The New Federalist

April 21, 1989

Pages 6-7

American Almanac

Yugoslavia: Battleground Of the South Slavs

Part II: The Approach of World War I by Allen and achel !ouglas

Dr. Frederick Guggenbuhl

A street scene in the southern Yugoslavia coast city of !ubrovni"#

In the April 7 issue, New Federalist published two e !erpts "ro# The Roots of the Trust, b$ Allen and %a!hel &ouglas, dealing with the histor$ o"

'ugosla(ia, whi!h is now in !risis and !ould be!o#e the "lashpoint "or strategi! showdown as it was in the past) The "irst sele!tion tou!hed on how the lega!$ o" the "ourteenth !entur$ *erb +ingdo# "ed into the !reation o" the ,us!o(ite e#pire and the #$th o" ,os!ow the Third %o#e) The se!ond se!tion pi!-ed up the stor$ o" %ussian a!ti(it$ in the .al-ans in the nineteenth !entur$, when the Pan-*la( e pansionists o" ,os!ow too- up the !ause o" liberating their /*la( brothers/ "ro# the 0tto#an 1#pire, as an e !use to bring %ussia #ilitaril$ into that region) The third e !erpt, printed here and in one #ore install#ent, deals with the .al-ans on the e(e o" 2orld 2ar I) The politi!al !risis there, whi!h triggered the great war and led, as a side e""e!t, to the "or#ation o" 'ugosla(ia, was the wor- not onl$ o" the %ussians, but o" #u!h older i#perialists, o" 3eni!e) 0ur a!!ount o" .al-an politi!s in that era brings into "o!us one o" the #ost i#portant, but little -nown, behind-the-s!enes #o(ers o" twentieth !entur$ histor$4 5ount 6iuseppe 3olpi di ,isurata) $enice !ismantles The Ottoman %mpire To understand the or!hestrated rise and "all o" e#pires, we are !o#pelled to loo- at 3eni!e) A"ter all, the 3enetians had shaped the (er$ !on!ept o" pri(ate international ban-ing78o#bard ban-ing, when!e 8o#bard *treet in the 5it$ o" 8ondon9s "inan!ial distri!t deri(es its na#e) 3eni!e was the wellspring o" the ideolog$ o" .ritain9s %ound Table, !reated b$ :ohn %us-in, o(er de!ades o" his sta$s in 3eni!e and asso!iation with the #ost elite o" the 3enetian oligar!h$, be"ore he returned to 0 "ord to le!ture in 187;) The 3enetians had set in #otion the Pan-*la( insurgen!$ in the %ussian 1#pire, a produ!t o" the religious re"or#s that poured out o" 3eni!e and ,t) Athos in the late eighteenth !entur$) ,ore broadl$, the$ !reated the dis#al !ultural outloo- o" the end o" the nineteenth !entur$, e pressed in its #ost !on!entrated "or# in the wor-s o" Friedri!h Niet<s!he, who li(ed in 3eni!e and propagandi<ed "or the end o" the age o" Pis!es7the "ish, the 5hristian s$#bol7and "or the dawning o" the Age o" A=uarius >&ion$sius?) In the !ase o" the 3enetian !ir!le around 6iuseppe 3olpi, the long wa(e o" !ultural #anipulation interse!ts the short wa(e o" or!hestrated !oups and re(olutions) .$ pulling the old le(ers, the 3enetians triggered the desired e""e!t4 the holo!aust o" 2orld 2ar I, and the politi!al, as well as !ultural, reorgani<ation o" the world, ushering in what the %oose(elt !ir!les in the @nited *tates !alled the /New Age)/ The$ did not altogether su!!eed in

pressing le(ers with in(isible handsA the #ost essential ele#ents o" the Trust are subtle, but the$ are nonetheless (isible, i" one -nows where to loo-) 2hen we loo-, "or e a#ple, at &<er<hins-$9s Trust, the 5he-a >*o(iet se!ret poli!e? sp$ organi<ation o" 1922-27, we "ind that its !reator was the Italian %enu!!i, rena#ed Artu<o(, who went "ro# 6enoa to %ussia in 1917 and be!a#e head o" *o(iet !ounterintelligen!e "or two de!ades) Bis !ollaborator in the Trust, 6eneral N),) Potapo(, had been the %ussian #ilitar$ atta!hC in ,ontenegro "ro# 19;D-191E, who (aulted "ro# this apparent ba!-water, to be!o#e =uarter#aster o" the %ussian Ar#$ and !hie" o" %ussian #ilitar$ intelligen!e in the !losing period o" 2orld 2ar I, lead the purges o" the Tsarist #ilitar$ apparatus, and be!o#e the "irst *o(iet !hie" o" sta"" and #ilitar$ head o" &<er<hins-$9s Trust) 0r, we "ind that the %asputin operation in the %ussian !ourt was initiated b$ two ,ontenegrin sisters, while the husband o" one o" the#, 6rand &u-e Ni-olai Ni-ola$e(i!h, was !o##ander-in-!hie" o" %ussian "or!es in 2orld 2ar I, and then the !hie" o" the Trust in e#igration, to who# &<er<hins-$9s agents swore /allegian!e,/ as the right"ul head o" a #onar!hist %ussia) In these instan!es and #an$ others, in(estigation o" the intelligen!e de!eption -nown as the Trust leads into the bigger ne us that we also !all the Trust, the international ban-ing, politi!al, and !ultural networ-s, spanning 1ast and 2est, whi!h "inan!ed and otherwise en!ouraged both %ussian re(olutions o" 1917) $enice&s Banca 'ommerciale Italiana /Three hundred #en, all o" who# -now one another, dire!t the e!ono#i! destin$ o" 1urope and !hoose their su!!essors a#ong the#sel(es,/ said 2alter %athenau in 19;9) Be was 5hair#an o" Allge#eine 1le-tri<itFts6esells!ha"t, and a "riend and business partner o" the 3enetian 6iuseppe 3olpi) Be was tal-ing about the !ontrol o" international "inan!e, se!ond onl$ to the #anipulation o" !ulture, in deter#ining the destin$ o" world a""airs) The trail "ro# the /three hundred #en/ into the 3enetian group o" 3olpi leads through the single #ost i#portant "inan!ial institution in Ital$ o" the twentieth !entur$, the !hie" "inan!ial ba!-er o" the 3olpi group9s a!ti(ities, the .an!a 5o##er!iale Italiana >.5I?) In the #id-189;s, at the sa#e ti#e he was arranging the #arriage o" 3i!tor 1##anuel o" Ital$ to Prin!ess 1lena o" ,ontenegro >sister o" Anastasia and

