CHAPTER 1: Respiration

Respiration takes place in all living things. Humans obtain oxygen and remove carbon dioxide through the respiratory system.

HUMAN BREATHING MECHANISM

Living things get their oxygen supply from the air around them. We breathe in oxygen for respiration and breathe out carbon dioxide and water vapour produced during respiration. Human respiratory system Figure 1.1 shows the structure of the human respiratory system

Figure 1.2 shows the structure of the lung in greater detail.

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN IN THE HUMAN BODY

Our lungs consist of millions of alveoli. Each alveolus has one cell thick wall. On the inside there is a thin film of moisture and on the outside, it is covered with blood capillaries (Figure 1.6).

The inhaled air which is rich in oxygen is found inside the alveolus. The oxygen dissolves in the moist lining of the alveolus and then diffuses into the blood capillaries. Diffusion of oxygen takes place from an area of higher concentration of the gas to an area of lower concentration of the gas. The blood inside the capillaries contains red blood cells which are rich in a substance called haemoglobin. The oxygen combines with the haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin. The blood rich in oxygen then leaves the lungs and is carried by bigger blood vessels to the heart.

When the heart pumps, the oxygenated blood is distributed to all parts of the body. When the blood reaches tissues or cells that do not have enough oxygen, the oxyhaemoglobin is broken down and oxygen is released. The oxygen then diffuses through the walls of the capillaries into the cells. At the same time carbon dioxide from the cells diffuses into the capillaries to be carried back to the lungs. Figure 1.7 shows the transport of oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin.

THE IMPORTANCE OF A HEALTHY RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The oxygen that is needed for respiration comes from the atmosphere. Due to air pollution, the air that we breathe may contain substances which are harmful to our respiratory system. The air we breathe in may also contain bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms. Substances that are harmful to the respiratory system Several substances harm the human respiratory system. For example, cigarette smoke damages the respiratory system. Other harmful substances are industrial waste products, pollutants from motor vehicles, bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms.

Effects of harmful substances Cigarette smoke can cause emphysema, heart diseases, bronchitis and lung cancer. It can also worsen respiratory problems such as asthma and pneumonia. Cigarette smoke contains poisonous chemicals that include tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide. Tar collects in the lungs. It is a mixture of many toxic chemicals. Many of these substances are carcinogens, that is, they cause cancer. Nicotine in the tobacco causes addiction to smoking. Carbon monoxide is a highly poisonous gas. It reduces the amount of oxygen in the blood. Sulphur dioxide is acidic and can damage lung tissues. A non smoker may inhale the cigarette smoke from smokers. This smoke is called secondary smoke and it will harm the non-smoker. This is called passive smoking by the non-smoker. The lungs of a smoker suffering from a smoking related disease such as emphysema show unhealthy tissue compared to that of a non-smoker.

Effects of harmful substances Chemical substance Tar Nicotine Carbon monoxide Sulphur dioxide Hydrocarbons Nitrogen oxide Haze Sources Cigarette smoke Cigarette smoke Cigarette smoke, car exhaust Industry, vehicles Industry, vehicles Industry, vehicles Industry, vehicles, open burning Damaging effects Causes lung cancer Causes addiction to smoking Reduces amount of oxygen in the blood Damages lung tissues Cause cancer Interacts with hydrocarbons to form haze Causes breathing difficulties

Other harmful substances that may enter our respiratory system are industrial waste like coal dust, sulphur dioxide and asbestos dust, as well as pollutants from motor vehicles like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and hydrocarbons. All these have been related to respiratory problems like chronic bronchitis, emphysema, asthma and even cancer. They directly or indirectly cause haze. Haze can cause throat irritation and inflammation of the upper respiratory tract, and difficulty in breathing.

Effects of smoking

Questions 1. What does the cotton wool in the U-tube represent? The cotton wool in the U-tube represents the lungs

2. What is the function of the litmus solution? The function of litmus solution is to investigate the presence of acidic substances in cigarette smoke 3. What are the substances in cigarette smoke that cause the cotton wool and litmus solution to change colour? Tar and the acidic substances in cigarette smoke cause the cotton wool and litmus solution to change colour 4. What can you conclude about the effects of cigarette smoking? Cigarette smoke can damage the lungs because it contains tar, produces acidic substances and heat

CHAPTER 2: Blood Circulation and Transport

The human body has an efficient transport system which is made up of the heart and blood vessels. Plants, like humans, also need a transport system.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN HUMANS

The transport system in humans is called the circulatory system. It is made up of the heart and blood vessels that carry the blood in our body. The blood vessels are all link up. Structure of the heart The human heart is a muscular, cone-shaped organ. It is located in the chest cavity between the lungs. It is the size of your fist. The heart is made up of cardiac muscles which can contract automatically without being stimulated by nerves. The heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are the right ventricle and the left ventricle.

