Calculus Made Ridiculusly Easy

VCE
coverage
Area of study
Units 3 & 4 Calculus
5
In this
chapter
5A The derivative of tan kx
5B Second derivatives
5C Analysing the behaviour
of functions using the
second derivative
5D Derivatives of inverse
circular functions
5E Antidifferentiation
involving inverse circular
functions
Differential
calculus
Chap 05 SM Page 171 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:22 AM
172 S p e c i a l i s t M a t h e m a t i c s
Introduction
In this chapter we extend the functions which can be differentiated to include
f(x) = tan kx and the inverse circular functions Sin
1
x, Cos
1
x and Tan
1
x. It is assumed
that the standard results for the differential calculus are familiar to the student as are the
product rule, quotient rule and chain rule. These results are listed in the table below.
The derivative of tan kx
Since tan , its derivative can be found using the quotient rule:
If f(x) = tan kx,
=
where k is a constant, then using the quotient rule with u = sin kx and v = cos kx:
f (x) =
=
= (by factorising the numerator)
= (since cos
2
kx + sin
2
kx = 1)
= k sec
2
kx
If f(x) = tan kx,
then f (x) = k sec
2
kx.
f(x) f(x)
ax
n
anx
n 1
log
e
kx
e
kx
ke
kx
sin kx k cos kx
cos kx k sin kx
u(x) v(x) u(x) v(x) + u(x) v(x) (product rule)
u(x) v(x) - u(x) (quotient rule)
g[h(x)] h(x) g[h(x)] (chain rule)
1
x
---
u x ( )
v x ( )
-----------
v x ( )
v
2
------------
kx
sin kx
cos kx
--------------- =
d
dx
------
u
v
---

v
du
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------
v
2
------------------------- =
sin kx
cos kx
---------------
k cos kx cos kx ( ) sin kx k sin kx ( )
cos
2
kx
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
k cos
2
kx k sin
2
kx +
cos
2
kx
------------------------------------------------
k cos
2
kx sin
2
kx + ( )
cos
2
kx
----------------------------------------------
k 1 ( )
cos
2
kx
----------------
C h a p t e r 5 D i f f e r e n t i a l c a l c u l u s 173
If y = tan [f(x)]
then = f (x) sec
2
[f(x)].
Differentiate the following expressions with respect to x.
a y = tan 6x b y = 2 tan
THINK WRITE
a Differentiate by rule: y = tan kx,
then = ksec
2
kx where k = 6.
a y = tan 6x
= 6 sec
2
6x
b Differentiate tan by rule where
k = .
b y = 2 tan
=
Multiply the derivative by 2.
=
4x
3
------
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
1
4x
3
------
4
3
---
4x
3
------
dy
dx
------ 2
4
3
--- sec
2
4x
3
------

2
dy
dx
------
8
3
--- sec
2
4x
3
------
1
WORKEDExample
If f(x) = tan (x
2
+ 5x), nd f (x).
THINK WRITE
Let u = x
2
+ 5x to apply the chain rule. f(x) = tan(x
2
+ 5x)
Let u = x
2
+ 5x.
Find . = 2x + 5
Express f(x) in terms of u. So f(x) = y = tan u.
Find . = sec
2
u
Find using the chain rule. =
= (2x + 5) sec
2
u
Replace u with the expression x
2
+ 5x. f (x) = (2x + 5) sec
2
(x
2
+ 5x)
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
3
4
dy
du
------
dy
du
------
5
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
6
2
WORKEDExample
dy
dx
------
Find if y = log
e
[tan (3x)].
THINK WRITE
Let u = tan (3x) and consequently
apply the chain rule.
y = log
e
[tan(3x)]
Let u = tan(3x).
Find . = 3 sec
2
(3x)
dy
dx
------
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
3
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Express y in terms of u.
y = log
e
u
Find . =
Find using the chain rule. So =
= 3 sec
2
(3x)
Replace u with the expression tan (3x).
=
Express in terms of sin (3x) and
cos (3x) only in order to simplify the
rational expression.
=
Express the division of rational
expressions as a multiplication.
=
Cancel out the factor of cos (3x).
=
Use the double angle formula to
simplify sin (3x) cos (3x).
=
State the answer in simplest form. and hence = or 6 cosec(6x).
3
4
dy
du
------
dy
du
------
1
u
---
5
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
1
u
---
6
3sec
2
3x ( )
3x ( ) tan
-------------------------------
7
dy
dx
------
3
cos
2
3x ( )
-------------------------
3x ( ) sin
3x ( ) cos
-----------------------
8
3
cos
2
3x ( )
-------------------------
3x ( ) cos
3x ( ) sin
-----------------------
9
3
3x ( ) sin 3x ( ) cos
---------------------------------------------
10
3
1
2
--- sin 6x ( )
------------------------
11
dy
dx
------
6
6x ( ) sin
----------------------
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 3x + cos 2x + tan x where x = .
THINK WRITE
To nd the equation of a tangent line to
a curve at a point, the coordinate of the
point is needed as is the gradient of the
curve at that point. Find y when x =
to establish the coordinate.
y = 3x + cos 2x + tan x
If x = , y = + cos + tan
= + 0 + 1
= 1 +
The coordinate is
(
, 1 +
)
Find to establish the gradient
function.
= 3 2 sin 2x + sec
2
x
4
---
1
4
---
4
---
3
4
------

2
---

4
---
3
4
------
3
4
------
4
---
3
4
------
2
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
4
WORKEDExample
The derivative of tan kx
1 Differentiate each of the following with respect to x.
a y = tan 4x b y = tan 5x c y = 3 tan 7x
d y = 4 tan 2x e y = tan(3x) f y = tan(12x)
g y = 3 tan(4x) h y = 2 tan 3x i y = 5 tan(2x)
j y = tan k y = tan l y = tan
m y = tan n y = 8 tan o y = 6 tan
p y = 3 tan q y = 5 tan r y = 4 tan
THINK WRITE
Evaluate when x = to nd the
gradient of the tangent at x = .
If x = , = 3 2 sin + sec
2
= 3 2 +
= 1 +
= 3
so the equation of the tangent is:
Substitute y
1
= , x
1
= and
m = 3 into the equation for a straight line:
y y
1
= m(x x
1
) where m is the gradient
and (x
1
, y
1
) is a point on the line.
y
(
1 +
)
= 3
(
x
)
Simplify the equation and make y the
subject.
y = 3x + 1 +
y = 3x + 1
3
dy
dx
------

