A Major Project Report

On
Traffic Light using Microcontroller
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the award of the Diploma
of
Electronics & Communication Engg.








Submitted To: Submitted by:
Ms. Simranjeet Kaur Vinod Kumar (110746185056)
(HOD) ECE Deepak (110746121712)
Gautam Kumar (110746185039)


Department of Electronics & Communication Engg.
Universal Group of Polytechnic Colleges
Lalru Mandi, Dsitt. Mohali (Pb.)



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are highly grateful to Mrs. Simran Kaur (HOD) ECE department, Universal Group of
College, Lalru Mandi (Mohali), for providing this opportunity to carry out to develop this
project at Universal Group of College, Lalru Mandi (Mohali). We would like to expresses my
gratitude to other faculty members of Electronics & Communication Engineering department
of Universal Group of College, for providing academic inputs, guidance & encouragement
throughout the project development period.
The author would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thank Er Mrs. Simran Kaur
(HOD) ECE department without whose permission, wise counsel and able guidance, it would
have not been possible to pursue my project in this manner.
Finally, We express my indebtedness to all who have directly or indirectly contributed to the
successful completion of my major project report.


Vinod Kumar Roll No. 110746185056
Deepak Roll No. 110746121712
Gautam Kumar Roll No. 110746185039










COMPONENTS REQUIRED
1. PIC 16F72 MICROCONTROLLER
2. MICROSWITCHES 1
3. IN 4007 DIODES 4
4. 1000 UF ELECTROLYRIC CAP 1
5. 28 PIN BASE 1
6. LA 7805 REGULATOR IC 1
7. RESISTOR 10 K OHM 2
8. RESISTOR 330 OHM 1
9. TRANSFORMER 9-0-9 1
10. CRYSTAL 4 MHZ 1
11. 33 PF CAP 2
12. GENERAL PURPOSE PCBS
13. MAIN LEAD
14. CONNECTING WIRES
15. TWO PIN CONNECTOR
16. BURG STRIPS
17. 10K POTENTIOMETERS 2
18. NUT BOLTS(1/8,1 )















Block Diagram


























Microcontroller
Power Supply
5 volts
7-SEGMENTS

TEMP
SENSOR
LM35
Temp
sensor
LM 35




POWER SUPPLY
The detailed working of bridge wave rectifier
The full wave bridge rectifier is designed to convert an ac sine-wave to a full-wave pulsating
DC signal.
The bridge is normally connected to the secondary of a transformer. Here circuit will be
performed using conventional current flow.
Current will flow from higher potential to lower potential































MICROCONTROLLERS
A microcontroller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor
core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of
NOR flashor OTP ROM is alsooften included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of
RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the
microprocessors used in personal computersor other general purpose applications.
USES OF MICROCONTROLLERS
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as
automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office
machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size and cost compared to a
design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,
microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes.
Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control
non-digital electronic systems.
WORKING AT LOW POWERS
Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as
4 kHz, for low power consumption (milliwattsor microwatts). They will generally have the
ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other
interrupt; power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be
just nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. other
microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like
a digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.







Embedded design
A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and
peripherals and can be used as an embedded system.
[1]
The majority of microcontrollers in
use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and
peripherals for computer systems. These are called embedded systems. While some
embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and
program length, with nooperating system, and low software complexity.
INTERFACING
Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LEDs, LCD ,
GRAPHIC LCD displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature,
humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks,
printers, or other recognizable I/o devices of a personal computer, and may lack human
interaction devices of any kind.
INTERRUPTS
Microcontrollers must provide real time (predictable, though not necessarily fast) response to
events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt
system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to
begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt handler"). The ISR will perform any
processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original
instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include
events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic
level change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a
communication link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices,
interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor
is halted until required to do something by a peripheral event.




Programs
Microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it would
be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and assemblers
are used to turn high-level language and assembler language codes into a compact machine
code for storage in the microcontroller's memory. Depending on the device, the program
memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory,
or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory.
Reading sensors
Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the
purpose of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and
process digital data, i.e. 1s and os, they won't be able to doanything with the analog signals
that may be sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the
incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some
microcontrollers is a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor tooutput
analog signals or voltage levels.

TIMERS
In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as
well. oneof the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). A
PIT just counts down from some value to zero. once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to
the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as
thermostats, which periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to turn
the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc.
Time Processing Unit (TPU) is a sophisticated timer. In addition to counting down, the TPU
can detect input events, generate output events, and perform other useful operations.