,ilitsa, the ,ontenegrin prin!esses in the %ussian !ourt?, the Italian pri#e #inister and "ree#asoni! #aster, Fran!es!o 5rispi, was negotiating with the .lei!hrGder house >!hie" "inan!ier to .is#ar!- "or de!ades? and other 1uropean "inan!iers, to establish a new ban- "or Ital$) Its purpose was to !ontrol and largel$ own the pro!ess o" industriali<ation in Ital$, unleashed b$ the nation-building wor- o" 5a#illo di 5a(our, !o#poser 6iuseppe 3erdi, and the s!ientists who were .ernhard %ie#ann9s Italian "riends) 5rispi9s operati(e 5ount 8an<a, the Italian a#bassador in .erlin, arranged with .lei!hrGder and *!hwaba!h o" the .lei!hrGder house and also with the representati(e o" a 1,;;;-$ear-old ban-ing "a#il$, ,) Federi!o 2eill, to establish the new institution) In 189H the .5I was "ounded) 0(er the ne t "ew $ears, its !oun!il o" ad#inistration in!luded hal" a do<en Italian senatorsA 5ount 6iberto .orro#eo o" ,ilanA ,ar!o .esso, the president o" the Assi!ura<ioni 6enerali insuran!e !o#pan$ o" 3eni!eA se(eral pro#inent Italian ban-ersA 5ount 5arlo %aggio and *enator 5ount 6erola#o %ossi o" 6enoaA and others) A#ong the "oreigners who sat on the .5I9s !oun!il o" ad#inistration were4 :ules .lu#, (i!e president o" the I#perial and %o$al Austrian 1stablish#ent "or 5o##er!e and Industr$, 3iennaA :ules Fre$, president o" the *o!iet$ o" 5redit *uisse, Iuri!hA :ean +ae#p", President o" the .an- "Jr Bandel und Industrie o" .erlinA Adolphe +lein, !oun!illor-general o" the .an=ue AngloAutri!hienne o" 3iennaA Bans *!huster, ad#inistrator o" the &resdner .an-, .erlinA Paul de *!hwaba!h o" *) .lei!hrGder, .erlinA 1dgar *tern o" *tern .an-ers, .erlinA :oseph Benri Thors, !oun!illor o" ad#inistration o" the .an=ue de Paris et des Pa$s-.as >Parisbas?, ParisA Fran!ois @rbig, dire!tor o" the &is!onto 6esells!ha"t, .erlinA Ber#ann 2alli!h, !oun!illor o" ad#inistration o" the &euts!he .an-, .erlinA Frederi! Ia-n-6eig$, (i!e president o" the .an-(erein *uisse o" .asleA 1#ile 0dier, o" the house o" 8o#bard, 0dier et 5ie, 6ene(aA Bora!e Final$, dire!tor o" Parisbas, Paris) The power and the lasting i#pa!t o" the .5I !an be seen in the "a!t that the leading "inan!ial and industrial "igures and "ir#s in Ital$ toda$7su!h as Agnelli, de .enedetti, 0li(etti, de ,i!helis, the ,ontedison !he#i!al !o#ple , et!)7are al#ost all inti#atel$ asso!iated with the .5I) The P-2 "ree#asoni! lodge was "ounded on its pre#ises in the post-war period)

The Toeplit(es:

evolutionaries and Spiritualists

The da$-to-da$ dire!tion o" the .5I was handled b$ three "igures4 0tto :oel, Federi!o 2eill, and 6iuseppe Toeplit<) In 191H-1E, a s!andal bro-e out about its "oreign, #ostl$ 6er#an, board #e#bers, whereupon the "oreign dire!tors resigned, selling no#inal ownership into Italian hands) :oel and 2eill were a#ong those who le"t, but the politi!al dire!tion and #anage#ent o" the ban- !ontinued as be"ore, under the naturali<ed Italian, born in a %ussian-Polish :ewish "a#il$, Toeplit<) 6iuseppe Toeplit<9s "ather had been the ad#inistrator o" great estates belonging to one o" the prin!el$ houses o" Poland, and was wealth$ in his own right) Toeplit< hi#sel" #arried Anne de 6rand %$, "ro# a noble 5atholi! "a#il$, and !on(erted to 5atholi!is#) At the behest o" 0tto :oel, who in the 188;s and earl$ 189;s was !hie" e e!uti(e o" the 6enoa-based .an!a %ussa >%ussian .an-?, Toeplit< was brought to 6enoa "ro# Poland and gi(en a leading position at the ban-) 0ne o" his brothers had spent se(eral $ears in *t) Petersburg prisons "or re(olutionar$ a!ti(ities, while another, Beinri!h, be!a#e a .olshe(i-) Bis brother 8udo(i!o, upon being released "ro# the Fortress o" Peter and Paul in Petersburg, than-s to the politi!al in"luen!e o" Toeplit<, *r), !ontinued his re(olutionar$ a!ti(ities in 6enoa) The Italian %i(iera around 6enoa, where the "uture 5he-a !ounterintelligen!e !hie", Artu<o(-%enu!!i, would also ha(e his roots, was the site o" a #aKor !on!entration o" %ussian re(olutionar$ e iles, dating ba!- to the residen!e there o" the /"ather o" %ussian so!ialis#,/ 6eorge Ple-hano() Ple-hano(9s asso!iate in those earl$ da$s, .oris *a(in-o(, settled in *an %e#o near 6enoa, and as did #an$ others "ro# the *-% >*o!ialist %e(olutionar$? .attle 0rgani<ation, a terrorist "or#ation !reated b$ the %ussian se!ret poli!e, the 0-hrana) A#ong the# were so#e o" those who blew up %ussian Pri#e ,inister *tol$pin9s (illa in 19;6) The 0-hrana9s *pe!ial *e!tion, naturall$, was well in"or#ed as to the goings-on in *an %e#o and nearb$ towns, where the !on!entration o" %ussians was so hea($, that the$ !ould li(e there without -nowing an$ Italian) .esides the terrorists, who were se!retl$ 0-hrana agents, there were "ull ti#e, o""i!ial, 0-hrana agents, in!luding Italian poli!e operati(es in the e#plo$ o" the 0-hrana) 6iuseppe Toeplit<9s son 8udo(i!o, in his biograph$ o" his "ather, reported that his un!le 8udo(i!o /in 6enoa #ade !onta!t with

#an$ so!ialist ele#ents and harbored in our house so#eone sought b$ the poli!e)/

)iuseppe $olpi* later 'ount $olpi di +isurata* in ,-./* 0hen his Bal"an e1ploits 0ere 2ust beginning#