Function of the heart The function of the heart is to pump blood to all parts of the body. The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs, while the left side pumps blood to the other parts of the body. The heart pumps blood by contracting and relaxing its muscles. The contractions can be heard as heartbeats. The left and right side of the heart work in harmony. The atria contract and relax at the same time. So do the two ventricles. A valve separates each atrium from the ventricle below it. There are also valves at the exit of the ventricles. This ensures that the blood flows only in one direction, from an atrium to a ventricle, then from a ventricle into a blood vessel.

Blood vessels and their functions When the heart pumps, the blood flows around the body in a system of tubes called blood vessels. There are three types of blood vessels. They are arteries, veins and capillaries. Difference in characteristics of blood vessels Blood Vessel Arteries Characteristic Carry blood away from the heart to all parts of the body. All arteries (except those to the lungs) carry blood rich in oxygen. Arteries have thick muscular walls and relatively small lumen. This is because the heart forces blood into them, and they need to maintain the pressure of the blood. The branch into very small tubes called capillaries. Carry blood to the heart from all parts of the body. All veins (except those from the lungs) carry blood with little oxygen. They have thinner and less muscular walls than arteries because the pressure of the blood is lower in the veins. They have relatively large lumen and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood. They have one cell thick walls that allow substances to pass through them into cells and from cells into the blood. Capillaries join to form bigger tubes called veins. Capillaries are also involved in the release of excess heat from the body.

Veins

Capillaries

Path of blood flow in the circulatory system The circulatory system carries blood to and from different parts of the body. Humans have a double circulatory system. Blood passes through the heart twice as it circulates in the body. Paths of blood flow Path 1: From the heart to the lungs and back again to the heart The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body and pushes it into the right ventricle. The right side of the heart then pumps blood to the lungs to collect oxygen and remove carbon dioxide Path 2: From the heart to the rest of the body and back again to the heart The oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium and flows into the left ventricle. Then the left side of the heart pumps blood to the rest of the body to supply oxygen to the cells and to collect carbon dioxide.

Role of blood in transport Our circulatory system transports or carries useful substances like oxygen and nutrients, and removes wastes like carbon dioxide and urea. It also transports chemicals like hormones and antibodies. Substances transported in blood Substance transported Oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin inside red blood cells Carbon dioxide in blood plasma Digested food such as glucose, amino acids in blood plasma Waste materials (urea) in blood plasma Hormones in blood plasma Lungs All body cells Small intestines Cells and liver Endocrine glands From To All body cells Lungs Liver and all body cells Kidneys Target organs in the body

Importance of a healthy heart The heart is a very important organ. It transports oxygen to all parts of our body. An unhealthy heart leads to various health problems. Examples are coronary heart disease, heart attack, high blood pressure and stroke. These illnesses may even cause death.

HUMAN BLOOD
An adult human has about 5 litres of blood which is about 9% of his body weight. Blood is the main carrier of the bodys transport system. It carries nutrients and oxygen to the body cells and transport carbon dioxide and waste products away from the cells. It also fights diseases and helps to maintain a constant body temperature. Blood constituents and their functions Blood is made up of blood cells and platelets suspended in a liquid. The liquid part is called plasma and forms about 55% of the volume of blood. It carries dissolved substances. The blood cells and platelets form 45% of blood.

Blood performs the following functions. 1. It acts as a transport medium that carries gases and dissolved substances from one part of the body to another. Red blood cells carry oxygen. Blood plasma carries dissolved substances. 2. White blood cells protect the body against diseases. 3. Blood maintains the body temperature at 37 oC.

Blood group and compatibility Blood can be classified into groups. There are four main blood groups namely A, B, AB and O. Each of us belongs to a particular blood group or blood type. The blood group is determined by a protein on the surface of the red blood cells. A lot of blood may be lost during an operation or an accident. To replace the lost blood, a person needs a supply of blood from a donor. The transfer of blood from a donor to a recipient is called blood transfusion. The donors blood and the recipients blood must be compatible. Otherwise, the blood will agglutinate inside the blood vessels of the recipient. This may cause the death of the recipient. Compatibility of different blood groups Recipients blood group A Donors blood group A B AB O B AB O

() compatible () incompatible

A person with blood O is known as a universal donor because his blood can be accepted by all blood groups. A person of blood group AB is known as a universal recipient because the person can receive blood from all blood groups. However, he can only donate blood to people of blood group AB.

Importance of blood donation Many patients of different age groups require blood transfusion. This is needed when they undergo major operations, battle long-term diseases, or are the victims of accidents. For example, blood is needed during surgery, childbirth, or cancer treatment. As a result, hospitals in Malaysia require a lot of blood to meet the needs for blood transfusion. Blood is a living and renewable tissue. Donating blood does not harm anyone, but it can save lives. A healthy person can donate blood every 56 days or about four to six times per year. Storage and handling of donated blood To ensure that donated blood is safe for transfusion, the following measures are taken. The donor is interviewed and given medical counselling The donated blood is tested or screened for Hepatitis B and C, sexually transmitted diseases and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This is to make sure that infected blood is not given Blood can be separated into plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Depending on the illness, a patient can be given the constituents of blood required. The donated blood is collected in a plastic bag which prevents a substance that prevents the blood from coagulating. These bags are then sent to the hospitals where they are stored in blood banks at 4oC. There are two types of blood in the blood banks. Fresh blood which can last for 24 hours, and the stored blood at 4oC which can last for about 40 days. Before the blood is used for transfusion, the bags are taken out and left at room temperature for two hours.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS

Plants, like animals or humans, need a transport system that consists of thin tubes called vascular tissues in the roots, stems and leaves Transport tissues in plants There are two types of tissues that are involved in the transport system of plants. These are xylem and the phloem. Xylem tissues carry water and dissolved minerals absorbed in the roots, up the stem and to the leaves. Phloem tissues carry glucose, produce by the leaves during photosynthesis, from the leaves to all parts of the plant.

CHAPTER 3: Excretion
If rubbish is allowed to accumulate, it will harm the environment. Similarly, our body also produce waste product which are harmful. Plants, like humans and animals, also produce waste products.

HUMAN EXCRETION
Many chemical reactions in the body produce waste products. The body needs to remove these waste products to stay healthy. The process of removing waste products, produced during chemical processes in the cells, is called excretion. Excretion helps to remove waste produced by cells. If wastes are not removed, toxic substances build up and these can damage organs in the body. This can lead to death. Excretory organs and excretory products The skin, which is known as a sensory organ is also an excretory organ. The skin excretes water, mineral salts and some urea through sweating. Sweat is salty. From the sweat gland just below the skin, water, mineral salts and urea are excreted along the sweat duct and pass out the sweat pore that lies on the skin surface. For example, on a hot day, there is more sweat on the skin. Evaporation of the sweat cools the skin and hence the body. The waste products of respiration, carbon dioxide and water, are expelled from the lungs. Therefore, the lungs are also excretory organs. The kidney, the main excretory organ in humans, removes urea, a waste formed in the liver from excess amino acids in the body. The urea is excreted in urine. Besides urea, urine also contains water and traces of mineral salts. Excretory organs and excretory products Excretory organ Kidney Skin Lung Excretory products Water, mineral salts, urea Water, mineral salts, urea Water and carbon dioxide

The importance of excretion Excretion helps to maintain a healthy body. For example, carbon dioxide from respiration must be removed quickly because a high level of this gas will increase the acidity of blood. Urea is another waste product. Urea, if left to accumulate in the body, will become toxic. In addition, excretion of excess water and mineral salts by the kidneys helps to maintain the balance of water content, chemical composition and pH in the body system.

THE URINARY SYSTEM IN HUMANS

The human urinary system is made up of several parts. These parts help to remove waste products like urea, water and mineral salts. The kidneys are located at the back at the body and form the main organs of the urinary system. The kidneys are found at the back of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm.

Urea from the liver is sent to the urinary system. The flow of the urea into the urinary system starts from the kidney, to the ureter, then to the bladder, and lastly to the urethra before being removed in urine.

Structure of the kidney The kidneys are bean-shaped and roughly the size of a fist. They are protected by the lower rib cage. The outer transparent coat of the kidney is fairly tough and is called the capsule. When the kidney is cut longitudinally, it is seen to consist of two parts; an outer darker protective part that is known as the cortex and an inner lighter layer called the medulla. The cortex makes up about one-third of the kidney. The inner boundary of the medulla forms several pyramids which open into a sac-like cavity called the pelvis. From the pelvis, a long, narrow tube called the ureter, leads to the bladder.

Functions of the kidney The most important function of the kidney is to filter blood and remove urea, excess mineral salts and water to form urine. The kidneys regulate the water and chemical balance in the body. The amount of the water that is reabsorbed depends on the amount of water required in the body. If the body have too much water, reabsorption will be less. The urine produced will be diluted. On the other hand, when the body system lacks water, more water will be reabsorbed into the blood. The urine will be concentrated.

Importance of maintaining healthy kidneys It is important to maintain healthy kidneys. Besides excreting urea, water and mineral salts, the kidneys also excrete many harmful substances that are consumed. The kidney is a relatively strong organ. However, it may be harmed in several ways. The food we take may contain toxic substances like mercury, lead and arsenic that can damage the kidney. One should maintain healthy kidneys by drinking plenty of water. A high intake of salt and sugar may cause diseases such as high blood pressure and diabetes. These diseases may lead to kidney failure. We should avoid taking food and medicine that can harm the kidney. Kidneys may also be harmed by infection. Usually, the infection begins in the bladder. However, it can spread to the ureter and kidneys.

Living with kidney failure Kidney failure is a common disease nowadays. Although we can live with only one kidney, failure of both can result in death. However, kidney failure can be treated through dialysis or kidney transplant. Dialysis is a more common treatment for kidney failure and is carried out with the use of a machine. Dialysis is a technique of separating particles of different sizes in a liquid mixture. In dialysis, blood is filtered through an artificial membrane in the dialysis machine. A patients blood needs to pass through the dialysis machine many times to make sure all wastes are removed. As such, the patient must be connected to the machine for about five hours, two or three times a week. Dialysis is not cheap. Dialysis does not cure the damaged kidney. It is only an artificial substitute for the original kidney.

EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants also need to excrete their waste products. The waste products of plants are water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, mineral salts and nitrogenous wastes. These products are excreted mainly through the stomata. How plants remove their excretory products Plants excrete their waste products mainly by simple diffusion. This is done through the cell wall and through the stomata. Mineral salts are mainly retained within the plant body. As crystals, for example, calcium carbonate and calcium oxalate crystals. Minerals like silicon salts are deposited in the leaves of the grass family, to strengthen the leaf blade. Nitrogenous waste products are removed as complex substances. These substances are released when the plants shed their leaves, flowers or bark. Excretory products of plants Unlike humans or animals, plants have little nitrogenous wastes. Nitrogenous wastes are usually converted into insoluble and harmless granules which are retained within the plants cells. Some of them are useful to humans while others are poisonous. The majority of nitrogenous wastes are extremely poisonous but may be extracted to produce medicine. Drugs like morphine, opium and cocaine are excretory products of plants. There are other waste products like tannins which collect in the bark and can be used by humans to make ink. Other waste products like oil droplets may be made into perfumes.

CHAPTER 4: Reproduction
All living organisms reproduce to increase their numbers. Animals lay eggs or give birth to young. Plants reproduce by seeds, spores, or special plant parts.

UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the process of producing new individuals from living organisms. It is a characteristic of all living organisms. Importance of reproduction Reproduction is the way to increase the number of individuals or offspring of the same species. It replaces those that die. It also ensures that the species does not become extinct, but continues to produce new individuals for survival. Types of reproduction Reproduction can be divided into two types: sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is the reproduction of new individuals by living organisms, involving sex cells. These sex cells are called gametes. This type of reproduction is shown by humans, and higher animals such as fish, amphibians, birds, reptiles, mammals and most invertebrates. Flowering plants such as the rambutan, papaya and hibiscus also show this type of reproduction. Asexual reproduction is the production of new individuals by living organisms, without involving sex cells. It occurs in simple organisms such as Amoeba, Paramecium and Hydra. Plants like onion, ginger and potato can also reproduce this way.

Reproduction

Sexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction

binary fission

spore formation

budding

vegetative reproduction

regeneration

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Humans carry out sexual reproduction which involves gametes. The male reproductive system produces plenty of male gametes called sperms. The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes, the scrotum, two sperm ducts, a pair of seminal vesicles, prostate gland, urethra and penis.

Description and function of different parts of the male reproductive system Part Sex glands Sperm duct Testis Scrotum Urethra Decription and function These include the seminal vesicle and prostate gland. Sex glands secrete fluid which contains nutrients from the sperm A tube which transport sperms from the testis to the urethra inside the body Produce the male gametes (sperms) and male sex hormones A sac which hangs outside the body It holds and protects the testes A tube which runs through the penis It is a passage that allows sperms to flow out of the body It is a passage that allows urine from the bladder to be excreted to the outside of the body Male sex organ which is made up of soft tissues and rich in blood vessels It transfer semen into the vagina of the female during copulation

Penis

Structure and function of sperm The male sex cell produced by the testis is called sperm. It is the smallest cell in the body. It is shaped like a tadpole. It consists of a head, neck, middle piece and tail. The head contains the nucleus. The nucleus consists of genetic material to be transferred to the offspring or children. The tail enables the sperm to move or swim in the semen inside the vagina, uterus and oviduct of the female reproductive system.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, two fallopian tubes or oviducts, uterus, vagina and cervix.

Description and function of different parts of the female reproductive system Part Ovary Fallopian tubes (oviduct) Uterus (womb) Decription and function Female sex organ that produces female gametes (ova) and female sex hormones A muscular tube where fertilisation takes place Pear-shaped with thick muscular walls Place where the foetus develops and grows Uterus wall is rich in blood vessels Neck of the uterus. Widens during childbirth Muscular tube which opens to the outside of the female body as the vulva Place where the sperms are transferred during copulation

Cervix Vagina (birth canal)

Structure and function of the ovum

The female sex gamete is called an ovum or egg. It is spherical in shape with a diameter of about 0.1 millimetres. It is the largest cell in the human body. The nucleus contains genetic material which is passed from the mother to the child. The ovum is not able to move by itself.

FERTILISATION AND PREGNANCY

During copulation millions of sperms are transferred into the vagina. The sperms swim through the cervix into the uterus and up the oviduct to meet the ovum. If the ovum is present in the oviduct, fertilisation takes place. During ovulation, a mature ovum is release. The ovum moves along the fallopian tube or oviduct towards the uterus. Millions of sperms are release during copulation. However, only about 100 will reach the ovum. Of these, only one is able to fuse with the ovum. The fusion between the sperm and the ovum is called fertilisation. Fertilisation produces a zygote. The zygote divides into two, then into four, and so on. After six days, a ball of cells, now called an embryo, is formed. The correct sequence of ovulation, fertilisation and implantation of the embryo in the uterus wall is shown in the figure below. When implantation is successful, the woman is said to be pregnant. It takes nine months from the time the zygote is formed until the foetus is ready to be born.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF FLOWERING PLANTS

In flowering plants, flowers form the reproductive system of the plant. They produce male and female gametes for sexual reproduction. A typical flower consists of sepals, petals, stamens and a pistil, which are arrange in whorls or rings at the end of a flower stalk.

