Teaching with Media

Ben Howell Davis Leave Comments Technology and Education Conference, Ekpedeftiria Doukas S.A., Athens, Greece, 1991. Copyright, 1991. Is it necessary, really, to learn ho to read a fil!" #$%iously, anyone of !ini!al intelligence o%er the age of four can & !ore or less & grasp the $asic content of a fil!, record, radio, or tele%ision progra! ithout any special training. 'et precisely $ecause the !edia so %ery closely !i!ic reality, e apprehend the! !uch !ore easily than e co!prehend the!. James Monaco, How to Read a Film. J. Monaco, New York: Oxford University ress, !"##, $. vii. The traditional $lack$oard is really %ery !uch like a co!puter screen. It can $e used to e(plain ideas graphically, ith te(t and nu!$ers, and can $e used $y the students like an interacti%e interface in a co!puter. )se of fil!s, %ideotapes, audiotapes, records, and e%en perfor!ance can enhance the learning process in the classroo! & ithout the co!puter. This techni*ue of +!ultiple !edia+ re*uires creati%ity and planning. ,hat !edia are a%aila$le" -o !uch of it should $e used" ,hat happens if it doesn.t ork" ,hat is the proper role for teaching ith !edia" ,hen is it /ust a distraction" 0edia in the classroo! are appropriate for triggering ideas, !aking difficult su$/ects !ore understanda$le, and for holding attention on i!portant ideas. It should lead students to re!e!$er ideas $y $eco!ing !ore in%ol%ed ith the!. ,hat is not al ays o$%ious is that students should first kno hat !edia is and ays to think a$out it. Critical skills in understanding !edia are e(tre!ely i!portant1 ithout the! the fil!, %ideo, record or slide presented in relation to a su$/ect is only one di!ensional. 0y o n e(periences in teaching and using %arious !edia in the classroo! are so!e hat ske ed in that I as teaching art or !edia or so!e co!$ination. The nature of the classes dictated that I de!onstrate !ost of the e(pressi%e !edia that e use to co!!unicate ith & print, $ooks, dra ing, slides, fil!, %ideo, audio, co!puter screens. ,hat I gained fro! these e(periences as $oth a kno ledge of hat these !edia are and ho they can $e used 2or not used3 in the classroo!. Although I as not teaching !ath or science 2although technically tele%ision is a onderful ay to teach physics and I did ha%e a physicist co!e to !y %ideo classes to e(plain ho i!ages got fro! reality to the screen3 I ha%e since e!ployed hat I learned to help teachers fro! a %ariety of su$/ects at 0IT %isuali4e their su$/ects ith !ulti!edia co!puting technology. This technology +!odels+ hat is done in the classroo! to so!e degree $ut has the added feature of $eing a$le to connect this !odel to electronic li$raries. Generally hen instructors ca!e to the 5isual Co!puting Group 2the 5isual Co!puting Group at 0IT.s 6ro/ect Athena as a tea! of specialists that orked ith faculty to de%elop !ulti!edia co!puting applications in a %ariety of disciplines. It is no in the 0IT Center for Educational Co!puting Initiati%es3 ith an idea for translating or e(tending their class ith !ulti!edia co!puting, e

asked the! +-o do you usually teach this" -o do you present the !aterial" 7y lecture" -o do you ork ith the $lack$oard" Do you use o%erhead slides" Do you use %ideo or fil!s" Do you lecture and then take *uestions" ,hich concepts in the course are hardest to get across" ,hat *uestions are al ays asked" Are students playing acti%e roles in the class or are they taking notes" ,hat kind of e(a!ples do you use" ,hat classes, or T5 sho s, or perfor!ances ha%e you seen that you thought ere possi$ly rele%ant to your su$/ect" If you had any !eans at your disposal hat is your drea! !ethod for teaching this course" 7efore $eco!ing in%ol%ed ith !ulti!edia co!puting I taught for ten years in a s!all fine arts college in Atlanta. I also taught at the Center for Ad%anced 5isual Studies at 0IT, at the 5isi$le 8anguage ,orkshop in the 0IT 0edia 8a$oratory, in the Depart!ent of Co!!unications, Co!puting, and Technology at Teachers College, Colu!$ia )ni%ersity, and !ost recently in the 5isual Arts 6rogra! in the 0IT Depart!ent of Architecture and )r$an 6lanning. These e(periences all focused on using %arious !edia in the classroo! ith %arying a!ounts of success. They are orth re%ie ing. ,hen I as an art teacher I as confronted ith the pro$le! of grading students ho $rought a creati%e ork to !e. An art ork in the acade!ic conte(t can $e considered like any other +pro$le!