PWM
A dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control
power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight
timer loops.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive
and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip
hardware alsooften includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital
formats such as I2C and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).
Higher integration
In contrast to general-purpose CPUs, micro-controllers may not implement an external
address or data bus as they integrate RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the
CPU. Using fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.
Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit
increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system
as a whole. Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated peripherals is slightly more than the
cost of a CPU and external peripherals, having fewer chips typically allows a smaller and
cheaper circuit board, and reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit board.
A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features:
central processing unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex
32- or 64-bit processors
discrete input and output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an
individual package pin
serial input/output such as serial ports (UARTs)
other serial communicationsinterfaces like IC, Serial Peripheral Interface and
Controller Area Network for system interconnect
peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM generators, and watchdog
volatile memory (RAM) for data storage


A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose
microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range automobile
has as many as 3oor more microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical device
such as washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.


A PIC 18F872omicrocontroller in an 8o-pin TQFP package.
Manufacturers have often produced special versions of their microcontrollers in order to help
the hardware and software developmentof the target system. originally these included
EPRoM versions that have a "window" on the top of the device through which program
memory can be erased by ultraviolet light, ready for reprogramming after a programming
("burn") and test cycle. Since 1998, EPRoM versions are rare and have been replaced by
EEPRoM and flash, which are easier to use (can be erased electronically) and cheaper to
manufacture.
other versions may be available where the RoM is accessed as an external device rather than
as internal memory, however these are becoming increasingly rare due to the widespread
availability of cheap microcontroller programmers.
The use of field-programmable devices on a microcontroller may allow field update of the
firmwareor permit late factory revisions to products that have been assembled but not yet
shipped. Programmable memory also reduces the lead time required for deployment of a new
product.


Where hundreds of thousands of identical devices are required, using parts programmed at
the time of manufacture can be an economical option. These 'mask programmed' parts have
the program laid down in the same way as the logic of the chip, at the same time.
[.] Programming environments
Microcontrollers were originally programmed only in assembly language, but various high-
level programming languages are now also in common use to target microcontrollers. These
languages are either designed specially for the purpose, or versions of general purpose
languages such as the C programming language. Compilers for general purpose languages
will typically have some restrictions as well as enhancements to better support the unique
characteristics of microcontrollers. Some microcontrollers have environments to aid
developing certain types of applications. Microcontroller vendors often make tools freely
available to make it easier to adopt their hardware.
Many microcontrollers are so quirky that they effectively require their own non-standard
dialects of C, such as SDCC for the 8o51, which prevent using standard tools (such as code
libraries or static analysis tools) even for code unrelated to hardware features. Interpreters are
often used to hide such low level quirks.
Interpreter firmware is also available for some microcontrollers. For example, BASICon the
early microcontrollers Intel8o52
[4]
; BASIC and FoRTHon the Zilog Z8
[5]
as well as some
modern devices. Typically these interpreters support interactive programming.
Simulators are available for some microcontrollers, such as in Microchip's MPLAB
environment. These allow a developer to analyze what the behavior of the microcontroller
and their program should be if they were using the actual part. A simulator will show the
internal processor state and also that of the outputs, as well as allowing input signals to be
generated. While on the one hand most simulators will be limited from being unable to
simulate much other hardware in a system, they can exercise conditions that may otherwise
be hard to reproduce at will in the physical implementation, and can be the quickest way to
debug and analyze problems.
Recent microcontrollers are often integrated with on-chip debug circuitry that when accessed
by an in-circuit emulator via JTAG, allow debugging of the firmware with a debugger


Types of microcontrollers
See also: List of common microcontrollers
As of 2oo8 there are several dozen microcontroller architectures and vendors including:
68HC11
8o51
ARM processors (from many vendors) using ARM7or Cortex-M3 cores are generally
microcontrollers
STMicroelectronicsSTM8S (8-bit), ST1o (16-bit) and STM32 (32-bit)
AtmelAVR (8-bit), AVR32 (32-bit), and AT91SAM
FreescaleColdFire (32-bit) and So8 (8-bit)
Hitachi H8, Hitachi SuperH
Hyperstone E1/E2 (32-bit, First full integration of RISC and DSPon one processor
core [1996] [1])
MIPS (32-bit PIC32)
NEC V85o
PIC (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit dsPIC33 / PIC24)
PowerPC ISE
PSoC (Programmable System-on-Chip)
Rabbit 2ooo
Texas Instruments MicrocontrollersMSP43o (16-bit), C2ooo (32-bit), and Stellaris
(32-bit)
Toshiba TLCS-87o
Zilog eZ8, eZ8o