Also o" great i#portan!e "or the %ussian .an- were the great 6enoese "a#ilies, su!h as the 5enturioni, based in ,illesi#o 5astle in 6enoa, who had been tied to both the .$<antine and %ussian e#pires "or hundreds o" $ears) The Toeplit<es tra(eled in the sa#e !lose--nit !ir!les as did the ,ar=uise 5enturione-*!otto) .oth the Toeplit<es and the 5enturioni were hea(il$ in(ol(ed in spiritualis#, o" whi!h 5enturione was a #aKor organi<er in Ital$A one o" the #ost pro#inent #e#bers o" the 5e!il "a#il$-"ounded *o!iet$ "or Ps$!hi!al %esear!h in 1ngland, Arthur 5onan &o$le, was trained b$ 5enturione9s asso!iate, the spiritualist and !ri#inologist 5esare 8o#broso) The spiritualis# and so!ialis# !ir!les were (irtuall$ identi!al, Kust as

in 1ngland, where the *o!iet$ "or Ps$!hi!al %esear!h9s Fran- Pod#ore was one o" the initiators o" the Fabian *o!ialist *o!iet$) The %lectricity Trust *hortl$ a"ter Toeplit< le"t the .an!a %ussa "or the .5I, he was #ade head o" its 3enetian bran!h) .ased there "ro# 19;;-19;H, he established the !lose ties to 3olpi and his !ir!les, whi!h he would #aintain "or de!ades) Fro# the ti#e he headed the Naples bran!h o" .5I >1897-99?, Toeplit< was in !onta!t with o""i!ials o" the Allge#eine 1le-tri<itFts-6esells!ha"t >A16?, su!h as A169s #an in Naples, &aniel Beine#ann) A !lose asso!iate o" both 3olpi and Toeplit<, and owner o" the "a#ous .ar!elona Tra!tion Power and 8ight !o#pan$, Beine#ann later be!a#e the single largest "inan!er o" the 3enetian 5ount 5oudenho(e-+alergi9s Pan-1uropa one-world go(ern#ent #o(e#ent) 2hile 6er#an "inan!ier networ-s were helping to establish the .5I, the$ also set up the 6esells!ha"t "Jr 1le-tris!he @nterneh#ungen) This, in turn, helped to "ound the *o!ietL per lo *(iluppo delle I#prese 1lettri!he in Italia, in ,ilan7one o" the #ost i#portant !o#panies o" the Italian ele!tri!al power industr$) It was a #aKor operations base o" 3olpi, who hi#sel" !haired the *o!ietL Adriati!a di 1lettri!itL >*A&1?) 0n the board o" *A&1 were Assi!ura<ioni9s ,ar!o .esso and 2alter %athenau o" A16) The &euts!he .an-, with %athenau and so#e *wiss, set up in *wit<erland the .an- "Jr 1le-tris!he @nterneh#ungen, the /1le-tro.an-,/ with the enor#ous !apital o" 18; #illion *wiss "ran!s) 1le-tro-.an!ontrolled nu#erous Italian ele!tri!al "ir#s, in!luding a !hun- o" 3olpi9s *A&1) Bistorian %) A) 2ebster des!ribes the i#portan!e o" these ele!tri!it$ operations, "or e(er$thing else 3olpi was to do4 These h$droele!tri! enterprises "or#ed the "oundation o" the 3enetian group9s power and pro(ided a "inan!ial base "ro# whi!h it !ould laun!h its o(erseas operations) In the "inan!ing o" *A&1 and its a""iliates, the 3enetian group began wor-ing not onl$ with the great ,ilanese ban-, whi!h spe!iali<ed in !oordinating large-s!ale ele!tri"i!ation ) ) ) but also with the ban-9s industrial allies7 *A&1 re!ei(ed in addition so#e !apital "ro# the 5o##er!iale9s "oreign "riends) .$ 19;E, 3olpi was one o" the largest produ!ers and distributors o" ele!tri!it$ in Ital$)

/0ne !lear and =uiet night,/ Toeplit<9s son re!alled, Fran!is!o 5a#bM $ .attle, 3olpi, and Beine#ann, were hosted b$ Toeplit< at his house, to !reate a worldwide ele!tri!it$ trust) 5a#bM was the president o" the #ost power"ul *outh A#eri!an ele!tri!it$ trust, the 5o#pagnia Bispano-A#eri!an de 1le!tri!idad, whi!h !ontrolled the #aKorit$ o" *o"ina-.russels, owned b$ Beine#ann) Beine#ann9s *o"ina, in turn, !ontrolled the #aKorit$ o" the 5o#pagnia, per#itting Beine#ann to run both !o#panies) At this #eeting, Toeplit< arranged "or 3olpi, as president o" *A&1, to ta-e !ontrol o" the *o!ietL .olognese di 1lettri!ita o" 5a#bM and Beine#ann, so that /the power"ul 3enetian !o#pan$ headed b$ 3olpi, had thus Kust o""i!iall$ and "ore(er#ore inserted itsel" into the great ga#e o" !o#ple international relations)/ The ele!tri!it$ trust too- o"", and so did the ban-) /.$ the ti#e o" 2orld 2ar I,/ 8udo(i!o Toeplit< reported, /Papa had brought the ban- to a solid position in Ital$ with the !reation o" a (ast networ- o" bran!hes in the .al-ans, Tur-e$, 1g$pt, Fran!e, 8ondon, *outh A#eri!a and the @)*) and had put it on the le(el with the outstanding ban-s o" the world)/ World0ide Influence 8udo(i!o Toeplit< !hroni!les the e traordinar$ worldwide in"luen!e o" his "ather and 3olpi) Pro#inent in the Toeplit<-3olpi !ir!le were the 5ontessa Anna ,orosini, /the un!rowned Nueen o" 3eni!e alread$ in those $ears,/ who was the daughter o" the 6enoese ban-er %o#bo, and the "re=uent hostess "or +aiser 2ilhel# II, whose $a!ht !ould be seen #oored in 3eni!eA Father 3ardan Bat<uni, o" the .enedi!tine Ar#enian #onaster$ on *an 8a<<aro, who /be!a#e a "riend o" the house and !a#e o"ten "or lun!h) Be pla$ed .a!h well and sat at our piano "or long hours/A Freiherr (on .Jlow, the !ousin o" the 6er#an !han!ellor whose house /was one o" the #ost re"ined in 3eni!e/A 6eneral Nasalli-%o!!a, the longti#e Italian #ilitar$ atta!hC in PetersburgA 6eneral 5arlo Porro, the deput$ !hie" o" the Italian 6eneral *ta"" and dire!tor o" the Italian 2ar A!ade#$ in Turin7/there was pro"ound and re!ipro!al respe!t and "riendship o(er the $ears between 6eneral Porro and #$ "ather) Bis relati(es began to !o#e to our house)/A 5a#illo 5astiglione, the :ewish "inan!ier "ro# Trieste, who bought up #u!h o" Austria a"ter the !ollapse o" the Austro-Bungarian 1#pireA the 5atalonian &on Fran!is!o 5a#bM $ .attle, #inister o" "inan!e in *pain "or se(enteen $ears, /a !lose "riend o" Papa,/ "or who# so#e o" the biggest artists in 1urope would gi(e !on!erts at his #useu# "or hi# alone)

