge?)

4 Electrically charged plates influence droplets motion

5 Observer times droplets motion and controls electric field

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

mass x charge charge

Electron mass ! 10-30 kg!

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Rutherford Scattering Experiment

Cross section of gold foil composed of plum pudding atoms

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

23 UH Department of Chemistry CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Electrons, e (negative charge)

Proton, p+ (positive charge)

Neutron, n0 (no charge)

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Isotopes (Dalton got this wrong)

92e 92p+ 143n0

An atom of uranium -238

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

How to determine the number of neutrons

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Weighted average mass = "(isotope mass x fract. abund.)

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Atomic Mass Scale Today

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Learn names and symbols of the first 36 elements

2A (2) 3 4 Be 2 Li 6.941 9.012 3 11 12 Na Mg 22.99 24.31

CHEM 1331 Professor Geanangel

Metals (main-group) Metals (transition) Metals (inner transition) Metalloids Nonmetals

Metals (main Metals (trans Metals (inner Metalloids Nonmetals