+ sol%ed in a discipline e(cept that in sol%ing it a tangi$le %isual 2e(cept in the case of a !usical ork3 o$/ect results. ,hen the creati%e pro$le! is sol%ed it is said to + ork+. 8iterally taken, to !ake +art ork+ !eans that the o$/ect co!!unicates on a !ulti!odal le%el. It satisfies a$stract needs for the !aker and the %ie er. In ter!s of +grading+ this process, essentially I graded hat I concei%ed to $e the +*uality of their interest+ in hat they ere doing and the !astery of the !ediu! or techni*ue they had chosen to represent their ideas. I had no pro$le!, e(cept in the case of a student ho had done a poor /o$ and kne it. 6art of $eing a teacher is to confront the student ith hat he9she is doing. In the case of a student ho as interested and sho ed a degree of !astery of his9her interest, !y role consisted of finding the $est !eans of learning for the student. I !ention this process $ecause, as I pursued other teaching, I used this art school techni*ue as a ay of understanding ho to present infor!ation in a !ulti!odal ay. As a teacher of fil!, %ideo, photography, and then dra ing, I disco%ered that I could co&teach !y classes ith a %ariety of !echanical assistants. These assistants could help !e !ake the i!pact of a state!ent like +The in%ention of fil! as thought to $e a scientific indication that i!!ortality as achie%a$le+ $y actually sho ing the first !o%ing i!ages of ani!al loco!otion $y Ed eard 0uy$ridge that elicited that co!!ent fro! an a!a4ed ne spaper critic at the turn of the century. The slide pro/ector, the indispensi$le assistant of the art history teacher, as the $asic tool of the %isual lecture. As a photographer it as natural for !e to take pictures and !ake slides for !y classes !uch the sa!e ay so!eone else ould /ot do n lecture notes. It did.t really !atter if the slides ere !useu! art orks as long as they held up a point I could !ake hile speaking. They could easily $e characteri4ed as +snap shots+ that $y the!sel%es had no co!!on !eaning $ut in the conte(t of a lecture ga%e a student a %isual re!inder, an inde( for the idea I had presented. #n a fello ship at 0IT in 19:; at the Center for Ad%anced 5isual Studies I concei%ed and taught a course on art and co!!unications called +Trans!ission+ hich consisted of lectures and an i!pro%ised li%e ca$le tele%ision progra! once a eek. Ad!ittedly this is so!ething that !ight only $e done at a place like 0IT here such technological resources are the e(pected rather than the e(ception.

Each eek e ould e(plore so!e concept in the real! of +pu$lic art %s. pri%ate art+ or +!ass co!!unication %s. personal e(pression+. 0uch like the traditional art courses I had taught, the students ould e(perience classroo! lectures ith !echanical assistants like tape players, %ideo cassettes, slides, fil!s. There ould also $e the occasional hu!an assistant, a guest speaker ho ould usually re*uire so!e !echanical de%ice as ell. 7ut during the ca$le progra! they ould de!onstrate hat they had learned in class $y actually producing li%e %ideo and audio i!agery that ould $e telecast to the 0IT ca!pus. )nlike a student ho !akes a painting or photograph as a re*uire!ent for an art class, these students ere !aking electronic i!ages !eant to $e seen i!!ediately $y a large audience. The lessons fro! this class ere !any. <irst, students de%eloped hands&on critical skills in regard to !edia. They kne ho so!ething like %ideo as !ade and ho it could !anipulate a !essage. They also learned ho to !atch an idea to an i!age&!aking techni*ue and they learned that they could e%ol%e that idea $y applying su$se*uent !edia to it. They learned ho to say no to the technology as ell. #ne of the !ost !o%ing e(periences fro! the class in%ol%ed understanding hat +li%e+ tele%ision actually !eant. ,e had a custo! of taping each sho so that e could look at it after ord and discuss hat as successful and hat had failed. =e!e!$er, the progra! as li%e on 0IT ca$le hich !eant that hat they i!pro%ised as i!!ediately seen and reacted to. ,e ne%er telecast a pre&recorded progra!. #ne e%ening after an especially ell&done telecast e ere an(ious to see the tape. So!eone had forgotten to turn on the %ideo tape recorder. There as no synthetic !e!ory of the e%ents of the e%ening. There as an i!!ediate depression. ,ho as guilty for not recording the progra!" Then it occurred to all of the! that this as the $est lesson of the class & e ere li%e> The i!ages ere transitory. 