Parts of a flower Structure Sepal Petal Stamen Pistil Characteristic Outermost whorl of a flower, usually green in colour Second whorl of a flower, usually coloured Consists of the filament and anther Made up of the stigma, style and ovary Function Protects the flower during the bud stage Attracts insects and animals Male reproductive part of a flower Female reproductive part of a flower

POLLINATION
For sexual reproduction in flowering plants to occur, the pollen must first reach the stigma. The process of transferring ripe pollen from the anther to the stigma is called pollination. Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to a stigma. When the anther is mature and ripe, it burst open. This releases the pollen grains. Some of the pollen may drop onto the ground and some may be carried away by pollinating agents to the stigma. There are two types of pollination; self-pollination and cross-pollination. Self-pollination takes place when the pollen from the anther of a flower is transferred to the stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant. Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of the flower to the stigma of another flower on a different plant of the same species.

Comparison between self-pollination and cross-pollination Self-pollination Involves only one plant Requires one or two flowers of the same plant If it involves one flower, both the anther and the stigma must mature at the same time. If it involves two flowers, the anther and stigma can mature at different times Less variety in new plants Cross-pollination Involves two plants of the same species Requires two flowers from different plants of the same species The anther and stigma can mature at different times

More variety in new plants

OBSERVATION Studying various types of flowers like hibiscus, maize, morning glory or lily APPARATUS AND MATERIALS Hand lens and different types of flowers like hibiscus, maize, morning glory or lily PROCEDURE 1. Carry out this activity in groups. Each group should bring the various specimens listed above, or other types of flowers 2. Examine the characteristics of the various flowers. Then identify their pollinating agents. 3. Copy the table below in your science notebook and record all your observations. Name of flower Characteristics of flowers Colour of petal Size of petal Filament Stigma Anther and pollen Smell Nectar Pollinating agent

Hibiscus

QUESTIONS

1.

What conclusion can you make about the characteristics of the flowers and their pollinating agents? _______________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________

2. Why do wind-pollinated flowers produce plenty of pollen? _______________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________

Pollinating agents For pollination to occur, pollinating agents are needed to transfer the pollen grains. The various pollinating agents are wind, insects, animals and water. Wind is a pollinating agent for most monocotyledonous plants like maize, grass and paddy. Windpollinated flowers are usually white or light in colour, small, have no smell and no nectar. They have long filaments to expose the pollen to the wind. They produce plenty of small, light and smooth pollen. Such pollen is easily carried by the wind. The styles and stigma are long. The stigma is feathery to trap the pollen carried by the wind. Insects, like bees and butterflies, are important pollinating agents. Insects are attracted by big, colourful and scented flowers. When the insects lands on the flower to suck nectar for food, pollen sticks to the hairy legs and body of the insect. When the insect lands on another flower to collect food, the pollen may drop off and stick on the stigma of that flower. Insect-pollinated flowers produce small amounts of pollen. Such pollen is big, sticky, heavy and rough. Their styles are short and the stigma has a sticky surface. Animals, like birds and bats, pollinate flowers when they suck nectar from the flowers. Such flowers are usually big, colourful, scented and produce rough sticky pollen. The pollen sticks to the beak or body of the animals. When a bird sucks out nectar with its long and pointed beak, pollen sticks to the beak. Water is a pollinating agent for water plants like the Elodea and Hydrilla. The flower floats on the water surface. The water carries the pollen from the anther to the stigma.

Comparison between wind and insect pollinated flowers Wind-pollinated flower Small, pale coloured, not scented, no nectar Long filament with big anther at the end, filament sways in the wind and pollen disperses Plenty of small, light and smooth pollen Long style Long and feathery stigma Insect-pollinated flower Big, brightly coloured, scented, nectar present Short filament and small anther at the end

Big, rough, sticky and less amount of pollen Short style Short and sticky stigma

GERMINATION OF SEEDS
After fertilisation, most of the flower parts wither and die. The ovules grow inside the ovary until they develop into seeds. A seed is made up of an embryo and a food store wrapped in a protective seed coat or testa. Structure and function of a seed Seeds from different plants (monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous) are differnt in size, shape and colour. They all have the same basic parts like the seed coat, food store and embryo. The endosperm, which acts as a food store, is found only in the monocotyledonous seed. In the dicotyledonous seed, Food is stored in the cotyledons for the embryo.