4
---
4
---
4
---
dy
dx
------

2
---

4
---
1
cos
2

4
---
---------------
1
(
1
2
---
)
---------
4
1
3
4
------ +

4
---
3
4
------

4
---
5
3
4
------
3
4
------
1. If y = tan kx then = k sec
2
kx.
2. If y = tan f(x) then = f (x) sec
2
[f (x)].
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
remember
5A
WORKED
Example
1
M
a
th
c
a
d
Differentiator
x
5
---
x
2
---
3x
5
------
2x
7
------
3x
4
------
4x
9
------
5x
6
------
8x
5
------
7x
2
------
2 For each of the following nd f (x) if f(x) equals:
3
If y = e
tan 2x
, then:
a can be found by using:
b is equal to:
4 For each of the following nd if y equals:
5 For each of the following nd f (x) if f (x) equals
6 If f: [0, ] R, f (x) = tan x, nd the coordinates of the points on the graph where
the gradient is equal to:
7 If f: [ , ] R, f(x) = 4 tan , nd the coordinates of the points on the graph
where the gradient is equal to:
8 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve with equation y = 3 tan 2x at x = .
9 If f(x) = x tan x nd the equation of i the tangent and ii the normal at the point on the
curve where x = .
10 Show that there are no stationary points for the graph of y = tan x for all values of x.
11 Explain why the gradient of tan x is always positive.
12 If f:
[
,
]
R, f (x) = tan x x:
a nd any stationary points and state their nature
b if the domain is changed to R, show that the gradient can never be negative.
a tan(x
2
+ 3x) b tan(x + 2) c tan(5x 4)
d tan(2x
2
3x) e tan(3x + 2) f tan 8x
g tan(7 4x) h tan(1 5x
2
)
A a direct rule B the product rule C the chain rule
D the quotient rule E graphical methods
A 2 sec
2
2xe
tan 2x
B 2 sec2xe
tan 2x
C 4 sec
2
xe
tan 2x
D 2 tan2xe
sec 2x
E e
x
sec
2
2x
a log
e
(tan 6x) b e
tan 3x
c tan(e
3x
) d sin(tan 5x)
e cos(tan 2x) f (tan 5x)
g sin 4x tan 3x h log
e
2x
2
+ 4 tan
i tan
2
x j tan
4
2x
a x
2
tan 3x b cos 2x tan c (5x
3
6x) tan 4x
d e
4x
tan(3x) e e
4x
2
tan 8x f
g h
a 1 b c 4 d 10
a 4 b 2 c 0
WORKED
Example
2
WORKED
Example
2
multiple choice
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
WORKED
Example
3
dy
dx
------
1
2
---
6x
7
------
4x
5
------
tan x
2x
2
-----------
4x
3
tan 2x
--------------
sin 4x
tan 4x
--------------
4
3
---

x
2
---
WORKED
Example
4
6
---
4
---
2
---

2
---
Second derivatives
Suppose that y = f (x).
Then the derivative, also known as the rst derivative, is written as f (x) or .
By differentiating a second time, the second derivative, f (x) or is obtained.
The process of obtaining f (x) or from y = f (x) is also called double differen-
tiation.
The second derivative is commonly called f double dash or d squared y,
dx squared.
dy
dx
------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
Find if y = + 2x
4
x
1
.
THINK WRITE
Express as .
y = + 2x
4
x
1
y = + 2x
4
x
1
Find the rst derivative . = + 8x
3
+ x
2
Differentiate to obtain .
= + 24x
2
2x
3
or + 24x
2