8ike actors in a one&perfor!ance play, e had co!!itted oursel%es to $eing totally spontaneous for thirty !inutes and the record as lost, ne%er to $e reconstructed. Art had i!itated life. It as easily the $est sho . There as a totally e!otional understanding of the difference $et een li%e and recorded tele%ision. Their critical understanding of the !ediu! as co!plete. As they approached the content of other sho s, they $egan e(peri!enting ith using pre&recorded and li%e i!agery, ans ering the phone and telecasting the calls on the air hile shifting i!agery to relate to the caller.s *uestion or co!!ent. They ere no in co!plete control of the !ediu!. ?o hen I used %ideo in class lectures ith the! they had a co!pletely different atttitude a$out it. They ould first criti*ue the *uality of the tape, the production %alues, ho carefully it as !ade, and ho ell it co!!unicated the ideas it as supposed to con%ey. They kne this !ediu! /ust the ay they kne different teachers and friends ho atte!pted to gi%e the! !essages. In 19:@, hile !anaging the 5isual Co!puting Group at 6ro/ect Athena I continued !y classroo! teaching at the 5isi$le 8anguage ,orkshop in the 0IT 0edia 8a$oratory ith colleagues fro! Athena Dorothy Sha!onsky, for!er 58, graduate and graphics designer and 0atthe -odges, 5isiting Scientist fro! Digital E*uip!ent Corporation. ,e concei%ed t o courses, -yper5ision and -yperSense. -yper5ision as concerned ith the design and construction of %isual data$ases using recorda$le %ideodisc as the !ediu!. It re*uired students not only to understand the technical aspects of laser read9recorded optical !edia $ut to understand the

ay i!ages could $e asse!$led for !any different uses $y a co!puter. -yperSense as in%ol%ed ith progra!!ing these %isual data$ases using the first !odules of Athena 0use, the !ulti!edia soft are under de%elop!ent at Athena. The lecture situation for these classes as %ery si!ple. I ould generally use a slide pro/ector and talk. The topic of +-yper5ision+ as ho i!ages could $e linked in interesting ays to !ake state!ents, ask *uestions, create !oods, lea%e i!pressions, or tell a story. I ent through a history of ho i!ages and technologies for se*uencing the! e%ol%ed fro! ca%e painting to !odern fil!. I collected the slide i!ages fro! $ooks, !aga4ines, T5 progra!s, and $y photographing things in !y o n e(perience that I thought !ight $e fun to ork into the lectures. The !ediu! the students ould $e orking ith, recorda$le %ideodisc, allo ed for the recording of still i!ages, !o%ing i!ages, and sound. They ere asked to $ring in i!ages in any or all of these for!ats to class e%ery ti!e e !et in order to talk a$out their %isual sche!e for a section of the %ideodisc. At !id&se!ester, hen their o n ideas ere ell for!ed, e asked the! to no think a$out ho their pieces ould ork together, as a unified, group&generated %ideodisc. They had to especially think a$out hat transitions needed to $e !ade to get fro! one set of concerns to another. The resulting %ideodisc as *uite successful and could $e %ie ed as a single %ision or $roken into indi%idual orks. Su$/ects ranged fro! a first person surrogate tra%el on the 7oston Su$ ay to psychcological co!!entary on fe!inist concerns to collecting insects. The process of putting it together as !uch !ore to the point of the class. 7y orking ith a specific a !edia, in this case %ideodisc, hich as uni*ue to the 0IT en%iron!ent, they $rought interests to $ear on hat they initially %ie ed as learning a ne !edia technology. The end result, ho e%er, as that they collected infor!ation and organi4ed it, there$y intensifying their interests. They $eca!e researchers using i!agery to understand particular ideas. This, of course, is really a high tech %ersion of +sho and tell+ $ut ith the added di!ension of atte!pting to coherently se*uence each person.s +sho and tell+ into a unified ork. That atte!pt raised !any *uestions a$out each topic and led to each person teaching the other in depth & ith !edia & a$out hat they ere trying to e(press and hy. As instructors, e ould encourage the! to +present+ their conte!porary ideas hile e presented so!e historical structures that ould gi%e the! a $asis for creating a group structure. Topics like illu!inated !anuscript, panel painting, early printing, ne spaper layout, $ook design, photo