Toeplit<9s power was so great a"ter 2orld 2ar I, that he was o""ered, and turned down, the position o" "inan!e #inister in the newl$ resurre!ted nation o" Poland) 0ut o" the .5I o" those da$s !a#e what 8udo(i!o Toeplit< re"erred to as /the "our ,9s/4 %a""aele ,attioli, later the president o" the .5IA ,alagodi, the ani#ator and se!retar$ o" the Italian 8iberal Part$A ,ar!hesano, President o" the Adriati!a di *i!urtL insuran!e !o#pan$A and 5esare ,er<agora, president o" the Italian *enate, a#ong other things) ,er<agora headed the .5I in .ulgaria, then was assistant to 6iuseppe9s brother 8udo(i!o, the re(olutionar$, who had be!o#e the /Foreign *e!retar$ o" the 5o#it O.5IP)/ The Toeplit<-3olpi !ir!le drew up the plans to rebuild 3eni!e) The$ planned to lure what the$ !alled /the international spending brigade,/ the Ket set o" the da$, to 3eni!e to "ill up new lu ur$ hotels) This was the basis "or the later, 1uropean-wide 5I6A hotel !hain) Toeplit<9s son re!ords that #u!h o" the renewed popularit$ o" 3eni!e was due to :ohn %us-in9s boo-, the hea(il$ pro#oted Stones of Venice. 8ater on, 3olpi and the .5I !rowd built the Porto ,arghera industrial !o#ple outside 3eni!e, !entered around ,ontedison) The 3enetians !oordinated their a!ti(ities !losel$ with leading "igures abroad) :oel was in !onstant tou!h with the &euts!heban- head, Arthur (on 6winnar) And, 2ebster writes, /The #ost i#portant single "oreign dire!tor o" the .an!a 5o##er!iale was 1douard Noet<lin o" the .an=ue de Paris et des Pa$s-.as >Parisbas? Oand o" the %usso-Asiati! .an-P, who was also head o" the 9%ussian s$ndi!ate9 that the Fren!h ban-s had "or#ed in order to negotiate with the %ussian ,inistr$ o" Finan!e)/ 2ithin the .5I, :oel, Toeplit<, and 2eill #aintained the "ollowing di(ision o" labor, as 2ebster des!ribed it4 These three di(ided the prin!ipal "un!tions o" the ban- a#ong the#sel(es) :oel, well-spo-en and diplo#ati!, was the head and spe!iali<ed in relations with the great steel and shipbuilding trustsA e(en #ore i#portant, he was the prin!ipal agent o" the ban- in dealing with the go(ern#ent, the .an- o" Ital$, and the "oreign "inan!iers that !ontinued to parti!ipate in the .an!a 5o##er!iale) 2eill !on!erned hi#sel" with the "inan!ing o" the big subsidi<ed shipping lines) Toeplit<, a trul$ protean and o#ni!o#petent "igure, handled the ban-9s !he#i!al-industr$ operations4 he also de(eloped personal !onta!ts with the

ad(enturous "inan!ial and industrial group o" 3eni!e represented b$ 3olpi that pla$ed su!h a -e$ role in Ital$9s o(erseas e pansion) ) ) ) ,ore signi"i!ant in the histor$ o" Italian e pansion abroad were the relations the 5o##er!iale set up with the aristo!rati! 3enetian !ir!les !entering around the Papadopoli .an-, 5ount Piero Fos!ari, the noble %e(edin "a#il$ o" Padua and Ferraro, and the pro#oter 6iuseppe 3olpi) It is in the arena o" /Italian e pansion abroad,/ that we pi!- up the road dire!tl$ into 2orld 2ar I7the 3enetian-led /&rang na!h osten/ o" Ital$ into the 0tto#an 1#pire) $enice&s Italian )overnment and the $olpi )roup A"ter 1911 the relations between the 5o##er!iale and the 6iolitti go(ern#ent be!a#e so !lose and !on"idential that the ban-9s "oreign operations were reall$ a part o" the histor$ o" Italian "oreign poli!$) The ban-9s prin!ipal "oreign pro#oters be!a#e agents o" the go(ern#ent, and its 3enetian group be!a#e the (anguard o" Italian penetration eastward7to the e tent, at ti#es, o" towing the ban-9s #anage#ent with it and e(en tugging strongl$ at the #inistr$ itsel") These /!lose and !on"idential/ relations, so des!ribed b$ %) A) 2ebster, e isted be!ause a group o" 3enetian and *i!ilian aristo!rats, who #aintained the !losest ties to the 3olpi group, do#inated Italian "oreign poli!$ "ro# the turn o" the !entur$ until 2orld 2ar I) The intense "o!us o" both the /pri(ate se!tor/ apparatus o" 3olpi, et al) and o" their 3enetian-*i!ilian go(ern#ental "riends was /Italian penetration eastward/7a s$ste#ati! progra# to dis#antle the 0tto#an 1#pire, through !o##er!ial penetration, !oups, assassinations, and whate(er else it too-) This !reated the powder -eg "or 2orld 2ar I) The #ost i#portant diplo#ats were4 Marquis di San Giuliano. Foreign ,inister "ro# the spring o" 191; until his death in 0!tober 191H, brought in as Foreign ,inister b$ 8uigi 8u<<atti, o" the 3enetian 8u<<attiQ8u<<atto "a#il$) Sal atore !ontarini. Per#anent @nderse!retar$ o" the Foreign ,inistr$ "ro# 1912 to 192H) Fro# the *i!ilian bran!h o" the an!ient 3enetian "a#il$)