d
2
y
dx
2
--------- x
1
x x
1
2
---
x
x
1
2
---
2
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
1
2
--- x
1
2
---
3
dy
dx
------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
1
4
--- x
3
2
---
1
4x
3
2
---
--------
2
x
3
-----
5
WORKEDExample
Find i f (x) and ii f (x) if f (x) is equal to:
a e
cos 2x
+ log
e
x b .
THINK WRITE
a i Differentiate e
cos 2x
by the chain
rule short cut and log
e
x by rule to
obtain f (x).
a i f(x) = e
cos 2x
+ log
e
x
f (x) = 2 sin 2x e
cos 2x
+
ii Express in index notation
so it can be differentiated.
ii f (x) = 2 sin 2x e
cos 2x
+ x
1
Differentiate f (x) to obtain f (x).
Use the product rule to
differentiate 2 sin 2x e
cos 2x
.
f (x) = 4 cos 2x e
cos 2x
+ 4 sin
2
2x e
cos 2x
x
2
or = 4e
cos 2x
(sin
2
2x cos 2x)
sin x
x
-----------
1
x
---
1
1
x
---
2
1
x
2
-----
6
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
b i Express in index notation. b i f(x) =
f(x) =
Express f(x) as a product. = sin x
Differentiate f(x) using the
product rule to obtain f (x).
f (x) = sin x + cos x
ii Differentiate f (x) using the
product rule to obtain f (x).
ii f (x) = x sin x x cos x
x cos x x sin x
Simplify by collecting like terms. = x sin x x cos x x sin x
Simplify f (x) by taking out
the factor x .
= x (3 sin x 4x cos x 4x
2
sin x)
or
1
x
sin x
x
-----------
sin x
x
1
2
---
-----------
2
x
1
2
---
3
1
2
--- x
3
2
---
x
1
2
---
1
3
4
---
5
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
---
1
2
---
3
2
---
1
2
---
2
3
4
---
5
2
---
3
2
---
1
2
---
3
1
4
---
5
2
---
1
4
---
5
2
---
3 sin x 4x cos x 4x
2
sin x
4x
5
2
---
--------------------------------------------------------------------
If y = and , nd the value of k.
THINK WRITE
Find from y = . y =
=
Find .
=
Substitute and into the equation
3 + 2y = 0.
so
Take out as a factor. (k
2
6k + 8) = 0
Factorise the quadratic function of k.
(Note: cannot equal zero.)
(k 4)(k 2) = 0
State the solutions.
Therefore k = 2 or k = 4.
e
kx
2
------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------- 3
dy
dx
------ 2 y + 0 =
1
dy
dx
------ e
kx
2
-----
e
kx
2
-----
dy
dx
------
ke
kx
2
-----
2
----------
2
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
k
2
e
kx
2
-----
4
------------
3
dy
dx
------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
dy
dx
------
k
2
e
kx
2
-----
4
------------
3ke
kx
2
-----
2
------------- 2e
kx
2
-----
+ 0 =
4
1
4
--- e
kx
2
-----
1
4
--- e
kx
2
-----
5
1
4
--- e
kx
2
-----
1
4
--- e
kx
2
-----
6
7
WORKEDExample
Second derivatives
1 Find if
2
If y = sin , then:
a is equal to:
b is equal to:
3 Find i f (x) and ii f (x) if f(x) is equal to:
a y = 4x
2
+ 7x 3 b y = 5x
3
x
2
+ 3x c y = 6x
d y = x
4
+ 2x
3
3x + 1 e y = x
6
+ 2x
4
3x
f y =
g y = 4x
3
+
h y = + 5
i y = x
2
+ 5x
3
j y =
k y = 2x
2
+ x
1
A cos
B C
D sin E cos
A x cos B C
D sin
E
a log
e
2x
b x
2
log
e
x c sin 2x + 4 cos x
d 2 sin
e 2e
5x
3e
x + 1
f 4e
3x
+ 3x
3
g tan 2x h 3 tan (4x) + 1
i
j
k e
2 sin x
l cos e
5x
m n o log
e
(cos x)
1. is the second derivative of y with respect to x. It is found by differentiating
y twice.
2. If y = f(x) then = f (x).
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
remember
5B
WORKED
Example
5
d
2
y
dx
2
-------- M
a
th
c
a
d
Second
derivatives
x
7
2
---
x
3
2
---
+
2 x 1
2x
9
2
---
6x
5
3
---
2
x
------- 3x
1
+
multiple choice
x
dy
dx
------
x x
cos x
2 x
---------------
cos x
x
------------------
1
2 x
----------
1
2 x
----------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
x
x sin x cos x
x x
-------------------------------------------
x sin x cos x
2x x
-------------------------------------------
1
4x x
-------------