Physical changes of seedlings during germination If a seed lands on the ground under suitable conditions, like the presence of water, air and optimum temperature, it will grow into a new plant. Germination occurs when the embryo grows into a seedling. The embryo is made up of the plumule and the radicle. The embryo needs food for growth. It obtains it from the food store in the cotyledons or the endosperm. The plumule grows upwards to form a new shoot. The radicle grows downwards into the soil to form the root. It is now called a seedling. The seedling continues to absorb food from the food store until it forms green leaves to produce its own food by photosynthesis.

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Besides sexual reproduction, many flowering plants can reproduce vegetatively. This type of reproduction requires only one parent plant. Buds on the vegetative plants may grow into new plants. Vegetative reproduction is a method of producing new plants from any vegetative part of the parent plant, other than the flower. It is a type of asexual reproduction because it only requires only one parent plant. The young plant are exactly like the parent plant because they have the same genetic material. Parts of the plants that can reproduce vegetatively are the stem, leaf and root. Most of these vegetative parts contain stored food and buds. The bud uses that stored food and grows into a new plant. Soon it will produce its own food by photosynthesis. Vegetative reproduction

Vegetative parts
Roots

Example of plants

Stems underground stems

stems that run horizontally, or runners

modified stem, or bulb

Leaves

CHAPTER 5: Growth
Nutrition plays an important role in growth. The food that we eat is digested and absorbed by the body cells where part of it is used to build new cells.

HUMAN GROWTH PATTERN

Growth is an increase in body size, number of cells, weight and change in body shape as well as in the function of an organism. Growth is irreversible and permanent.

The characteristics of human growth Our body weight increase and we grow taller until we reach a particular height. Our body shape also changes. Apart from physical changes, human growth also involves mental, social and emotional changes. We become more mature. In human, growth can be determined by measuring physical characteristic such as height and weight, at suitable intervals over a period of time. These measurements are plotted against time to obtain a growth curve. The gradient of this curve at a particular time shows the rate of growth at that time.

In humans, the growth curve can be divided into five stages. These are infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. Rapid growth occurs during infancy which lasts until about 3 years of age. This is followed by a period of slower growth during chilhood. Childhood lasts until puberty , which begins at around 12 years old for girls and 14 years old for boys. Adolescence is the period of rapid growth when sexual maturity or puberty is achieved. This is followed by minimal growth during adulthood. Adulthood starts from about 20 years of age. During old age there is negative growth, that is, a loss in height because tissue break down more quickly than they can be repaired. The age groups of the different stages of growth differ from one individual to another

Growth curves of boys and girls

CHAPTER 6: Land and Its Resources

Our country is blessed with various natural fuel resources. Examples of these resources are coal, petroleum, natural gas and wood. Metals are found in the Earths crust as elements and compounds.

MINERALS IN THE EARTHS CRUST

Some of the most abundant elements in the Earth's crust

oxygen

silicon
aluminium iron calcium sodium potassium magnesium all others

REACTIONS BETWEEN METALS AND NON-METALS

Reaction of metals with oxygen

1.

Metals react with oxygen in the air to form metal oxides. This process is called oxidation.

Metal + oxygen

metal oxide

2. Magnesium + oxygen

heat

magnesium oxide

3. Usage of: (1) Potassium manganate(VII) crystals (2) Glass wool (3) Glass wool Supplies oxygen To prevent the potassium manganate(VII) crystals from mixing with the metal filings To prevent oxygen from escaping to the surroundings

Reactions of metals with oxygen Metal Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Copper Reaction rate Very fast Very fast Fast Fast Slow Product of reaction Magnesium oxide Aluminium oxide Zinc oxide Iron oxide Copper oxide

Reactions of metals with sulphur Metal Magnesium Aluminium Zinc Iron Copper Reaction rate Very fast Very fast Fast Fast Slow Product of reaction Magnesium sulphur Aluminium sulphur Zinc sulphur Iron sulphur Copper sulphur

SILICON COMPOUNDS
Silicon is the second most abundant element in the Earths crust. Silicon does not exist as a free element in its natural state. However it exists in the form of compounds. Silicon compounds that exist in the Earths crust are silica and silicates. Silica is silicon dioxide consisting of silicon and oxygen. Silicates are silicon compounds that are made up of silicon, metal and oxygen.

Silicon compounds and their examples Silicon compound Silica Silicate Example Sand, quartz Asbestos, jade, clay, mica

Properties of silica and silicates

Silicon compound

Material Sand Quartz Mica Clay

Solubility in water

Action with acid

Effect of heat

Silica

Silicate

CALCIUM COMPOUNDS
1. Calcium exists naturally as calcium compounds such as calcium carbonate.

2. Calcium carbonate consists of calcium, oxygen and carbon. 3. Examples of natural calcium carbonate include marble, limestone, stalagmites, stalactites in limestone caves, coral reefs, animal bones and shells.