"ietro di Scalea. @nderse!retar$ o" Foreign A""airs "ro# 1911-1H, and a part o" *an 6iuliano9s *i!ilian !ir!le) !ount !arlo Sfor#a. 5hargC d9a""aires in 5onstantinople at the ti#e o" the 'oung Tur-s !oup o" 19;8) The "a#il$ had been ins!ribed in the 3enetian $ibro d%oro >the .oo- o" 6old, roster o" noble "a#ilies o" 3eni!e? "or !enturies) !ount Nani&Mocenigo. Also !hargC d9a""aires at the Italian 1#bass$ in 5onstantinople, "ro# 1911-191H, he was (irtuall$ responsible "or Italian "oreign poli!$ toward the 0tto#an 1#pire) Fro# another an!ient 3enetian "a#il$) To''aso Tittoni. Fro# 19;D until &e!e#ber 19;9, with onl$ slight interruptions, he was Italian "oreign #inister) Fro# a pro#inent %o#an oligar!hi!al "a#il$, (er$ !lose to the heir to the throne, Prin!e 3i!tor 1##anuel) This i#posing group o" #inisters and diplo#ats was allied with and o"ten led b$ an e(en #ore i#pressi(e, al#ost entirel$ 3eni!e-based grouping in the "inan!ial world) The #ost notorious #e#ber o" this group, although he was not a!tuall$ its -ingpin, was 6iuseppe 3olpi) The 3olpi group in!luded the wealth$ 5ount N)A) Papadopoli, o" a 3enetian-6ree- "a#il$ "ro# 5or"u, enobled in the eighteenth !entur$, and a !hie" "inan!ial ba!-er o" 3olpiA 5ount A#adeo 5orinaldiA 5ount %uggero %e(edinA 5ount 6irola#o ,ar!elloA and, #ost i#portant, 5ount Piero Fos!ari, /the undisputed leader o" this group o" #en,/ a!!ording to 3olpi biographer *ergio %o#ano) )iuseppe $olpi in the Bal"ans A loo- at 5ount 3olpi "ro# 0resta ,os!a9s Vol(i di Misurata, 19284 3olpi "a!ed, ti#e and again, e plosions o" passions, troubles, and new e(ents that see#ed to suddenl$ !hange the !ourse o" histor$, but were pre!eded b$ $ears o" subtle wor-) Be spe!iali<ed hi#sel" in this sort o" /so!ial anato#$)/ Be was present at #an$ great e(ents o" the .al!ani! tangle, and he, who was lin-ing the# one to another, ended up b$ being the Italian #ost !apable o" sol(ing =uestions in the 8e(ant)

$olpi in Bal"an costume#

In :une 19;D, he was in .elgrade when the #assa!re o" +ing Ale ander and Nueen &raga Oo" *erbiaP too- pla!e) *till palpitating and riddled b$ blows, the bodies o" the -ing and &raga were thrown out o" the window) &raga died i##ediatel$, but the -ing agoni<ed until "our o9!lo!- in the #orning) &run- on wine and blood, the regi!ides a"terwards (iolated the !orpses) Parts o" the s-in were !ut "ro# the bod$ o" &raga, dried up and !onser(ed as trophies) 0n that tragi! night, another 17 persons were -illed and (er$ #an$ were inKured) It is in su!h #o#ents that a people re(eals itsel" in its essen!e and it was in those hours that 3olpi sees "ull$ how #u!h pri#iti(eness and wildness was hidden under a thin !rust o" !i(ili<ation) 8ater, 3olpi sees the rise o" the re(olution o" the 'oung Tur-s) :ourne$ing in the 5hal!idi!e Peninsula to go, in a #o#ent o" rest, to (isit the 11,;;; #on-s s!attered on ,ount Athos, he got

to -now those who subse=uentl$ be!a#e the leaders o" the #o(e#ent, "ro# Talaat .e$, a #an o" a !onsiderable politi!al stature, who was grand (i<ier and originall$ had been a s#all "un!tionar$ o" the *aloni!a post o""i!e, to 1n(er .e$, to ,ah#ud *he(-et Pasha) The re(olution o" the 'oung Tur-s, born in ,a!edonia, whi!h at that ti#e was under the do#ination o" the Porte, led b$ the &on#ehs, i)e) the ,usli#s who deri(ed their origins "ro# other religions, generall$ "ro# the Bebrai! religion, was in a short ti#e at the gates o" *ta#boul) And 3olpi was present in 5onstantinople, in :ul$ 19;8, at the entran!e o" the troops o" ,ah#ud *he(-et Pasha, general o" the 0tto#an Ar#$ and leader o" the 'oung Tur-s) ,oreo(er 3olpi, the one who a "ew $ears later would !on!lude a pea!e with Tur-e$ and then go(ern an i#portant possession, was in the house o" %e(oil, dire!tor o" the 0tto#an I#perial .an- and A#bassador o" Fran!e in ,adrid, when the$ !a#e to announ!e that the troops o" the 'oung Tur-s were about to enter 5onstantinople and that the go(ern#ent had gone to negotiate with ,ah#ud *he(-et Pasha on pro(isioning the troops, in order to pre(ent the troops, entering hungr$, "ro# de(astating the !apital) 3a Societ4 +iniere d&Oriente The substantial pri(ate resour!es o" this group were (astl$ aug#ented b$ those o" the .an!a 5o##er!iale, whose 3eni!e bran!h dire!tor "ro# 19;;19;H, Toeplit<, had "or#ed !lose ties to the 3enetians) The 3eni!e-based insuran!e giant, Assi!ura<ioni 6enerali di 3ene<ia e Trieste, o" whi!h 3olpi was later to be!o#e president, was also part o" this group) This was the apparatus that do#inated, "ro# the turn o" the !entur$, Italian "oreign poli!$ in4 1? *aloni!a-5onstantinople, and #u!h o" AnatoliaA 2? ,ontenegroA D? *erbiaA H? North A"ri!a, when!e 3olpi later deri(ed his title o" !ount) The "irst enterprise o" this group, the !ornerstone o" #ost o" its later e""orts, was the *o!ietL ,iniere d90riente) It was based in the an!ient !it$ o" *aloni!a, whi!h "or se(eral hundred $ears had been the 9se!ond !it$9 o" the