History
The first single-chip microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4oo4 released in 1971, headed by
Intels lead research scientist Hunter H. Hetfeld. With the Intel 8oo8 and more capable
microprocessors available over the next several years.
These however all required external chip(s) to implement a working system, raising total
system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerise appliances.
The first computer system on a chip optimised for control applications - microcontroller was
the Intel 8o48 released in 1975
[citation needed]
, with both RAM and RoMon the same chip. This
chip would find its way intoover one billion PC keyboards, and other numerous applications.
At this time Intels President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the (Microcontroller) was one of
the most successful in the companies history, and expanded the division's budget over 25%.
Most microcontrollers at this time had two variants. one had an erasable EEPRoM program
memory, which was significantly more expensive than the PRoM variant which was only
programmable once.
In 1993, the introduction of EEPRoM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the
Microchip PIC16x84) to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive package as
required for EPRoM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and In System Programming.
The same year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory.
[6]
.
other companies rapidly followed suit, with both memory types.
Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for
under $o.25 in quantity (thousands) in 2oo9, and some 32-bit microcontrollers around $1 for
similar quantities.
Nowadays microcontrollers are low cost and readily available for hobbyists, with large online
communities around certain processors.
In the future, MRAM could potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite
endurance and its incremental semiconductor wafer process cost is relatively low.


COMPONENTS DETAIL
Capacitor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the electronic component. For the physical phenomenon, see capacitance.
For an overview of various kinds of capacitors, see types of capacitor.
Capacitor

Modern capacitors, by a cm rule
Type Passive
Invented Ewald Georg von Kleist (october 1745)
Electronic symbol



A typical electrolytic capacitor
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by


a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal
foils separated by a layer of insulating film.
A capacitor is a passiveelectronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by
a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one
plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An
ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads.
This is the ratioof the electric chargeon each conductor to the potential difference between
them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in
the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Diode(Rectifier)
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) todirect current (DC),
a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of
power supplies and as detectorsof radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid statediodes,
vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.
A device which performs the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as an
inverter.
When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive portion of the
waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely one of


usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC. Almost
all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently
converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon
semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper(I) oxideor selenium rectifier stacks
were used.
Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a
crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".
Rectification may occasionally serve in roles other than to generate D.C. current per se. For
example, in gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame. Two
metal electrodes in the outer layer of the flame provide a current path, and rectification of an
applied alternating voltage will happen in the plasma, but only while the flame is present to
generate it.
Half-wave rectification
In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while
the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is
very inefficient if used for power transfer. Half-wave rectification can be achieved with a
single diode in a one-phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply.

The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the following two ideal
equations:





Full-wave rectification
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform toone of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-
center tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-wave
rectification. (See semiconductors, diode). Four diodes arranged this way are called a diode
bridgeor bridge rectifier:


Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes.
For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two diodes back-to-back (i.e.
anodes-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode) can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as many
windings are required on the transformer secondary toobtain the same output voltage
compared to the bridge rectifier above.


Full-wave rectifier using a transformer and 2 diodes.




Resistor

A typical axial-lead resistor


Partially exposed Tesla TR-212 1 k carbon film resistor


Axial-lead resistors on tape. The tape is removed during assembly before the leads are
formed and the part is inserted into the board.


Three carbon composition resistors in a 196os valve (vacuum tube) radio
A linear resistor is a two-terminal, linear, passiveelectronic component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current flowing through a resistor is in a direct
proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratioof the voltage applied
across resistor's terminals to the intensity of current flowing through the resistor is called
resistance. This relation is represented with a well-known ohm's law:



Units
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 1o
3
), kilohm (1
k = 1o
3
), and megohm (1 M = 1o
6
) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens (SI
unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S =
1
.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.
[.] Theory of operation
[.] ohm's law
Main article: ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by ohm's law:

ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where
the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely
proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical computations. For
example, if a 3ooohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a
current of 12 / 3oo = o.o4 amperes (or 4omilliamperes) occurs across that resistor.