cos x x sin x
4x x
--------------------------------------------------
WORKED
Example
6
x
2
--- x
4
3
---
+
cos 2x
x
---------------
x
5
2
---
sin 2x
--------------
sin 2x cos 4x ( )
5
2
---
4 For each of the following functions f(x), match the graph which could represent f (x).
5 If y = cos x, show that .
6 If y = sin 3x, show that: + 9y = 0.
7 If y = x log
e
x, show that: .
8 If y = xe
x
, show that: .
9 Find the value of k if y = e
kx
and .
10 If y = e
kx
and , nd the value of k.
11 The position of a particle travelling in a straight line is given by the equation:
x(t) = t
3
t
2
t + 7, where x has units in cm and t is in seconds. Find:
a , that is, the velocity at any time t
b , that is, the acceleration at any time t
c when and where the particle momentarily stops; that is, when = 0
d the minimum velocity.
a f (x) = x
3
+ 2x b f (x) = 4x
2
c f (x) = x
4
x
2
d f (x) = sin x e f (x) = log
e
x f f (x) = e
2x
g f (x) =
A B C
D E F
G H I
4 x
x
0
f"(x)
y
x
0
f"(x)
y
x
0
f"(x)
y
x
0
f"(x)
y
x
0
f"(x)
y
x
0
f"(x)
y
x
0
f"(x)
y
x
0
f"(x)
y
x
0
f"(x)
y
d
2
y
dx
2
-------- y =
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
dy
dx
------ x y + ( )
d
2
y
dx
2
-------- =
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
dy
dx
------
y
x
-- + =
WORKED
Example
7
d
2
y
dx
2
-------- 25y =
d
2
y
dx
2
-------- 3
dy
dx
------ 4y 0 =
dx
dt
------
d
2
x
dt
2
--------
dx
dt
------
Analysing the behaviour of functions
using the second derivative
The second derivative of a function can be used for testing the nature of stationary
points, but is not a requirement of this course. It is provided as an alternative, or
extension, to the rst derivative test which is a requirement to Mathematical Methods
Units 3 and 4.
First derivative function
We have seen how the rst derivative of a function, f (x) or , can tell us where a
function has a positive gradient, a negative gradient or a zero gradient (stationary point).
For example, let us look at the functions f(x) = x
2
and f(x) = x
3
.
Function f(x) = x
2
Examine the graph at right. Since f (x) = x
2
,
f (x) = 2x
and f (x) = 0 at x = 0
1. If f (x) = 0
At x = 0, f (x) is a stationary point.
2. If f (x) < 0
This occurs when 2x < 0. So if x < 0, then f (x) is
a decreasing function, one with a negative
gradient for all x < 0.
3. If f (x) > 0
This occurs when 2x > 0. So if x > 0, then f (x) is an increasing function, one with a
positive gradient for all x > 0.
Consequently, at x = 0, a minimum stationary point occurs.
Function f(x) = x
3
Examine the graph at right. Since f (x) = x
3
,
f (x) = 3x
2
and f (x) = 0 at x = 0
1. If f (x) = 0
At x = 0, f (x) is a stationary point.
2. Here, f (x) > 0 for all values of x except zero.
Consequently, at x = 0, a stationary point of inection
occurs.
Second derivative function
Similarly the second derivative
(
f (x) or
)
can tell us where the gradient function
(
f (x) or
)
is increasing or decreasing or neither (that is, changing from increasing
to decreasing or vice-versa). Let us look at the situation when f (x) is greater than, less
than and equal to zero.
dy
dx
------
x
0
x > 0
f (x) is
increasing
x < 0
f (x) is
decreasing
x = 0
f (x) is neither
increasing nor
decreasing
f (x) = x
2 y
x
0
x > 0
f(x) is
increasing
x < 0
f (x) is
increasing
x = 0
f(x) is neither
increasing nor
decreasing
f(x) = x
3 y
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
dy
dx
------
Function f(x) > 0
Examine the graph at right. When f (x) > 0 then the
gradient function f (x) is increasing. That is, as x
increases then f (x) increases.
Again consider: f (x) = x
2
f (x) = 2x
f (x) = 2
Function f(x) < 0
Examine the graph at right. When f (x) < 0, then the
gradient of f(x) is decreasing. That is, as x increases
then f (x) decreases.
For example, if
f(x) = x
2
f (x) = 2x (therefore there is a stationary
point at x = 0)
f (x) = 2
that is, f (x) < 0 for all values of x.
This means that the gradient function f (x) is
always decreasing.
Function f(x) = 0
The gradient of f (x) is changing from increasing to
decreasing or vice-versa (providing the sign of f (x)
changes at the point where f (x) = 0). Again consider:
f(x) = x
3
f (x) = 3x
2
(therefore there is a stationary point
at x = 0)
f (x) = 6x
so f (x) = 0 at x = 0
and f (x) < 0 if x < 0,
f (x) > 0 if x > 0.
Therefore the gradient is decreasing left of x = 0 and increasing right of x = 0.
The point (0, 0) is called a point of inection.
As f (0) = 0, the point (0, 0) is also a stationary point, so it is called a stationary
point of inection.
Points of inection
Points of inection occur when the second derivative changes sign.
A tangent drawn at a point of inection crosses the graph at that point (see gure 1).
Sometimes points of inection are also stationary points (see gure 2).
x
0
f (x) = x
2
f ' (3) = 6 f ' (3) = 6
f ' (2) = 4
f ' (2) = 4
f ' (1) = 2 f ' (1) = 2
y
1 1 2 3 2 3
Gradient is always increasing
from left to right
x
0
f(x) = x
2
f ' (3) = 6
f ' (3) = 6
f ' (2) = 4
f ' (1) = 2
f ' (1) = 2
f ' (2) = 4
f ' (0) = 0
y
1 1 2 3
2 3
Gradient is always decreasing
from left to right
x < 0
f ' (x) is decreasing
x > 0
f ' (x) is increasing
f (x) = x
3
x
y
f ' (2) = 12
f ' (2) = 12
f ' (1) = 3
f ' (1) = 3
0
1 2 2 1
Point of
inflection
[ f"(x) = 0]
T
a
n
g
e
n
t
T
a
n
g
e
n
t
f "(x) < 0
f"(x) 0 <
Stationary
points of
inflection
[f " (x) = 0 and f ' (x) = 0]
Tangent Tangent
f "(x) < 0
f " (x) 0 <
Figure 1 Figure 2
The second derivative can tell us the nature of any stationary points or where
points of inection occur on a graph. In general:
1. If f (a) = 0 and f (a) > 0, then a local minimum stationary point occurs at x = a.
2. If f (a) = 0 and f (a) < 0, then a local maximum stationary point occurs at x = a.
3. If f (a) = 0 and f (a) = 0, and f (x) changes sign at x = a, then a stationary point
of inection occurs at x = a.
4. If f (a) = 0 and f (x) changes sign at x = a, then a point of inection occurs at
x = a.
Notes:
1. Types of stationary points (1, 2, 3 above) can also be determined using the rst
derivative test either side of x = a.
2. The second derivative test is usually more efcient than the rst derivative test in
determining maximum or minimum stationary points, but not for stationary points of
inection.
3. Displaying a curve on a graphics calculator will assist in determining the nature of
any stationary points.
a Find any stationary points, and their nature, if f (x) = x
2
(x 1)(x + 1).
b Sketch the graph of f(x), clearly indicating all stationary points and axes intercepts.
THINK WRITE
a Expand f (x) so it can be differentiated
easily.
a f(x) = x
2
(x 1)(x + 1)
f(x) = x
2
(x
2
1)
= x
4
x
2
Find f (x). f (x) = 4x
3
2x
Find f (x). f (x) = 12x
2
2
Solve for x where f (x) = 0. For stationary points, f (x) = 0
2x(2x
2
1) = 0
x = 0 or x
2
=
x = 0, or
Find f (0) and f (0) to determine one
stationary point.
At x = 0, f (0) = 0, f (0) = 0 and f (0) = 2.
Therefore (0, 0) is a local maximum
stationary point.
Find f
(
)
and f
(
)
for the second
stationary point.
At x = , f
(
)
= =
and f
(
)
= 6 2
= 4
Therefore
(
,
)
is a local minimum
stationary point.
Find f
( )
and f
( )
for the third
stationary point.
At x = , f
( )
= =
and f
( )
= 6 2
= 4
Therefore
(
,
)
is a local minimum
stationary point.
1
2
3
4
1
2
---
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
5
6
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
4
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
4
---
7
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
4
---
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
2
-------
1
2
-------
1
4
---
8
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
b Evaluate f (0) for the y-intercept.
b f(0) = 0 so the y-intercept is 0.
Solve the factorised form of f (x) = 0 for
the x-intercepts.
f(x) = x
2
(x 1)(x + 1) = 0
has solutions x = 0, 1, 1
so the x-intercepts are 1, 0 and 1.
Sketch the graph of f (x).
Check the graph using a graphics
calculator.
1
2
3
x
0
f (x) = x
2
(x 1)(x + 1)
y
1
2
1
4
( , )
( , )
1
2
1
4
1
1
1
1
4
If y = x
4
x
3
+ 2 nd:
a any stationary points of inection b any other points of inection.
THINK WRITE
a Find . a y = x
4
x
3
+ 2
= x
3
3x
2
Solve for x where = 0 (that is, the
stationary points).
For stationary points, = 0.
x
3
3x
2
= 0
x
2
(x 3) = 0
x = 0 or x = 3
Find . = 3x
2
6x
Evaluate where x = 0. At x = 0, = 3(0)
2
6(0)
= 0
Find y where x = 0. and y = (0)
4
(0)
3
+ 2
= 2
Evaluate where x = 3. At x = 3, = 3(3)
2
6(3)
= 27 18
= 9
State any stationary points of inection.
Therefore the point (0, 2) is a stationary
point of inection.
Check using a graphics calculator.
1
4
---
1
dy
dx
------
1
4
---
dy
dx
------
2
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
3
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
4
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
5
1
4
---
6
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
7
8
9
WORKEDExample
For worked example 9, the second derivative sign diagram
veries that at x = 0 and x = 2 there are indeed points of
inection as f (x) changes sign at these points.
This verication is not usually required but in rare cases
it will show that what seems to be a point of inection is in
fact not.
For example, if f (x) = x
4
f (x) = 4x
3
= 0 when x = 0.
Hence a stationary point occurs at x = 0.
For f (x) = 12x
2
= 0, a solution occurs when x = 0.
Thus it appears, there is a stationary point of inection at x = 0.
But the sign diagram of the second derivative (see gure
at right) shows that f (x) does not change sign at x = 0.
Therefore, there is not a stationary point of inection at
x = 0.
The rst derivative test will verify that at x = 0 there is a local minimum stationary
point as shown in the gure below (left).
The sketch graph of f (x) = x
4
is shown in the gure below (right).
THINK WRITE
b Solve = 0 b For points of inection, = 0
3x
2
6x = 0
3x(x 2) = 0
x = 0 or x = 2
Find y at x = 2 only, since a stationary
point has already been determined at
the point (0, 2).
At x = 2, y = (2)
4
2
3
+ 2
= 4 8 + 2
= 2
Check the sign of either side of
x = 2.
If x = 1, = 3(1)
2
6(1)
= 3
If x = 3, = 9 (from part a)
State the other point of inection.
Therefore the point (2, 2) is a point of
inection (not stationary.)
Check using a graphics calculator.
1
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
2
1
4
---
3
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
4
5
x
0
1 1 2