0tto#an 1#pire) This #aKor wheat and opiu# trading port, the world9s !enter o" *ephardi! :ewr$, was, a!!ording to well-in"or#ed sour!es, the birthpla!e o" 3olpi hi#sel" >not 3eni!e or .erga#o, as (ariousl$ reported b$ his biographers?) As the /!apital/ o" ,a!edonia, *aloni!a was e""e!ti(el$ not !ontrolled b$ the 0tto#an go(ern#ent at Istanbul, sin!e the pro(in!e o" ,a!edonia was under a "oreign prote!torate, di!tated to the 0tto#ans b$ (arious 2estern powers) The ter#s o" this "oreign prote!torate allowed the establish#ent o" the notorious I,%0, the ,a!edonian %e(olutionar$ 0rgani<ation, and also opened the wa$ "or *aloni!a to be!o#e the base o" the 'oung Tur-s who plotted to o(erthrow the 0tto#an d$nast$) The grand #aster o" the *aloni!a lodges, whi!h #et in a house prote!ted b$ the Italian !iti<enship o" its owner, was a "riend o" 3olpi, 1#annuele 5arasso) It was "ro# *aloni!a that the 3olpi group laun!hed its a!ti(ities) In 3olpi9s words, "ro# a letter to Foreign ,inister Tittoni on April 2E, 19;64 In 19;1 a group o" 3enetian "inan!iers led b$, a#ong other gentle#en, the *enator Ni!olo Papodopoli-Aldobrandini, 5ount 6irola#o ,ar!ello, 5ount %uggero %e(edin, 5ount Piero Fos!ari, 5ount A#adeo 5orinaldi, 5o##endatore %oberto Paganini and #$sel", "or#ed a #odest !o#pan$ with a !apital o" 1,E;;,;;; "ran!s whi!h was !alled the *o!ietL ,iniere d90riente and was based in *aloni-a) Its i##ediate ai# was to stud$ and underta-e prospe!ting "or #ining in the 0tto#an 1#pire, in order to establish positi(e in!enti(es "or "ounding an Italian !o#pan$ in Tur-e$ whi!h would stud$ the e!ono#i! situation and the possibilit$ o" greater e pansion) OThe !o#pan$ enlargedP the base o" its operation) Fi(e $ears9 pra!ti!al e perien!e o" the Tur-ish #ar-et ga(e it -nowledge o" e(er$thing that was re=uired and o" the pro"its that #ight be e pe!ted there "or the nation9s industr$ and !o##er!e) >Nuoted in Angelo Ta#borra9s /The %ise o" Italian Industr$ and the .al-ans >19;;-191H?,/ )ournal of *uro(ean +istor,, 3ol) D, No) 1)? The !o#pan$9s dire!tor-general was .ernardino Nogara, later the Italian board #e#ber o" the 0tto#an Publi! &ebt 5oun!il, then and "or the ne t "i"teen $ears, 3olpi9s !hie" intelligen!e agent in 5onstantinople)

Aside "ro# the 3enetian-dire!ted wheat trade, 3olpi plugged hi#sel" into other 3enetian operations) The "ounder o" the insuran!e !artel o" *aloni!a was the Trieste-born ,oses ,orpurgo, des!endant o" the *alo#on ,orpurgo who had "ounded Assi!ura<ioni 6enerali and who had been a !hie" supporter o" Napoleon al#ost 1;; $ears be"ore) This !o#bined diplo#ati!-"inan!ial apparatus, based in *aloni!a, rea!ted with great satis"a!tion to the 'oung Tur-s !oup o" 19;8, a !oup run out o" the *aloni!a "ree#asoni! lodges) Into the Ottoman %ast A"ter that !oup, the 3enetians e tended their penetration o" the 0tto#an 1#pire) In 19;9, the$ set up the Italo-0tto#an 5o##ittee in ,ilan, headed b$ 8uigi 8u<<atti o" the old 3enetian "a#il$, who was proposed as the /e!ono#i! di!tator/ o" the 0tto#an 1#pire, but was reKe!ted b$ one "a!tion o" the 'oung Tur-s) Following the .al-an 2ars o" 1911-12, 3olpi9s group stepped up operations on!e again) The .5I and Parisbas in!reased the !apital o" the *o!ietL 5o##er!iale d90riente, and organi<ed a new series o" !o#panies in Istanbul "or real estate operations, na(al proKe!ts in the 6olden Born, and so "orth) 2hile "ollowing the a!ti(ities o" 3olpi and his group, it is use"ul to -eep in #ind this s-et!h, b$ %o#ano, o" his o(erwhel#ing preo!!upation73eni!e4 For a nu#ber o" reasons in whi!h design and senti#ent were #i ed, he "elt "ro# the beginning the need to gi(e his a!tion an histori!al and literar$ legiti#a!$) Be "ound it in 3eni!e, "or whi!h he had a "ilial worship) ) ) ) 3eni!e o""ered hi# the #odels o" his li"e4 #er!hant, diplo#at, go(ernor, law$er, /doge/A and he returned the gi"t, o""ering to the !it$ a disputable and ris-$ !on!eption, but not without a !ertain grandeur, o" what it was to be!o#e) Be was not a regionalist in the li#ited sense o" the word be!ause he sin!erel$ belie(ed that Ital$ had inherited the best (irtues o" its !it$-states and that the spirit o" 3eni!e would alwa$s be an integral part o" the national spirit) .ut 3eni!e was alwa$s at the !enter o" his preo!!upations and his a#bitionsA perhaps be!ause the !it$ with its !ultural spa!e and its !lientele, guaranteed hi# a !ertain independen!e with respe!t to %o#e, whoe(er it was76iolitti or ,ussolini7who go(erned in the !apital) Fro# this deri(es a !ertain a#bi(alen!e o" his a!tions, whi!h, while being national, alwa$s ha(e a

3enetian #oti(ation, so#eti#es apparent and literar$ #ore than substantial) There is thus a te#ptation "or one who atte#pts to re!onstru!t this person to write his li"e as a se=uen!e o" 3enetian !hapters4 3eni!e and the .al-ans, 3eni!e and the 1ast, 3eni!e and industr$, 3eni!e and the arts) .ut ) ) ) i" 3eni!e represented the #oral and literar$ Kusti"i!ation o" 3olpi9s li"e, %o#e was the !onstant and !on!rete re"eren!e point o" his a!ti(it$) The orientation to %o#e was not surprising) The nation o" Ital$ was to be deplo$ed "or the ends spe!i"ied b$ 3eni!e) &ue to the #arriages o" his eight !hildren, Ni!holas o" ,ontenegro was -nown as the "ather-in-law o" 1urope) Bis son, 5rown Prin!e &anilo, unlo!-ed the +ingdo# o" ,ontenegro to 3olpi, in return "or a personal loan) 2hen Ni!holas pro!lai#ed hi#sel" +ing, in 191;, 3olpi held the !rown)

Princesses Anastasia and +ilitsa of +ontenegro* 0ho 0ere married to omanov grand du"es* introduced asputin to the ussian court#