[.] Series and parallel resistors
Main article: Series and parallel circuits
In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage
across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage)
seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as
the sum of those resistances:


As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance
R, is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference
(voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductancesof the resistors then add
to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (R
eq
) of the
network can be computed:


The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as
in geometry) as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be
calculated using:


TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF)or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called
mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding
and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to
the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (V
s
) is in
proportion to the primary voltage (V
p
), and is given by the ratioof the number of turns in the
secondary (N
s
) to the number of turns in the primary (N
p
) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratioof turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current
(AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making N
s
greater than N
p
, or "stepped down" by making
N
s
less than N
p
.
In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic
core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.
Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage
microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power
grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While
new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits,
transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains")
voltage. Transformers are essential for high-voltage electric power transmission, which
makes long-distance transmission economically practical.




RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits,
repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were
used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor is
called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits
from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by
digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Basic design and operation




Simple electromechanical relay


Small relay as used in electronics
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and
one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to
the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place
by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other
set is open. other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function.
The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures
continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on
the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that attracts
the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was
closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity
is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate
quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current
application it reduces arcing.


When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the
surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper
"shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase
current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
[1]

A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-
emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.
Types
Latching relay


Latching relay with permanent magnet
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is
achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing
coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in
position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example,
the first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil
example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay
off. This type of relay has the advantage that one coil consumes power only for an instant,


while it is being switched, and the relay contacts retain this setting across a power outage. A
remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change
state.
Reed relay
A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts inside
an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the
influence of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than larger
relays, require only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and
voltage ratings. In addition, the reeds can become magnetized over time, which makes them
stick 'on' even when no current is present.


Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay
Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the
mercury reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals
where surface contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications
where the mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive
and must be mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of
liquid mercury, these relays are now rarely used. See also mercury switch.




Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase
sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 2oth Century telephone exchanges to detect
faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician
could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical
current that would operate the relay.
[.] Machine tool relay
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller
(PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
[.] Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads,
although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for common
contactors range from 1o amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are made with
alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize; however,
silver oxide is still a good conductor.
[2]
Such devices are often used for motor starters. A
motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing
devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder
pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in
series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized.
Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a
chief concern.




[.] Solid-state relay


Solid state relay, which has no moving parts


25 A or 4o A solid state contactors
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar
function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing
long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor
has a small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given
SSR could handle. The minimum voltage drop for such a relay is equal to the voltage drop
across one transistor (~o.6-2.o volts), and is a function of the material used to make the
transistor (typically silicon). As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle
1oo to 1,2oo Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic
relays, they may be falsely triggered by transients.




Solid state contactor relay
A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink,
used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent
on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact
bounce due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from
Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or
other microprocessor and microcontroller controls.
Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if
gas is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.
Forced-guided contacts relay
A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so
that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together.
If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay
will be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to
check the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided
contacts", "captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".
overload protection relay
Electric motors need overcurrent protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor,
or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor
windings.
[3]
one type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating
element in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a
bimetallic strip or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload
relay is exposed to the same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation
for motor ambient temperature is provided.



[.] Pole and throw


Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.)
Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A
relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the
coil in one of three ways:
Normally-open (No) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or
"make" contact. No contacts can also be distinguished as "early-make" or NoEM,
which means that the contacts will close before the button or switch is fully engaged.
Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or
"break" contact. NC contacts can also be distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB,
which means that the contacts will stay closed until the button or switch is fully
disengaged.
Change-over (Co), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-
open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also
called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of
contact utilizes a "make before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D
contact.



The following designations are commonly encountered:
SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected
or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It
is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology
"SPNo" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two
others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.
DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to
two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such
a relay has six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of
each).
DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals.
Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has
eight terminals, including the coil.
The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a
single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14
terminals).
EN 5ooo5 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a typical EN 5ooo5-
compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC,
No, and coil connections, respectively.
Applications
Relays are used to and for:
Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems
or audio amplifiers,
Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the startersolenoid of an
automobile,
Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers (protection relays),




A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging
Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires
are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They
may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting
normally open relay contacts in series, the oR function by connecting normally open
contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XoR (exclusive
or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NoR are accomplished using normally
closed contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay
logic networks.
o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as
logical elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark
II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than
semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical
logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.
Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set
of contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk
between the armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk
maintains magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly
longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid
that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is
installed.