sign of
d
2
y
dx
2
+ +
x
0
1 1

f "(x)
+ +
x
0
1 1

f ' (x)
+ +
x
0
f (x) = x
4
y
For the function f(x) = 3 log
e
x x
3
5, nd:
a all stationary points b any points of inection c and sketch the graph of f (x).
THINK WRITE
a Find f (x) and set it equal to zero.
a f (x) = 3x
2
For stationery points, f (x) = 0
3x
2
= 0
Multiply the equation by x.
or 3 3x
3
= 0, x 0
Solve f (x) = 0.
3x
3
= 3
x
3
= 1
Thus x = 1.
Evaluate f (1).
f(1) = 3(0) 1
3
5
= 6
Find f (x).
f (x) = 3x
2
6x
Evaluate f (1).
f (1) = 6
= 9
State any stationary point and its type.
Therefore (1, 6) is a local maximum.
b Set f (x) = 0 and multiply the equation
by x
2
.
b f (x) = 3x
2
6x
For points of inection, f (x) = 0
3x
2
6x = 0
or 3 6x
3
= 0, x 0
Solve f (x) = 0.
6x
3
= 3
x
3
=
Thus x = or approximately 0.79.
Since x = 0.79 is the only solution
there are no points of inection because
the implied domain is x > 0.
Therefore there are no points of inection
as 0.79 is outside the implied domain,
x > 0.
c Use a graphics calculator to determine
intercepts.
Sketch the graph of f (x).
Check the graph using a graphics
calculator.
1
3
x
---
3
x
---
2
3
4
5
6
3
1
---
7
1
2
1
2
---
1
2
---

1
3
---
3
1
x
0
f (x) = 3 log
e
x x
3
5
y
6
1(1, 6)
2
3
10
WORKEDExample
Different technology tools, including
the graphics calculator, can be used
to verify or obtain the coordinates of
stationary points as well as draw the
relevant graph.
The screen at right shows an
example from the prepared Mathcad
le Stationary points found on the
Maths Quest CD-ROM.
Find the minimum value of the gradient to the curve:
f(x) = x
3
+ 4x
2
7x.
THINK WRITE
Find the equation of the gradient
function f (x).
f (x) = 3x
2
+ 8x 7
Find the rate of change of the gradient
function, f (x).
f (x) = 6x + 8
Set f (x) = 0. Let f (x) = 6x + 8 = 0
Solve f (x) = 0. 6x = 8
x =
Evaluate f
(
)
which is the minimum
value of the gradient as f (x) is a
positive quadratic.
f
(
)
= 3
( )
+ 8
(
)
7
= 7
= 12
which is a minimum as f (x) is a positive
quadratic equation.
State the minimum value of the gradient. Therefore the minimum gradient of f(x) is 12 .
Verify using a graphics calculator.
1
2
3
4
4
3
---
5
4
3
---
4
3
---
16
9
------
4
3
---
16
3
------
32
3
------
1
3
---
6
1
3
---
7
11
WORKEDExample
M
a
th
c
a
d
Stationary
points
x = a.
remember
Analysing the behaviour of
functions using the second
derivative
Use a graphics calculator to assist you to draw the graphs.
1 For each of the following functions nd the stationary points and the nature of the
stationary points using the second derivative test.
2 Sketch the graph of each function in question 1, clearly indicating all stationary
points and axes intercepts.
3
The function f(x) = x
4
+ 4x
3
+ 3:
a has a point or points of inection when x is equal to:
b has a stationary point of inection:
4
The minimum gradient of the curve with equation y = x
3
6x
2
8x is:
5
If f (x) = 0 when x = 3 and x = 2, and f (3) = 4 and f (2) = 5, then f(x) has:
A stationary points of inection when x = 2 and x = 3
B a stationary point of inection when x = 3 and a local maximum when x = 2
C a local maximum when x = 2 and a local minimum when x = 3
D a local minimum when x = 2 and a local maximum when x = 3
E a stationary point of inection when x = 2 and a local minimum when x = 3
6 Give i any stationary points of inection and ii any other points of inection for each
of the following functions.
7 Show that y = x log
e
x does not have any points of inection.
a f(x) = x
2
4x b g(x) = 12 x
2
c y = x
2
(x + 2)
d y = x(x 1)(x + 2)
e h(x) = (x 3)(x + 3)(x + 1)
f f(x) = x
3
+ 4x
2
4x 16
g g(x) = x
3
h f(x) = x
3
+ 3
i h(x) = x
3
3x j y = x
4
+ x
3
A 0 and 4 B 0 only C 2 only
D 0 and 2 E 0 and
A (4, 3) B (0, 3) C (2, 13)
D (2, 32) E (4, 0)
A 20 B 32 C 2
D 0 E 12
a y = x
3
6x b f(x) = x
2
c y =
d g(x) = x
3
+ 2x
2
+ 1 e y = xe
x
f y = 2x
4
x
3
g f(x) = x
2
e
x
h g(x) = 8x
2
log
e
x
5C
WORKED
Example
8a
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Stationary
points
WORKED
Example
8b
multiple choice
1
2
---
multiple choice
multiple choice
WORKED
Example
9
1
x
---
1
x
---
1
x
2
-----
8 Show that the graph of the function g(x) = e
x
2
has no points of inection. Find its
stationary point.
9 Find i stationary points and ii points of inection, and iii sketch the graphs with the
following rules:
Verify with a graphics calculator.
10 Show that the maximum value of the gradient to the curve f(x) = x
3
+ 3x
2
+ 2 is 3.
11 Find the maximum value of the gradient to the curve y = 10 + 3x
2
2x
3
.
12 Sketch the graph of the function y = x
4
x
2
12, showing all intercepts with the axes,
the stationary points and any points of inection. (Verify with a graphics calculator.)
13 The downward displacement of a meteor t seconds after hitting the surface of the
ocean is given by:
d = , where 0 t 20 and d is in metres.
a Find the depth of the meteor after 10 seconds.
b Find the velocity, v, at any time t.
c Find the maximum velocity of the meteor.
d If the depth of the ocean where the meteor strikes is 600 metres and the
meteor disintegrates 20 seconds after hitting the ocean, does the meteor
reach the ocean oor?
a f(x) = x
3
x b y = x
3
+ 8x c f(x) =
d g(x) =
WORKED
Example
10
x
1
x
2
-----
x
2
2
x
---
WORKED
Example
11
40t
t
2
4
----
t
3
24
------ +
W
o
r
k
S
H
E
ET
5.1
Derivatives of inverse circular functions
The derivative of Sin
1
, a > 0
If y = Sin
1
, a < x < a and < y <
then = sin y, < y <
x = a sin y
So = a cos y
or = , cos y 0 and < y <
Since sin y =
cos y = (from diagram at right)
or a cos y =
so = , a < x < a.
Therefore, if f (x) = Sin
1
then f (x) = , a < x < a.
Note: Example 12(b) could also be done by the chain rule using the substitution u = 6x.
x
a
---
x
a
---