NATURAL FUEL RESOURCES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE

Petroleum fractions and their uses

CHAPTER 7: Electricity
ELECTRICITY
1. Electrical energy (electricity) is a form of energy. 2. There are two main electrical sources: Electric cells (dry cells, lithium cells, nickel-cadmium cells, mercury cells and acid-lead accumulators convert chemical energy into electrical energy) Electric generators

Current, Voltage and Resistance 1. Electric current is the flow of electrons or negative charges through a circuit. 2. (a) Electric current flows from the positive terminal of a battery to the negative terminal of the electrical source. (b) Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of an electrical source. 3. The flow of electrical charges can be observed by using a Van de Graaff generator and a galvanometer. 4. A Van de Graaff generator is a device that produces electrical charges at high voltages and its dome. (a) When the Van de Graaff generator is started, the dome is positively charged. (b) Sparks are produced when a metal sphere is brought closer to the dome. (c) The galvanometer needle is deflected.

ELECTRIC CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE

Quantity Definition Electric current The rate of flow of charges. Electric voltage The voltage across two points is the electrical energy needed for the electrical charges to flow between the two points. Voltage is the force which pushes the electrons through a wire V Volt or V

Symbol SI unit

Device used to measure the quantity

I Ampere or A 1 ampere = 1 000 milliamperes (mA) 1 milliamperes (mA) = 1 000 microamperes (A) Ammeter

Voltmeter

How the device is connected in a circuit

In series to other electrical components in a circuit. The positive terminal of the ammeter is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. The negative terminal of the ammeter is connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

In parallel across a battery or other electrical components in a circuit. The positive and negative terminals of the voltmeter are on the same side of the circuit as the positive and negative terminals of the battery.

Resistance 1. Resistance, R is the property of an electrical conductor that opposes the flow of electrons through it. 2. The SI unit of resistance is ohms (). 3. Relationship with electric current (a) The higher the resistance, the smaller the current that flows through the circuit. (b) The lower the resistance, the larger the current that flows through the circuit 4. Factors affecting resistance (a) Resistance is affected by the length of the conductor diameter of the conductor type of conductor (b) The longer the conductor, the higher its resistance. (c) The thicker the diameter of the conductor, the lower its resistance (d) A good conductor has low resistance. Copper wire has a lower resistance than iron wire. A poor conductor has a high resistance. Example: nichrome wire 5. A resistor reduces the current flowing through the circuit. There are two types of resistors: (a) A fixed resistors has one fixed resistance that cannot be changed. (b) A variable resistor or rheostat has resistance that can be change to give variable resistances. Variable resistors are used to control the volume of a radio or a television, the speed of a fan, and the temperature of an oven. For example: If the knob on the speed regulator of a fan is turned from number 5 to number 1, the resistance is increased. Hence, the current is reduced and the speed of the fan reduces.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE

Ohms Law 1. Ohms law states that the current (I) that flows through a metal conductor is directly proportional to the voltage (V) across it, if the resistance remains constant. 2. Therefore, Ohms law is expressed as follows: V : voltage in volts (V) I : Current in amperes (A) R : Resistance in ohm ()

3. Ohms law is used to calculate the values of electric current, resistance and voltage in a circuit. 4. Ohms law is often remembered as a triangle. Cover up the letter representing what you want to find and use the equation it shows.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
1. Electrical components are represented by certain symbols to simplify the drawing of electric circuit diagrams. Electrical components Electric cell Battery Symbol

Rheostat (variable resistor)

Fixed resistor Fuse Switch Bulb Ammeter Galvanometer Voltmeter

2. A complete or closed circuit consists of connecting wires and electrical components which allow electric current to flow through. 3. An incomplete or open circuits has a break in the circuit which does not allow the flow of electric current. 4. A switch is used to connect or disconnect a circuit.

ELECTROMAGNETISM
When current flows through a straight wire, the wire becomes magnetised. The magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the wire. The magnetic field becomes stronger if a larger current flows through the wire. The magnetic field lines will also be closer but they do not cut across one another.

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which its magnetism is produced by the flow of electric current. It needs electrical energy to work. It loses its magnetism once the electrical energy supply is switched off. This means that the electromagnet is a temporary magnet.

CHAPTER 8: Generation of Electricity

Electrical energy (electricity) has become a basic need in our everyday life. Electrical energy is generated at power stations before it is transmitted to consumers. Many modern appliances use electrical energy to work.

TRANSFORMERS
1. A transformer is a device that can change the voltage of alternating current. 2. An alternating current (a.c.) is a current that flows back and forth in periodic cycles. 3. Transformers are used in the transmission and distribution of electrical power from power stations to the consumers in homes and industries. 4. A high voltage is needed in the transmission of electrical energy in power stations to reduce the loss of electrical energy during the transmission of electricity. 5. A basic transformer consists of two sets of insulated coiled wires wrapped around on both sides of a soft iron core. 6. A soft iron core is made up of many thin layers of iron called laminations and is not a solid bar. 7. There are two types of transformers: Step-up transformers Step-down transformers

Step-up and step-down transformers When there are fewer turns in the secondary coil than the primary coil, the secondary voltage will be lower than the primary voltage. This type of transformer is called a step-down transformer. When there are fewer turns in the primary coil than the secondary coil, the secondary voltage will be higher than the primary voltage. This type of transformer is called a step-up transformer.

ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY AND WIRING SYSTEM IN HOMES

Electrical power is supplied to our homes through the main supply cables from the substation. There are two type of current: direct current and alternating current. The type of current supplied to our homes is alternating current with a voltage of 240 V. The electrical wiring system Every house has an electrical wiring system that supplies electrical power from the mains to the electrical appliances. The electrical wiring system consists of the main fuse, electric meter, main switch, circuit breakers, live wire, neutal wire and earth wire.

Parts and functions of the elctrical wiring system Parts Main fuse Main switch Circuit breaker Live wire Neutal wire Earth wire Electric meter Functions Breaks the circuit if the current exceeds a safe value Disconnects the electrical power supply from the mains when electrical energy is not needed Cuts of the electric current flowing through a circuit under abnormal conditions Carries the electric current from the substation to the house Carries the electric current from the house back to the substation Connects an electrical appliance directly to the earth Measures the amount of electrical energy used

CHAPTER 9: Stars and Galaxies

There are billions of galaxies in the Universe consisting of stars and planets. All living things depend on the Suns energy.

THE SUN
The Sun is the main source of energy for the Earth. There can be no life on Earth without the Sun. The Sun is a giant ball of hot glowing gases and it spins around in space. The Sun was formed from a huge cloud of dust and gas floating in space. Among the many stars in space, the Sun is the closest to Earth. This is why we can see the Sun during the day. Characteristics of the Sun The Sun is very much larger than the Earth. Its diameter is about 109 times than of the Earth. Its mass is 333 420 times the mass of the Earth.

Characteristics of the Sun as compared to Earth Properties Diameter Mass Density Surface temperature Composition Characteristics of Sun 1 392 000 km 1.989 x 1034 kg 1485 kg/m3 5100-6000oC Hydrogen (70%-80%) and helium Characteristics compared to Earth 109 times the diameter of Earth 333 420 times the mass of Earth 0.27 times the density of Earth 227-273 times the temperature of Earth Earths atmosphere contains oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and inert gases

Structure of the Sun 1. The surface of the Sun consists of three gaseous layers: photosphere, chromosphere and corona.

2. The photosphere The innermost atmospheric layer of dense gases It is considered as the surface of the Sun The visible light that reach Earth from the Sun originates from the photosphere Sometimes, interactions with the Suns magnetic field results in the appereance of sunspots on the photosphere 3. The chromosphere The chromosphere is the layer above the visible photosphere The chromosphere glows red because hydrogen gives off a reddish colour at these high temperatures. It is invisible and can only be seen during a total solar eclipse Solar flares arise from the chromosphere layer 4. The corona The corona is the extremely hot outermost layer above the chromosphere The corona forms rings of whitish-blue light. The corona can only be seen during total solar eclipses 5. The core The core is the innermost layer of the Sun The temperature of this layer can be as high as 15 x 10 6 oC

STARS AND GALAXIES IN THE UNIVERSE

The Universe The Universe consists of all the matter, energy and space that exists. It contains billions of galaxies, stars, planets and particles. The solar system, which includes the Sun and the Earth, is part of the Universe.

Constellation A constellation is a group of stars arranged in a specific pattern that is visible from Earth.

CHAPTER 10: Space Exploration

MEASAT 1 and MEASAT 2 are the two Malaysian satellites. Satellites are used in areas such as communication, weather, monitoring, defence, navigation and environmental monitoring.

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF ASTRONOMY

Astronomy is one of the oldest fields in science. It involves the study of objects in the Universelike planets, stars and galaxies. Applications of technology related to space exploration and astronomy 1. Space enables scientists to conduct scientific experiments that benefit mankind. 2. This is because the vacuum and zero gravity conditions in outer space make research that cannot be conducted on Earth possible. 3. Research in space has led to the development of special metals and microchips nutritional food special medicines pure vaccines advanced medical equipment 4. The application of space technology have helped to improve the quality of life and economy. Although space exploration is costly, it benefits outweigh the cost, which is why space exploration needs to be continued.

The uses of satellites

1. Telecommunications Communications satellites enable global communications via telephones, radio and television channels all over the world Malaysia has MEASAT satellites in space to transmit live telecasts on televisions in homes 2. Navigation Navigation satellites help ships and airplanes to determine their positions and directions anywhere on Earth. 3. Military purposes Military satellites help countries in security and defence, locate personnel and targets. 4. Remote sensing Remote sensing collects data and information about the conditions and activities on Earth. For example, to prevent natural disasters, to locate natural resources and to monitor floods. 5. Weather forecast Meteorological satellites predict the weather, monitor changes in weather conditions such as wind direction, temperatures and pressure in the Earths atmosphere. 6. Detection of natural resources Environmental satellites are a means to study the worlds resources. These satellites help to detect the locations of natural resources such as petroleum, coal, natural gas and minerals.