Light-emitting diode

Red, green and blue LEDs of the 5mm type
Type Passive, optoelectronic
Working principle Electroluminescence
Invented Nick Holonyak Jr. (1962)
Electronic symbol

Pin configuration Anode and Cathode
A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced /l idi/
[1]
) is a semiconductor light source.
LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting.
Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,
[2]
early LEDs emitted low-intensity
red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared
wavelengths, with very high brightness.
The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched
on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm
2
), and integrated optical
components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.
[3]
LEDs present
many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability


and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require
more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.
They are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting, automotive
lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LEDs has allowed
new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are
useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote
control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other
domestic appliances.
Discoveries and early devices


Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of SiC recreates H. J. Round's
original experiment from 19o7.
Electroluminescence was discovered in 19o7 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of
Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector.
[4][5]
Russian
olegVladimirovichLosev independently reported on the creation of an LED in 1927.
[6][7]
His
research was distributed in Russian, German and British scientific journals, but no practical
use was made of the discovery for several decades. Rubin Braunstein of the Radio
Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide (GaAs) and
other semiconductor alloys in 1955.
[1o]
Braunstein observed infrared emission generated by
simple diode structures using gallium antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium phosphide (InP), and
silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvin.


In 1961, American experimenters Robert Biard and Gary Pittman working at Texas
Instruments,
[11]
found that GaAs emitted infrared radiation when electric current was applied
and received the patent for the infrared LED.
The first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak Jr.,
while working at General Electric Company.
[2]
Holonyak is seen as the "father of the light-
emitting diode".
[12]
M. George Craford, a former graduate student of Holonyak, invented the
first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by a factor of ten
in 1972.
[14]
In 1976, T.P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high efficiency LEDs for
optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically
adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.
[15]

Up to 1968 visible and infrared LEDs were extremely costly, on the order of US $2oo per
unit, and so had little practical application.
[16]
The Monsanto Company was the first
organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using gallium arsenide phosphide in 1968 to
produce red LEDs suitable for indicators.
[16]
Hewlett Packard (HP) introduced LEDs in 1968,
initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. The technology proved to have major
applications for alphanumeric displays and was integrated into HP's early handheld
calculators. In the 197os commercially successful LED devices at under five cents each were
produced by Fairchild optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor
chips fabricated with the planar process invented by Dr. Jean Hoerni at Fairchild
Semiconductor.
[17]
The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative
packaging techniques enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas
Brandt to achieve the necessary cost reductions. These techniques continue to be used by
LED producers.
[18]

[]Practical use




Red, yellow and green (unlit) LEDs used in a traffic signal in Sweden.
The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements for incandescent and neon
indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays,
[19]
first in expensive equipment such as
laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs, radios,
telephones, calculators, and even watches (see list of signal applications). These red LEDs
were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to
illuminate an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over
each digit to make them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and also
appeared in appliances and equipment. As the LED materials technology became more
advanced, the light output was increased, while maintaining the efficiency and the reliability
to an acceptable level. The invention and development of the high power white light LED led
to use for illumination
[2o][21]
(see list of illumination applications). Most LEDs were made in
the very common 5 mm T1 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with increasing power output, it has
become increasingly necessary to shed excess heat in order to maintain reliability,
[22]
so more
complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-the-
art high power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.


Illustration of Haitz's Law. Light output per LED as a function of production year, note the
logarithmic scale on the vertical axis.



Continuing development
The first high-brightness blue LED was demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia
Corporation and was based on InGaN borrowing on critical developments in GaN nucleation
on sapphire substrates and the demonstration of p-type doping of GaN which were developed
by Isamu Akasaki and H. Amano in Nagoya. In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff
University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness
LEDs and demonstrated a very impressive result by using a transparent contact made of
indium tin oxide (ITo) on (AlGaInP/GaAs) LED. The existence of blue LEDs and high
efficiency LEDs quickly led to the development of the first white LED, which employed a
Y
3
Al
5
o
12
:Ce, or "YAG", phosphor coating to mix yellow (down-converted) light with blue to
produce light that appears white. Nakamura was awarded the 2oo6 Millennium Technology
Prize for his invention.
[23]

The development of LED technology has caused their efficiency and light output to increase
exponentially, with a doubling occurring about every 36 months since the 196os, in a way
similar to Moore's law. The advances are generally attributed to the parallel development of
other semiconductor technologies and advances in optics and material science. This trend is
normally called Haitz's Law after Dr. Roland Haitz.
[24]

In February 2oo8, Bilkent university in Turkey reported 3oo lumens of visible light per watt
luminous efficacy (not per electrical watt) and warm light by using nanocrystals.
[25]

In January 2oo9, researchers from Cambridge University reported a process for growing
gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon. Production costs could be reduced by 9o% using six-
inch silicon wafers instead of two-inch sapphire wafers. The team was led by Colin
Humphreys.