2
---

2
---
x
0
y
y = Sin
1

x
a
a a
x
a
---

2
---

2
---
dx
dy
------
dy
dx
------
1
a y cos
---------------

2
---

2
---
x
a
---
x
0
a
x
y
a
2
x
2
a
2
x
2
a
--------------------
a
2
x
2
dy
dx
------
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
---------------------
Find the derivative of: a Sin
1
b Sin
1
6x.
THINK WRITE
a Differentiate by rule where a = 4. a If y = Sin
1
then =
b Express 6x as .
b If y = Sin
1
6x
then y = Sin
1
Differentiate by rule where a = . =
Take = out as a factor of the denominator to
remove the fraction from the square root.
=
Simplify the derivative. =
=
x
4
---
x
4
---
dy
dx
------
1
16 x
2
---------------------
1
x
(
1
6
---
)
---------
x
(
1
6
---
)
---------
2
1
6
---
dy
dx
------
1
1
36
------ x
2
-------------------
3
1
36
------
1
6
---
1
1
36
------ 1 36x
2
( )
----------------------------------
4
1
1
6
--- 1 36x
2
---------------------------
6
1 36x
2
------------------------
12
WORKEDExample
The derivative of Cos
1
, a > 0
If y = Cos
1
, a x a and 0 y
then = cos y, 0 y
x = a cos y
Thus, = a sin y
or = , sin y 0 and 0 < y < .
Since cos y =
sin y = (from diagram at right)
or a sin y =
So = , a < x < a.
Therefore, if f (x) = Cos
1
then f (x) = , a < x < a
x
a
---
x
a
---
x
0
y
y = Cos
1
x
a
a a
x
a
---
dx
dy
------
dy
dx
------
1
a sin y
---------------
x
a
--- a
x
y
a
2
x
2
a
2
x
2
a
--------------------
a
2
x
2
dy
dx
------
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
---------------------
Find f (x) if f(x) is equal to: a Cos
1
b Cos
1
.
THINK WRITE
a Differentiate by rule where a = .
a f(x) = Cos
1
f (x) =
b Express as . b f(x) = Cos
1
= Cos
1
Differentiate by rule where a = .
f (x) =
Take = out as a factor of the
denominator.
=
=
Simplify f (x). =
x
3
-------
2x
5
------
3
x
3
---
1
3 x
2
--------------
1
2x
5
------
x
(
5
2
---
)
---------
2x
5
------
x
(
5
2
---
)
---------
2
5
2
---
1
25
4
------ x
2
-------------------
3
1
4
---
1
2
---
1
1
4
--- 25 4x
2
( )
--------------------------------
1
1
2
--- 25 x
2
------------------------
4
2
25 x
2
---------------------
13
WORKEDExample
The derivative of Tan
1
If y = Tan
1
, x R and < y <
then = tan y, < y <
x = a tan y
= a sec
2
y
= a(1 + tan
2
y)
= (from the diagram at right)
=
=
or =
Therefore, if f(x) = Tan
1
then f (x) = , x R
x
a
---
x
a
---