essays, fil! se*uences, and ad%ertising design ere discussed ith slides. The use of single slide i!ages to discuss !o%ing i!agery as also interesting in that the dialog ould usually +ani!ate+ the!. The strategy of using only the slide pro/ector in this case orked ell $ecause the students had to think a$out their %isual ideas in discrete parts and only sa the! !o%e hen e put the! on the %ideodisc. The second class, -yperSense, in%ol%ed progra!!ing interacti%e %ideodiscs. The class !ade use of the %ideodisc and $y !id& se!ester had !ade a ne one $ased on things they ere learning a$out co!puter&assisted i!age technology. This class focused !ore on co!puter utilities for !aking the i!agery function. They in%estigated Apple.s -yperCard syste! hich is !odeled after a stack of note cards that can $e shuffled and linked in a %ariety of ays. They also orked ith 6ro/ect Athena.s first !odules of Athena 0use hich is a !ore ad%anced syste! !odeled on the concept of docu!ents in spatial arrange!ents. This concept in a sense allo s for infor!ation to $e correlated in any for! you !ay need, not /ust in a +stack+ as the Apple soft are dictates. 'ou could create +roo!s+

of infor!ation ith 0use and then proceed to alk through the roo! choosing to look at !ulti!edia docu!ents !ade of %ideo, audio, graphics, and te(t hich ere strategically placed in the space. Each docu!ent could act as a door to another space ith another set of docu!ents and so onA a %ery dyna!ic and conceptually intricate paradig! for learning. In this class e si!ply used the $lack$oard and so!e si!ple illustrations ith an o%erhead pro/ector or a slide pro/ector. #ften the i!ages ere of earlier +hyper+ structures like the Tal!ud, 5edic net orks, neural diagra!s, roots of trees, !aps of co!!unications syste!s, ri%er syste!s, etc. that ould con%ey the %ariety of interconnected infor!ation syste!s $oth natural and !an&!ade. The other !echanical assistant as, of course, the Athena 5isual ,orkstation hich as a fully interacti%e !ulti!edia platfor! co!plete ith ca$le T5, %ideodisc, and stereo sound ith a high resolution screen. Students used 0use to construct %arious interfaces for their %ideo seg!ents. These classes ere conducted in a cluster of these !achines and lectures ere usually deli%ered hile students ere at the !achines. In 19::&:9 I $egan teaching classes at Teachers College, Colu!$ia )ni%ersity. Still !anaging the group at Athena and co!!uting $y train and plane to ?e 'ork City, I taught a class in <or!al Analysis of 0edia and later co&taught one called Aspects of 5isuali4ation. The lecture roo! at Colu!$ia as e*uipped ith a %ideo pro/ector, a co!puter screen pro/ector, a slide pro/ector, a fil! pro/ector, an audio cassette player, 5-S and B9; %ideo cassette players, %ideodisc player, full stereo sound syste!, a !icrophone if you anted it, and plenty of e(tra inputs if you anted t o or !ore of anything. In short, it as a full !ulti!edia classroo! and ca!e ith a !edia engineer ho, although so!eti!es irrita$le, ould set up the roo! any ay you anted. This situation as ideal for <or!al Analysis of 0edia hich as a funda!ental course in understanding $oth technically and conceptually ho !edia orks. #ne of the !ost interesting e(peri!ents in this class as to ask students to rite a paper on hat they e(pected to learn in the class. After they turned in the papers I photographed the! 2the papers3 ith BC00 slides and during the ne(t class I pro/ected the! eight feet high. The papers ranged fro! hand ritten to neatly typed to $adly typed, to ine(pensi%e co!puter printer to laser printed and ere all for!atted in different ays. The students ere asked to e%aluate the papers $ased on appearance. -and ritten papers ere i!!ediately dis!issed as +rush /o$s+, $adly typed papers ere +a!ateur+, e(pensi%e laser printed papers ere +pu$lished+ and fancy for!ating ith ord processor soft are as +fluff+. The !ediu!s definitely had collegiate !essages. This e(ercise !ade the point *uite nicely that to understand a !edia it is helpful to put it inside another !edia. Slides of paper docu!ents re%ealed their for!al natures and the cultural %alues e place on the!. I used the roo! %ery !uch as it as designed & as a !edia theater. I could easily !o%e fro! lecture to lecture ith slides, to audio tape to %ideodisc or %ideotape or fil!. I $egan co!posing lectures !entally a eek $efore each class. I ould tape i!agery off !y ho!e tele%ision, cue up audio tapes, take photographs, rent fil!s or tapes, print out co!puter&co!posed notes and essays for each class. I could sho slides of %ideo, %ideo of fil!, fil! of %ideo, %ideodisc of photography, pro/ect slides o%er %ideotapes, pro/ect co!puter te(t or graphics, %irtually any co!