Technology


Parts of an LED


The inner workings of an LED




I-V diagram for a diode an LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is exceeded.
Typical on voltages are 2-3 Volt
Physics
Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with
impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or
anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons
and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron
meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy
of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and
holes recombine by a non-radiative transition which produces no optical emission, because
these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap
with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide.
Advances in materials science have made possible the production of devices with ever-
shorter wavelengths, producing light in a variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer
deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many
commercial LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that
much light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface.


Therefore Light extraction in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to
much research and development.
Efficiency and operational parameters
Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 3o6o milliwatts [mW] of
electrical power. Around 1999, Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of
continuous use at one watt [W]. These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to
handle the large power inputs. Also, the semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs
to allow for heat removal from the LED die.
one of the key advantages of LED-based lighting is its high efficiency, as measured by its
light output per unit power input. White LEDs quickly matched and overtook the efficiency
of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2oo2, Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available
with a luminous efficacy of 1822 lumens per watt [lm/W]. For comparison, a conventional
6o1oo W incandescent lightbulb produces around 15 lm/W, and standard fluorescent lights
produce up to 1oo lm/W. A recurring problem is that efficiency will fall dramatically for
increased current. This effect is known as droop and effectively limits the light output of a
given LED, increasing heating more than light output for increased current.
[27][28][29]

In September 2oo3, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the company Cree, Inc. to
provide 24 mW at 2o milliamperes [mA]. This produced a commercially packaged white
light giving 65 lm/W at 2o mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at
the time, and more than four times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2oo6 they
demonstrated a prototype with a record white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 2o mA.
Also, Seoul Semiconductor has plans for 135 lm/W by 2oo7 and 145 lm/W by 2oo8, which
would be approaching an order of magnitude improvement over standard incandescents and
better even than standard fluorescents.
[3o]
Nichia Corporation has developed a white LED with
luminous efficacy of 15o lm/W at a forward current of 2o mA.
[31]

High-power ( 1 W) LEDs are necessary for practical general lighting applications. Typical
operating currents for these devices begin at 35o mA.
Note that these efficiencies are for the LED chip only, held at low temperature in a lab. In a
lighting application, operating at higher temperature and with drive circuit losses, efficiencies


are much lower. United States Department of Energy (DoE) testing of commercial LED
lamps designed to replace incandescent lamps or CFLs showed that average efficacy was still
about 46 lm/W in 2oo9 (tested performance ranged from 17 lm/W to 79 lm/W).
[32]

Cree issued a press release on February 3, 2o1o about a laboratory prototype LED achieving
2o8 lumens per watt at room temperature. The correlated color temperature was reported to
be 4579 K.
[33]

Lifetime and failure
Main article: List of LED failure modes
Solid state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low
currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs produced in the 197os and 198os are
still in service today. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,ooo to 1oo,ooo hours but heat and
current settings can extend or shorten this time significantly.
[34]

The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light
output and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. Early red
LEDs were notable for their short lifetime. With the development of high-power LEDs the
devices are subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than
traditional devices. This causes stress on the material and may cause early light output
degradation. To quantitatively classify lifetime in a standardized manner it has been
suggested to use the terms L75 and L5o which is the time it will take a given LED to reach
75% and 5o% light output respectively.
[35]

Like other lighting devices, LED performance is temperature dependent. Most
manufacturers published ratings of LEDs are for an operating temperature of 25C. LEDs
used outdoors, such as traffic signals or in-pavement signal lights, and that are utilized in
climates where the temperature within the luminaire gets very hot, could result in low signal
intensities or even failure.
[36]

