UNIT II

UNIT II
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Fourier Transform
Fourier Transform
Viewed periodic functions in terms of frequency components (Four Viewed periodic functions in terms of frequency components (Fourier ier
series) as well as ordinary functions of time series) as well as ordinary functions of time
Viewed LTI systems in terms of what they do to frequency Viewed LTI systems in terms of what they do to frequency
components (frequency response) components (frequency response)
Viewed LTI systems in terms of what they do to time Viewed LTI systems in terms of what they do to time- -domain signals domain signals
(convolution with impulse response) (convolution with impulse response)
View View aperiodic aperiodic functions in terms of frequency components via functions in terms of frequency components via
Fourier transform Fourier transform
Define (continuous Define (continuous- -time) Fourier transform and DTFT time) Fourier transform and DTFT
Gain insight into the meaning of Fourier transform through Gain insight into the meaning of Fourier transform through
comparison with Fourier series comparison with Fourier series
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The Fourier Transform
The Fourier Transform

A transform takes one function (or signal)

A transform takes one function (or signal)
and turns it into another function (or signal)
and turns it into another function (or signal)

Continuous Fourier Transform:

Continuous Fourier Transform:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

=
=
df e f H t h
dt e t h f H
ift
ift

2
2
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Continuous Time Fourier Transform
Continuous Time Fourier Transform
We can extend the formula for continuous We can extend the formula for continuous- -time Fourier series time Fourier series
coefficients for a periodic signal coefficients for a periodic signal
to to aperiodic aperiodic signals as well. The continuous signals as well. The continuous- -time Fourier time Fourier
series is not defined for series is not defined for aperiodic aperiodic signals, but we call the signals, but we call the
formula formula
the (continuous time) the (continuous time)
Fourier transform Fourier transform. .

= =
2 / p
2 / p
t ik
p
0
t ik
k
dt e ) t ( x
p
1
dt e ) t ( x
p
1
X
0 0

= dt e ) t ( x ) ( X
t i
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Inverse Transforms
Inverse Transforms
If we have the full sequence of Fourier coefficients for a perio If we have the full sequence of Fourier coefficients for a periodic dic
signal, we can reconstruct it by multiplying the complex signal, we can reconstruct it by multiplying the complex
sinusoids of frequency sinusoids of frequency
0 0
k by the weights k by the weights X X
k k
and summing: and summing:
We can perform a similar reconstruction for We can perform a similar reconstruction for aperiodic aperiodic signals signals
These are called the These are called the inverse transforms inverse transforms. .

=
1 p
0 k
n ik
k
0
e X ) n ( x

=
k
t ik
k
0
e X ) t ( x

= d e ) ( X
2
1
) t ( x
t i

= d e ) ( X
2
1
) n ( x
n i
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Fourier Transform of Impulse Functions
Fourier Transform of Impulse Functions
Find the Fourier transform of the Find the Fourier transform of the Dirac Dirac delta function: delta function:
Find the DTFT of the Find the DTFT of the Kronecker Kronecker delta function: delta function:
The delta functions contain all frequencies at equal amplitudes. The delta functions contain all frequencies at equal amplitudes.
Roughly speaking, that Roughly speaking, that s why the system response to an impulse s why the system response to an impulse
input is important: it tests the system at all frequencies. input is important: it tests the system at all frequencies.
1 e dt e ) t ( dt e ) t ( x ) ( X
0 i t i t i
= = = =

1 e e ) n ( e ) n ( x ) ( X
0 i
n
n i
n
n i
= = = =

=


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Laplace
Laplace
Transform
Transform
Lapalce Lapalce transform is a generalization of the Fourier transform in the s transform is a generalization of the Fourier transform in the sense ense
that it allows that it allows complex frequency complex frequency whereas Fourier analysis can only whereas Fourier analysis can only
handle handle real frequency real frequency . Like Fourier transform, . Like Fourier transform, Lapalce Lapalce transform allows transform allows
us to analyze a us to analyze a linear circuit linear circuit problem, no matter how complicated the problem, no matter how complicated the
circuit is, in the frequency domain in stead of in he time domai circuit is, in the frequency domain in stead of in he time domain. n.
Mathematically, it produces the benefit of converting a set of d Mathematically, it produces the benefit of converting a set of differential ifferential
equations into a corresponding set of algebraic equations, which equations into a corresponding set of algebraic equations, which are much are much
easier to solve. Physically, it produces more insight of the cir easier to solve. Physically, it produces more insight of the circuit and cuit and
allows us to know the bandwidth, phase, and transfer characteris allows us to know the bandwidth, phase, and transfer characteristics tics
important for circuit analysis and design. important for circuit analysis and design.
Most importantly, Most importantly, Laplace Laplace transform lifts the limit of Fourier analysis to transform lifts the limit of Fourier analysis to
allow us to find both the steady allow us to find both the steady- -state and state and transient transient responses of a linear responses of a linear
circuit. Using Fourier transform, one can only deal with he stea circuit. Using Fourier transform, one can only deal with he steady state dy state
behavior (i.e. circuit response under indefinite sinusoidal exci behavior (i.e. circuit response under indefinite sinusoidal excitation). tation).
Using Using Laplace Laplace transform, one can find the response under any types of transform, one can find the response under any types of
excitation (e.g. switching on and off at any given excitation (e.g. switching on and off at any given time(s time(s), sinusoidal, ), sinusoidal,
impulse, square wave excitations, etc impulse, square wave excitations, etc. .
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Laplace
Laplace
Transform
Transform
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Application of
Application of
Laplace
Laplace
Transform to
Transform to
Circuit Analysis
Circuit Analysis
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system
A system is an operation that transforms
input signal x into output signal y.
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LTI Digital Systems
Linear Time Invariant
Linearity/Superposition:
If a system has an input that can be
expressed as a sum of signals, then the
response of the system can be expressed as
a sum of the individual responses to the
respective systems.
LTI
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Time-Invariance &Causality
If you delay the input, response is just a delayed
version of original response.
X(n-k) y(n-k)
Causality could also be loosely defined by there is
no output signal as long as there is no input
signal or output at current time does not depend
on future values of the input.
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Convolution
The input and output signals for LTI
systems have special relationship in terms
of convolution sum and integrals.
Y(t)=x(t)*h(t) Y[n]=x[n]*h[n]
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