2
---

2
---
x
0
y
y = Tan
1

x
x
a
---

2
---

2
---
x
0 a
x
y
a
2

+

x
2
dx
dy
------
a 1
x
2
a
2
----- +

a a
2
x
2
+ ( )
a
2
-------------------------
a
2
x
2
+
a
-----------------
dy
dx
------
a
a
2
x
2
+
-----------------
x
a
---
a
a
2
x
2
+
-----------------
Find f (x) if f(x) is equal to:
a Tan
1
b Tan
1
.
THINK WRITE
a Differentiate by rule where a = 5. a f(x) = Tan
1
Thus, f (x) =
b Express as . b f(x) = Tan
1
= Tan
1
Differentiate by rule where a = . f (x) =
Take out as a factor of the denominator. =
Simplify the derivative by dividing by . =
x
5
---
8x
3
------
x
5
---
5
25 x
2
+
-----------------
1
8x
3
------
x
(
3
8
---
)
---------
8x
3
------
x
(
3
8
---
)
---------
2
3
8
---
3
8
---
9
64
------ x
2
+
----------------
3
1
64
------
3
8
---
1
64
------ 9 64x
2
+ ( )
------------------------------
4
3
8
---
1
64
------
24
9 64x
2
+
--------------------
14
WORKEDExample
Find if y is equal to: a Sin
1
(4x + 7) b Cos
1
(5 3x) c sin
(
Tan
1
)
.
THINK WRITE
a Let u = 4x + 7 so the chain rule can be applied. a y = Sin
1
(4x + 7)
Let u = 4x + 7.
Find . = 4
y = Sin
1
u
Find . =
Apply the chain rule.
So =
=
Replace u with 4x + 7.
=
b Let u = 5 3x so the chain rule can be applied.
b y = Cos
1
(5 3x)
Let u = 5 3x.
Find . = 3
y = Cos
1
u
Find . =
Apply the chain rule.
So =
=
Replace u with 5 3x.
=
c Let u = Tan
1
so the chain rule can be applied. c y = sin
(
Tan
1
)
Let u = Tan
1
.
Find . =
y = sin u
Find . = cos u
dy
dx
------
x
5
---
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
3
4
dy
du
------
dy
du
------
1
1 u
2
------------------
5
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
4
1 u
2
------------------
6
4
1 4x 7 + ( )
2
------------------------------------
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
3
4
dy
du
------
dy
du
------
1
1 u
2
------------------
5
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
3
1 u
2
------------------
6
3
1 5 3x ( )
2
-----------------------------------
1
x
5
---
x
5
---
x
5
---
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
5
25 x
2
+
-----------------
3
4
dy
du
------
dy
du
------
15
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Apply the chain rule. So =
=
Replace u with Tan
1
.
=
5
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
5 cos u
25 x
2
+
-----------------
6
x
5
---
5 Tan
1x
5
---

cos
25 x
2
+
------------------------------------
Find the equation of the normal to the curve with equation:
y = 2 Cos
1
at the point where x = .
THINK WRITE
Find y when x = .
y = 2 Cos
1
When x =
y = 2 Cos
1
= 2
=
Find . =
Substitute x = into to nd the
gradient of the tangent at x = .
When x = , the gradient of the tangent is
=
=
= 2
Find the gradient of the normal
.
The gradient of the normal =
=
Substitute x
1
= , y
1
= and m =
into the equation of a straight line rule:
(y y
1
) = m(x x
1
) where m is the gradient
and (x
1
, y
1
) is a point on the line.
Therefore, the equation of the normal is:
y = (x )
=
Simplify the equation.
y =
(or 6y = 3x + 2 3 )
x
2
--- 3
1
3
x
2
---
3
3
2
---
6
---

3
---
2
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
2
4 x
2
------------------
3
3
dy
dx
------
3
3
dy
dx
------
2
4 3
----------------
2
1
------
4
gradient of normal
1
gradient of tangent
--------------------------------------------- =

1
2
------
1
2
---
5
3

3
---
1
2
---
3
---
1
2
--- 3
x
2
---
3
2
-------
6
x
2
---

3
---
3
2
------- +
3
16
WORKEDExample
Derivatives of inverse circular
functions
1 Find the derivative of each of the following expressions with respect to x:
2 Find if y is equal to:
3 Using the results of question 2, or otherwise, state the derivative of:
where b is a real, positive constant.
4
Consider the function with the rule f (x) = Sin
1
.
a The maximal domain of f (x) is:
a Sin
1
b Sin
1
c Sin
1
d Cos
1
e Cos
1
f Cos
1
g Tan
1
h Tan
1
i Tan
1
j Tan
1
k Sin
1
l Sin
1
m Cos
1
n Cos
1
o Tan
1
p Tan
1
q Sin
1
r Tan
1
a Sin
1
2x b Sin
1
5x c Sin
1
3x d Sin
1
8x
e Cos
1
4x f Cos
1
6x g Cos
1
7x h Cos
1
10x
i Tan
1
3x j Tan
1
9x k Tan
1
4x l Tan
1
5x
a Sin
1
bx b Cos
1
bx c Tan
1
bx
A
[
,
]
B
[
,
]
C [1, 1]
D [3, 3] E
[
,
]
1. If f (x) = Sin
1
then f (x) = , a < x < a
2. If f (x) = Cos
1
then f (x) = , a < x < a
3. If f (x) = Tan
1
then f (x) = , x R
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
x
a
---
a
a
2
x
2
+
-----------------
remember
5D
M
a
th
c
a
d
Inverse
trig.
derivatives
WORKED
Example
12a
x
2
---
x
5
---
x
8
---
WORKED
Example
13a
x
3
---
x
4
---
x
6
---
WORKED
Example
14a
x
2
---
x
4
---
x
7
---
x
3
---
x
5
-------
x
0.2
-------
x
2.5
-------
x
7
-------
x
3
-------
x
0.8
-------
x
6
-------
x
10
----------
dy
dx
------
WORKED
Example
12b
multiple choice
x
3
---
2
---