LEDs maintain consistent light output even in cold temperatures, unlike traditional lighting
methods. Consequently, LED technology may be a good replacement in areas such as
supermarket freezer lighting
[37][38][39]
and will last longer than other technologies. Because
LEDs do not generate as much heat as incandescent bulbs, they are an energy-efficient


technology to use in such applications such as freezers. on the other hand, because they do
not generate much heat, ice and snow may build up on the LED luminaire in colder
climates.
[4o]
This has been a problem plaguing airport runway lighting, although some
research has been done to try to develop heat sink technologies in order to transfer heat to
alternative areas of the luminaire.
[41]

Colors and materials
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the
following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:

Color
Wavelength
(nm)
Voltage (V) Semiconductor Material

Infrared > 76o V< 1.9
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Red 61o << 76o
1.63 < V<
2.o3
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

orange 59o << 61o
2.o3 < V<
2.1o
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Yellow 57o << 59o
2.1o < V<
2.18
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Green 5oo << 57o
1.9
[42]
< V<
4.o
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)



Blue 45o << 5oo
2.48 < V<
3.7
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate (under development)

Violet 4oo << 45o
2.76 < V<
4.o
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Purple multiple types
2.48 < V<
3.7
Dual blue/red LEDs,
blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic

Ultraviolet < 4oo
3.1 < V<
4.4
Diamond (235 nm)
[43]

Boron nitride (215 nm)
[44][45]

Aluminium nitride (AlN) (21o nm)
[46]

Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
(down to 21o nm)
[47]


White Broad spectrum V = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
Ultraviolet and blue LEDs






Blue LEDs.
Blue LEDs are based on the wide band gap semiconductors GaN (gallium nitride) and InGaN
(indium gallium nitride). They can be added to existing red and green LEDs to produce the
impression of white light, though white LEDs today rarely use this principle.
The first blue LEDs were made in 1971 by Jacques Pankove (inventor of the gallium nitride
LED) at RCA Laboratories.
[48]
These devices had too little light output to be of much
practical use. However, early blue LEDs found use in some low-light applications, such as
the high-beam indicators for cars.
[49]
In the late 198os, key breakthroughs in GaNepitaxial
growth and p-typedoping
[5o]
ushered in the modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices.
Building upon this foundation, in 1993 high brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated.
[51]

By the late 199os, blue LEDs had become widely available. They have an active region
consisting of one or more InGaNquantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN,
called cladding layers. By varying the relative InN-GaN fraction in the InGaN quantum
wells, the light emission can be varied from violet to amber. AlGaNaluminium gallium
nitride of varying AlN fraction can be used to manufacture the cladding and quantum well
layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have not yet reached the level of efficiency and
technological maturity of the InGaN-GaN blue/green devices. If the active quantum well
layers are GaN, as opposed to alloyed InGaN or AlGaN, the device will emit near-ultraviolet
light with wavelengths around 35o37o nm. Green LEDs manufactured from the InGaN-GaN
system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with non-nitride
material systems.
With nitrides containing aluminium, most often AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter
wavelengths are achievable. Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are becoming
available on the market. Near-UV emitters at wavelengths around 375395 nm are already
cheap and often encountered, for example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of
anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in some documents and paper currencies. Shorter
wavelength diodes, while substantially more expensive, are commercially available for
wavelengths down to 247 nm.
[52]
As the photosensitivity of microorganisms approximately
matches the absorption spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about 26o nm, UV LED emitting at
25o27o nm are to be expected in prospective disinfection and sterilization devices. Recent


research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm) are already effective
disinfection and sterilization devices.
[53]

Deep-UV wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride
(21o nm),
[46]
boron nitride (215 nm)
[44][45]
and diamond (235 nm).
[43]

White light
There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LEDs. one is to use
individual LEDs that emit three primary colors
[54]
red, green, and blueand then mix all
the colors to produce white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the
same way a fluorescent light bulb works.
Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white.
RGB systems


Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high brightness red solid-state
semiconductor LEDs.FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 2427 nm for all three
colors.




[]Phosphor-based LEDs


Spectrum of a white LED clearly showing blue light which is directly emitted by the GaN-
based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the more broadband Stokes-shifted light emitted by
the Ce
3+
:YAG phosphor which emits at roughly 5oo7oo nm.
This method involves coating an LED of one color (mostly blue LED made of InGaN) with
phosphor of different colors to produce white light, the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-
based white LEDs.
[57]
A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes shift being
transformed from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the color of the original LED,
phosphors of different colors can be employed. If several phosphor layers of distinct colors
are applied, the emitted spectrum is broadened, effectively increasing the color rendering
index (CRI) value of a given LED.
[58]

Phosphor based LEDs have a lower efficiency than normal LEDs due to the heat loss from
the Stokes shift and also other phosphor-related degradation issues. However, the phosphor
method is still the most popular technique for manufacturing high intensity white LEDs. The
design and production of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with
phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system, and the majority of
high intensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light
conversion.