+ontenegro Not long a"ter the$ set up their *aloni!a !o#pan$, the 3enetian group established a new "ield o" a!ti(it$, whi!h would be !ru!ial to e(ents leading to 2orld 2ar I and be$ond) /In a "ew $ears, "ro# 19;D to 19;9,/ wrote Fabri<io *ara<ani, 3olpi /trans"or#ed ,ontenegro into a real 3enetian !olon$ with all the !hara!teristi!s o" the epo!h in whi!h the pro!urators o" the republi! were re!ruiting !rews "or ships and groups "or the garrisons on the terra "ir#a)/ ,ontenegro had onl$ 2;;,;;; people, no industr$, and no pro"it-#a-ing agri!ulture outside o" the toba!!o industr$, whi!h the 3olpi group =ui!-l$ too- o(er and turned into a state #onopol$ !ontrolled b$ the#) /As "or the Italians,/ obser(ed 2ebster, /their spe!i"i! underta-ings in ,ontenegro !an be a!!ounted "or onl$ as part o" #u!h larger long-range a#bitions) ) ) ) ,ontenegro was the one .al-an bridgehead that Italian enterprise !ould de(elop "reel$)/ The !ountr$ 3olpi was apparentl$ able to turn into a 3enetian !olon$ in onl$ si $ears, had alread$ been a 3enetian !olon$ "or the past H;;R In the late "i"teenth !entur$, the ,ontenegrin +ing, I(an the .la!-, retreated be"ore the ad(an!es o" the 0tto#an Tur-s in the .al-ans, "ro# the low !ountr$ to the #ore ina!!essible #ountain areas in the north) There he established the new !apital 5etinKe, whi!h re#ained ,ontenegro9s !apital until the end o" the !ountr$ during 2orld 2ar I) ,ontenegrin /!ulture/ began when I(an i#ported a printing press and the ne!essar$ te!hni!al help, "ro# 3eni!e, and began to print boo-s, in 5$rilli! letters) I(an also built a #onaster$ at 5etinKe, #a-ing it the seat o" a bishopri!) As the 5rnoKe(i! rulers >I(an9s d$nast$? began to spend #ore and #ore ti#e in 3eni!e, power in!reasingl$ passed into the hands o" the orthodo #onasti! order head=uartered at 5etinKe) 2hen the last 5rnoKe(i! le"t the !ountr$, to retire to 3eni!e, the new ruler was hen!e"orward alwa$s !hosen "ro# the #on-s o" 5etinKe) The #on-s being the real power, the "or#al ruler was a bishop--ing, the ladika. This theo!rati! arrange#ent ruled the !ountr$ until 18E1) In 1696, the NKegusi d$nast$ began, with &anilo I) The 0rthodo bishop, nor#all$ !elibate, was allowed to no#inate his su!!essor "ro# his "a#il$) Be no#inated his nephew, and this pattern !ontinued until 18E1) &anilo I,

o"ten in allian!e with the 3enetians, established ties with the %ussian tsars, beginning a regular !usto# o" (isits b$ ,ontenegrin rulers to the Tsars) 2ith the reign o" &anilo II >18E1-6;?, the se!ular and e!!lesiasti!al power was split into two) The ruler !ould now #arr$, while the !hur!h power passed, in the o""i!e o" the bishop, to a di""erent #e#ber o" the ,ontenegrin aristo!ra!$) The last ruler o" the d$nast$, Ni!holas, ruled "ro# 186;-1918, and through the a#a<ing #arriages o" his eight !hildren, be!a#e -nown as /the "ather-in-law o" 1urope)/ It was Ni!holas9 son, the 5rown Prin!e &anilo, who was to unlo!- the -ingdo# o" ,ontenegro to the 3enetians, in return "or a personal "inan!ial bailout) *hortl$ a"ter the turn o" the !entur$, the pla$bo$ &anilo #ade a trip to Ital$ loo-ing "or a loan o" D;;,;;; lire) The .5I stopped hi# "ro# getting !redit an$where, but &r) ,ilen-o 3esni!, the head o" the *erbian delegation at %o#e and a "riend o" 3olpi, heard o" &anilo9s plight and steered hi# to 3olpi) In return "or 3olpi9s help with the loan, soon blown b$ &anilo on a trip to 1urope, 3olpi and his "riends got the toba!!o #onopol$) $olpi&s Payroll As a spin-o"" o" the toba!!o #onopol$, 3olpi and 5o) set up the Italo,ontenegrin s$ndi!ate in 19;D, to e ploit railroad and port !on!essions in the !ountr$) Not onl$ was &anilo on 3olpi9s pa$roll, but through 3olpi9s e tensi(e s$ste# o" bribes and /loans,/ so were &anilo9s "ather +ing Ni!holas, the ,ontenegrin #inister o" "inan!es, and #an$ ,ontenegrin politi!ians) In "a!t, gi(en how tin$ the ,ontenegrin population was, one wonders what per!entage o" the entire population was on 3olpi9s pa$roll, and what per!ent 3olpi9s bribes "or#ed o" the ,ontenegrin 6NPR To e pand operations, a #ore hea(il$ !apitali<ed !o#pan$ was set up, in a #eeting at the head=uarters o" the .5I) This was the Anti(ari 5o#pan$, whi!h, as 2ebster wrote, /had behind it the .an!a 5o##er!iale and its whole retinue) Its original ba!-ers in!luded not onl$ the stalwarts o" the original 3enetian nu!leus73olpi, Fos!ari, Papadopoli, Paganini, and 5ount A#adeo 5orinaldi o" Padua7but also the shipbuilders 0rlando, 0dero, and PiaggioA %olando-%i!!i o" the steel trustA 1rnesto .reda, the lo!o#oti(e and #a!hine #a-erA and a nu#ber o" other "riends o" the great ban-) The 5o##er!iale in its own na#e subs!ribed one-=uarter o" the original !apital)/

The family tree of +ontenegro&s 52egusi dynasty# Besides Anastasia and +ilitsa in ussia* the children of Prince 5icholas of +ontenegro 6reigned ,78.9,-,7: included the ;ueen of Italy and the ;ueen of Serbia#