$ination I could think of to !ake a point. Students ere encouraged to $ring i!agery to class in any for!at and if they anted to raise an issue or !ake a point they could use the e*uip!ent as ell. It as a %ery popular course in large part $ecause I as using fa!iliar !edia to teach things !ost e%eryone already kne $ut did not kno ho to articulate. Things like

+ hy I hate co!!ercials+ or + hy tele%ision dra!a is so $ad+, or + hy the ne s is not the truth+ or + hy Durosa a is a great fil!!aker+. The class as usually on <riday afternoons and I told the! that it as the prelude to a eekend in ?e 'ork City, the !ost !edia&intensi%e place in ?orth A!erica. The class produced so!e %ery e(citing ork and I still hear fro! students fro! ti!e to ti!e and they send !e articles and papers a$out !edia as ell. I did disco%er so!e distur$ing things a$out this ideal !edia classroo!. #ne as that e ere al!ost al ays in total darkness e%en on the nicest spring days. Another as that hen all the !edia as shut off !y %oice had incredi$le authority. And the !ost distur$ing thing of all as that students started riting e!otional papers a$out disillusion!ent ith reality. I think the a%aila$ility of !edia in the classroo! !ade it *uite easy to saturate the students. This e(perience, though, as *uite useful in understanding the difference $et een the +ideal+ !edia classroo! and the reality. Currently I a! teaching sections of the foundations courses in the 0IT 5isual Arts 6rogra! on +Ti!e and Identity+. This ne progra! at 0IT in the Depart!ent of Architecture and )r$an 6lanning is de%eloping a curriculu! in the %isual arts ai!ed at gi%ing students a sense of artistic thought $y helping the! to understand the relationship $et een thinking and !aking, the $inding of process and product, an understanding of history and culture in artistic acti%ity, the role of !edia in the in*uiry process, and de%eloping a critical %oca$ulary. A traditional fine arts for!at in%ol%ing painting, dra ing, sculpture, and photography is $eing aug!ented $y !ulti!edia and graphic co!puting capa$ilities. This co!$ined approach of old and ne technologies is ai!ed at gi%ing students a sense of the + ork of art+ $oth as an o$/ect and as a process. An essential conception of the progra! is the notion that !edia are !odes of thinking and !ethods of in*uiry that condition the type and e(tent of the in%estigation. <or the artist + ork co!es fro! ork+ !eans that ne ideas are refined $y generating art orks, e%aluating the!, and creating ne pieces. The go%erning attitudes of the 5isual Arts 6rogra! are a$out process $eing as i!portant as product, !edia as a !ode of e(ploration, the re arding of risks taken during disco%ery, the transparency of techni*ue, gro th as a !easure of perfor!ance, the understanding of con%entions as $oundaries that de!and e(a!ination, and the re%elation of personal styles of in*uiry. Students in the 5isual Arts 6rogra! ork on pro$le!s that address the dialectic $et een restraint and openness, t o di!ensions %s. three di!ensions, artistic !etaphor 2ritual, e(pression, language, criti*ue, cultural inde(3, audience consideration, art and nature, representation, te!poral e(perience, language and i!age, concept, docu!entation, scale, kinetics, collecting, site, and !aterial li!itation. The +Ti!e and Identity+ sections deal ith ho ideas and infor!ation are transfor!ed $y ti!e. Students ork out pro$le!s in ho pri%ate identity is reflected and altered $y using the pri!e tool of !ass co!!unicationA %ideo. Teaching this course in 199E has $een an interesting /ourney fro! 19@C hen I first $egan !y teaching career as a +%ideo teacher+. Students no are technically %ery literate and ha%e $etter critical skills in dealing ith !ass !edia. At 0IT these are the students ho ha%e gro n up ith the %ideo ca!era and the 5C=. It is distur$ing, ho e%er, that there is still no $asic fra!e ork for teaching !edia literacy in the pu$lic schools. Students no ha%e si!ply $een e(posed to !ore tele%ision and !edia technology like co!puters, hich !akes the! a $it less inhi$ited a$out +interacting+ ith !edia.