The greatest barrier to high efficiency is the seemingly unavoidable Stokes energy loss.
However, much effort is being spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and
higher operation temperatures. For instance, the efficiency can be increased by adapting
better package design or by using a more suitable type of phosphor. Philips Lumileds'
patented conformal coating process addresses the issue of varying phosphor thickness, giving
the white LEDs a more homogeneous white light.
[59]
With development ongoing, the
efficiency of phosphor based LEDs is generally increased with every new product
announcement.
Technically the phosphor based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside of a
phosphor coated epoxy. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-dopedyttrium
aluminium garnet (Ce
3+
:YAG).
White LEDs can also be made by coating near ultraviolet (NUV) emitting LEDs with a
mixture of high efficiency europium-based red and blue emitting phosphors plus green
emitting copper and aluminium doped zinc sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al). This is a method analogous
to the way fluorescent lamps work. This method is less efficient than the blue LED with
YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger and more energy is therefore converted to
heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which render color better. Due to the
higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both approaches offer
comparable brightness. Another concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning
light source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.
other white LEDs
Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and
was based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate which
simultaneously emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate.






Organic light-emitting diodes (oLEDs)
Main article: organic light-emitting diode
If the emitting layer material of the LED is an organic compound, it is known as an organic
light emitting diode (oLED). To function as a semiconductor, the organic emitting material
must have conjugated pi bonds.
[61]
The emitting material can be a small organic molecule in
a crystallinephase, or a polymer. Polymer materials can be flexible; such LEDs are known as
PLEDs or FLEDs.
Compared with regular LEDs, oLEDs are lighter, and polymer LEDs can have the added
benefit of being flexible. Some possible future applications of oLEDs could be:
Inexpensive, flexible displays
Light sources
Wall decorations
Luminous cloth
oLEDs have been used to produce visual displays for portable electronic devices such as
cellphones, digital cameras, and MP3 players. Larger displays have been demonstrated,
[62]

but their life expectancy is still far too short (<1,ooo hours) to be practical
[citation needed]
.
Today, oLEDs operate at substantially lower efficiency than inorganic (crystalline) LEDs.
[63]

Types




LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package (red, fifth
from the left) is the most common, estimated at 8o% of world production.
[citation needed]
The
color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted, but not always.
For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices have clear
housings. There are also LEDs in SMT packages, such as those found on blinkies and on cell
phone keypads (not shown).
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.
Miniature LEDs


Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm, with a wooden match-stick for scale.
Main article: Miniature light-emitting diode
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-sizes from
2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They are usually simple in design,
not requiring any separate cooling body.
[67]
Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA
to above 2o mA. The small scale sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to
heat caused by the high current density and need for heat sinking.





High power LEDs
See also: Solid-state lighting and LED lamp


High-power light emiting diodes (Luxeon, Lumileds)
High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an
ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can produce over a thousand
[68][69]
lumens. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink
to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will burn
out in seconds. A single HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a torch, or be set
in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.
Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Lumileds Rebel Led, osramopto
Semiconductors Golden Dragon and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2oo9 some HPLEDs
manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 1o5 lm/W
[7o]
(e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip
emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent,
halogen, and even fluorescent style lights as LEDs become more cost competitive.
LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power without
the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle part of the LED emits light and part is dark,
and this is reversed during the next half cycle. The efficacy of this type of HPLED is
typically 4o lm/W.
[71]
A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate
directly from line voltage. In 2oo9 Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage capable
of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low power dissipation
of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC LED design.




Mid-range LEDs
Medium power LEDs are often through-hole mounted and used when a output of a few
lumen is needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode leads,
two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An example of this
is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds. These LEDs are most commonly used in
light panels, emergency lighting and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger amount of metal
in the LED, they are able to handle higher currents (around 1oo mA). The higher current
allows for the higher light output required for tail-lights and emergency lighting.
Application-specific variations
Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external
electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated
multivibrator circuit which causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one
second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs
emit light of a single color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple
colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.


Calculator LED display, 197os.