The 3olpi group9s power was su!h that, as *ara<ani des!ribes, 3olpi ran the highest state "un!tions in ,ontenegro4 /In 191; Prin!e Ni!holas pro!lai#ed hi#sel" -ing, ta-ing the !rown "ro# the hands o" the pro!urator o" the 3enetian %epubli!, .epi O6iuseppeP 3olpi) Firewor-s in 5ettigneA a great !elebration, re!eptions, %ussian grand du-es, 3ittorio 1##anuel, Ferdinand

o" .ulgaria, Peter o" ,ontenegro, 1lena, ,ilena) .epi does the honors o" the house, in bla!- Ka!-et and striped trousersA s#iling, his bla!- beard, tie with pearl) *o#e dignitaries o" the !ourt, "or the "irst ti#e, "inall$ dress 1uropean st$le) *hips arri(e "ro# Ital$, and warships) The Italian a#bassador tells %o#e that the 3enetian 6iuseppe 3olpi !arried out a wor- o" e =uisite diplo#a!$, as well as a wor- o" business, both in his interests, and in the interests o" Ital$)/ The presen!e o" %ussian grand du-es is not surprising, sin!e the %o#ano( brothers 6rand &u-e P$otr Ni-ola$e(i!h and 6rand &u-e Ni-olai Ni-ola$e(i!h were #arried to &anilo9s sisters, ,ilitsa and Anastasia) No doubt present at the "esti(ities, as well, was the %ussian #ilitar$ atta!hC in ,ontenegro, "uture .olshe(i- agent N) ,) Potapo() It was notorious that, as 2ebster said, /the %ussian e#bass$ and !onsulates in the 0tto#an 1#pire alwa$s #aintained "riendl$ and so#eti#es !on"idential relations with their Italian !olleagues)/ In 19;2, the Italian a#bassador to .elgrade >*erbia? proposed to his %ussian !ounterpart a deal "or %ussoItalian !ooperation against Austria-Bungar$ and 6er#an$) This proposal soon had !on!rete results, in the 19;D !oup d9etat against the pro-Austrian 0breno(i! d$nast$ in *erbia) The Serbian 'oup of ,-./ 2hile engaged in ,ontenegro, 3olpi did not negle!t his *erbian "riends) In 19;D, the *erbian "riends o" 3olpi, in parti!ular, O&r) ,ilen-oP 3esni!, !a#e out o" the shadows and pulled a #ilitar$ !oup) 0n :une 1; in .elgrade, 3olpi got there a "ew da$s earlier, a #ilitar$ plot put an end to the li"e o" Ale ander and &raga) Peter O+arageorge(i!P was brought to power on a wa(e o" Pan-*erbian nationalis# and anti-Austrianis#, senti#ent whi!h opened up a ri!h "ield "or Italian diplo#a!$) The "irst to ta-e ad(antage o" it was 3olpi >wrote *ergio %o#ano?) 3esni! be!a#e *erbian a#bassador to %o#e, and helped appoint 3olpi as (i!e-!onsul "or *erbia in 3eni!e) /In 19;D,/ %o#ano re!ounted, /*erbia and ,ontenegro were the two prin!ipal !ards o" 3olpi, in a ga#e in whi!h he !ould drag along the go(ern#ent o" %o#e)/ ,eanwhile, a!!ording to *ara<ani, /3ienna "ollowed in suspi!ion the a!tions o" the 3enetian)/ Not without reason) Though 3olpi had been !lose to the

0breno(i!s, in parti!ular to Nueen &raga, his "ortunes blosso#ed e(en #ore rapidl$ under the new regi#e) The *erbian !oup o" 19;D was, aside "ro# the 19;8 'oung Tur-s9 !oup in Istanbul, the single #ost i#portant e(ent in the .al-ans be"ore the First 2orld 2ar) The regi!ides were led b$ 5ol) &ragutin &i#itriKe(i!-Apis, who ele(en $ears later would !oordinate the assassination o" the Austrian Ar!hdu-e at *araKe(o) The 19;D !oup had been prepared sin!e 19;1, was !leared during trips o" the regi!ides to #eet with the %ussian a#bassador in 3ienna, 5ount +apnist >o" the an!ient 3enetian 5apnisti "a#il$, long sin!e #o(ed to %ussia?, and was an open se!ret a#ong e(er$one in *erbia7in!luding the (i!ti#s, +ing Ale ander and Nueen &raga) The a!tions o" &i#itriKe(i!-Apis and his asso!iates were onl$ possible be!ause o" the outside "or!es a!ting in *erbia) 2ith the 1878 Treat$ o" .erlin, *erbia had been de!lared independent "ro# the 0tto#an 1#pire) In 1882, it be!a#e a -ingdo# under the 0breno(i! &$nast$) Its "irst ruler was +ing ,ilan, "ollowed b$ his son, +ing Ale ander, the one assassinated in 19;D) There were three #ain "oreign in"luen!es in *erbia, besides the "inan!ial interests o" Parisbas, the ban-4 1? Austria-Bungar$ >and its all$, 6er#an$?, e tre#el$ ner(ous lest the pan*erb a#bitions ra#pant in *erbia !ause unrest and a brea-up o" the *la(i! <ones o" the Austro-Bungarian e#pire, notabl$ southern Bungar$A 2? the Italians, led b$ 3olpi and !o)A and D? the %ussians) The Italian in"luen!e was weight$) Not onl$ had 3olpi been *erbian (i!e!onsul at 3eni!e, than-s to the e""orts o" his "riend and Apis9 asso!iate, 3esni!, but *erbia was a !entral portion o" the ,ontenegro-to-*outh %ussia railwa$ plan, whi!h 3olpi and his "riends were wor-ing "or) The rail line was to pass "ro# the Adriati! *ea, through *erbia and %o#ania, and !o#e out near 0dessa in southern %ussia) This proKe!t ran !ounter to AustroBungarian plans "or a railroad "ro# 3ienna to *aloni!a, a proKe!t whi!h would greatl$ strengthen Austro-Bungarian in"luen!e down the spine o" the .al-ans) The 3enetians set up a !o'itato -talo&Serbo in 3eni!e, sponsored b$ the 5o##er!ial ,useu# o" 3eni!e and its a""iliate, the -stituto italiano (er l%es(ansione co''erciale e coloniale >Italian Institute "or 5o##er!ial and 5olonial 1 pansion?) The Italo-*erb 5o##ittee was the #ain liaison between Italian !ha#bers o" !o##er!e, business "ir#s, and the Italian

diplo#ati! establish#ent, setting up publi! wor-s !ontra!ts, pro(in!ial rail lines, and #ilitar$ orders) 2ebster reports that 3olpi appears to ha(e been the Italian "inan!ier #ost in(ol(ed in this) In the ne t install#ent4 The %ussian In"luen!e in the .al-ans)

.oo-s =uoted in this arti!le4 *ergio %o#ano, Giuse((e Vol(i. -ndustria e finan#a tra Giolitti e Mussolini. Fabri<io *ara<ani, $%/lti'o Doge. Vita di Giuse((e Vol(i di Misurata, 1972) 8udo(i!o Toeplit<, -l 0anchiere, ,ilan, 196D) %i!hard 2ebster, -ndustrial -'(erialis' in -tal,, 1234&1215, .er-ele$, 197E)