<or !y first classes in this progra! I anted to talk a$out the notion of a +!edia landscape+ as a ay of approaching the +pu$lic identity+. To this end I $rought an audio cassette player 2the large +$oo! $o(+ type3 ith cassettes of A!erican and Fapanese pop !usic, a short& a%e radio, a s!all hand&held T5, a %ideodisc, a co!pact disc, a %ideocassette player, !onitor, s!all :00 %ideo ca!era, slides, %ideotapes of T5 co!!ercials, and an assort!ent of odd props like ru$$er rocks, a ru$$er rock ith a co!puter chip in it that hen hit !akes the sound of a $reaking indo , so!e (ero( copies, a ne spaper, etc. In other ords, as !uch pu$lic and pri%ate !edia as I could find. This I used as I talked, !o%ing fro! one prop to the other to finally asse!$le all of the o$/ects on a ta$le top in the for! of a !iniature city hich I proceeded to turn on so that there as a cacophony of sounds and i!ages that I could then !ake a %ideo tape of & !uch like an aerial photographer. ,e then played the tape $ack on the !onitor and discussed hat as $eing seen, the ay I had %ideotaped it, ho it !ight $e i!pro%ed ith lighting or sound effects, etc. This de!onstration had the effect of +igniting+ the class into a %ery nearly o%er&e(cited !o$. )lti!ately I had to stop the de!onstration in order to let the! cal! do n. They enthusiastically understood hat as $eing de!onstrated $ecause it as the fa!iliar landscape of their o n li%es o%er hich they had little control. The class then proceeded on to assign!ents that allo ed the! to change this condition $y !aking +pri%ate !edia+ i!ages that ere *uiet, had different ti!e signatures 2unlike 1E or BE second T5 co!!!ercials3, and re*uired conte!plation rather than passi%e %ie ing. They orked in tea!s of fi%e or si( ith one ca!era $et een the! and taught each other a good !any %ideo skills.These %ideotapes ere *uite successful and ga%e the! a confidence in +art&!aking+ that !ost of the! could not get as *uickly ith dra ing, painting, or sculpture $ecause of the length of ti!e needed in those !ediu!s to get so!ething +to ork+. As an introduction to the arts it as a %ery good !atch $et een !aterials 2%ideo3 and ideas. The progra! opted to $uy !ore %ideo ca!eras for the ne(t se!ester. In e%ery case I tried to e(plain hy I as using a certain !edia in the classroo!. Ad!ittedly this as actually re*uired in !ost of the su$/ects I as teaching. 7ut in a larger sense it has pointed out to !e that the use of !edia in the classroo! is not really for entertain!ent or to !ask a poor grasp of a su$/ect. =ather, it is ad!itting that the orld e li%e in has useful lessons for us. Instead of a%oiding the conte!porary confusion that !edia often e%okes, e !ust find ays of using it coherently to co!plete the sense of rele%ancy e desperately need in the classroo!. This $alancing of using !edia to e(plain or illustrate and !edia discussed for its o n sake is the key to using it successfully. A$o%e all, it should a!use '#) to $e doing this in your class. All too often e are so i!!ersed in our field of interest that e forget our students !ay only ha%e a s!all percentage of that interest hen they co!e to class. Certainly e do not ant to !erely entertain the!. =ather e ant to create situations here the su$/ect is seen freshly as often as possi$le not only for the! $ut for oursel%es. 7y using a short %ideotape, a fil!, a recording, or e%en a see!ingly unrelated picture that gi%es students a !arker for a difficult idea e can create !e!ory triggers that hold attention, gi%e e!phasis, or sti!ulate recall.