2
---
3
2
------
3
2
------
1
3
---
1
3
---
b The maximal domain of f (x) is:
5
Let f (x) = Cos
1
.
a When expressed in the form f (x) = Cos
1
, the value of a is:
b f (x) is equal to:
6
The derivative of Tan
1
is equal to:
7 Find f (x) if f (x) is equal to:
8 Using the results of question 7, or otherwise, state the derivative of y with respect to x:
where a and b are real, positive constants.
9 Find if y is equal to:
A
[
,
]
B [3, 3] C (3, 3)
D [1, 1] E (1, 1)
A B 7 C D E 3
A B C
D E
A B C
D E
a Cos
1
b Cos
1
c Cos
1
d Cos
1
e Tan
1
f Tan
1
g Tan
1
h Tan
1
i Sin
1
j Sin
1
k Sin
1
l Sin
1
a y = Sin
1
b y = Cos
1
c y = Tan
1
a Sin
1
(2x + 3) b Sin
1
(3x 5) c Cos
1
(4x 3)
d Cos
1
(5x + 8) e Tan
1
(3x + 2) f Tan
1
(6x 7)
g Sin
1
h Cos
1
i Tan
1
j Sin
1
(4 3x) k Cos
1
(7 2x) l Tan
1
(8 5x)
m Sin
1
n Cos
1
o Tan
1
3
2
------
3
2
------
multiple choice
3x
7
------
x
a
---

7
3
---
3
7
---
1
7
---
7
49 9x
2
------------------------
7
9 49x
2
------------------------
3
9 49x
2
------------------------
1
49 x
2
---------------------
3
49 9x
2
------------------------
multiple choice
8x
5
------
40
25 64x
2
+
------------------------
64
64 25x
2
+
-----------------------
40
64 25x
2
+
-----------------------
5
25 x
2
+
-----------------
8
64 x
2
+
-----------------
WORKED
Example
13b
3x
4
------
7x
4
------
9x
5
------
5x
8
------
WORKED
Example
14b
4x
5
------
3x
8
------
7x
2
------
9x
5
------
2x
3
------
5x
2
------
6x
7
------
8x
5
------
bx
a
------
bx
a
------
bx
a
------
WORKED
Example
15
dy
dx
------
x 3 +
2
------------

2x 1 +
3
---------------

4x 3
5
---------------

3 4x
5
---------------

6 3x
7
---------------

2 3x
4
---------------

10 Find the derivative of each of the following expressions with respect to x.
11 a Find the gradient of the graph of y = Sin
1
at the origin.
b Hence, nd the equation of the tangent to this curve at the origin.
12 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = Cos
1
2x at the point where it crosses
the y-axis.
13 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = Sin
1
when x = 1.
14 a Find the coordinates of the point where the maximum gradient of f (x) = Tan
1

occurs (a is a constant).
b Find the maximum gradient of f (x).
1. To nd the gradient of Tan
1
x at x = 1, press
, select 8:nDeriv(, enter
tan
1
(X),X,1) and press . Check that
MODE is set to radians.
Alternatively, if the function is in Y1, then press
, select 8:nDeriv(, enter Y1,X,1) and
press . Remember: To enter Y1, press
, select YVARS, 1:Function..., and 1:Y1
(similarly any Y variable).
2. To increase the accuracy, add an extra argument
for h in nDeriv, for example h = 10
10
. Press
and (using the above method) set up
8:nDeriv(Y1,X,1,E10) and press . To
enter E for E10, press [EE].)
(Note: The inbuilt method actually calculates
the gradient of a chord distance h either side of
the point required. The default value of h is
0.001.)
a x
3
+ Cos
1
2x
b 4x
2
Sin
1
c sin 4x + Tan
1
d log
e
6x + x Cos
1
e e
7x + 3
+ Tan
1
5x + 3
f
g
(
Tan
1
)
4
h 3x Cos
1
2x
i Sin
1
x + Cos
1
x j sin (Cos
1
x)
k tan
(
Sin
1
)
l cos
(
Tan
1
)
x
3
---
x
4
---
9
2
--- 2x
3
------
Sin
1
x
x
2
---
x
3
---
x
4
---
x
4
---
WORKED
Example
16
x
2
---
x
a
---
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Finding numerical derivatives
MATH
ENTER
MATH
ENTER
VARS
MATH
ENTER
2nd
Antidifferentiation involving inverse
circular functions
We now know that:

(
Sin
1
)
= , a < x < a

(
Cos
1
)
= , a < x < a

(
Tan
1
)
= , x R
It therefore follows that:
dx = Sin
1
+ c, a > 0
dx = Cos
1
+ c, a > 0
dx = Tan
1
+ c
When nding antiderivatives of inverse circular functions, the integrand should be
expressed in one of the standard forms above and then integrated.
d
dx
------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
d
dx
------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
d
dx
------
x
a
---
a
a
2
x
2
+
-----------------
1
a
2
x
2
---------------------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
---------------------
x
a
---
a
a
2
x
2
+
-----------------
x
a
---
Differentiate Tan
1
and hence nd dx.
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. y = Tan
1
Differentiate Tan
1
by rule where a = 2. =
Express the result using integral notation. Therefore dx = Tan
1
+ c.
x
2
---
2
4 x
2
+
---------------
1
x
2
---
2
x
2
---
dy
dx
------
2
4 x
2
+
--------------
3
2
4 x
2
+
--------------
x
2
---
17
WORKEDExample
Find the antiderivative for each of the following expressions:
a b c .
THINK WRITE
a The antiderivative is an inverse sine function
of the form Sin
1
where a = 5.
a dx = Sin
1
+ c
1
25 x
2
---------------------
3
49 x
2
---------------------
20
16 x
2
+
------------------
x
a
---
1
25 x
2
---------------------
x
5
---
18
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
b Take 3 out as a factor.
b dx = 3 dx
The antiderivative of
is an inverse cos function of the form
Cos
1
where a = 7.
= 3 Cos
1
+ c
(or 3 Sin
1
+ c)
c Take 5 out as a factor. c dx = 5 dx
is an inverse tan function of the form
Tan
1
where a = 4.
= 5 Tan
1
+ c
1
3
49 x
2
---------------------
1
49 x
2
---------------------
2
1
49 x
2
---------------------
x
a
---
x
7
---
x
7
---
1
20
16 x
2
+
-----------------
4
16 x
2
+
-----------------
2
4
16 x
2
+
---------------------
x
a
---
x
4
---
Find each of the following indenite integrals:
a dx b dx c dx.
THINK WRITE
a Use the substitution u = 5x. a dx
Let u = 5x.
Find . = 5
Make dx the subject.
dx =
Rewrite the integral in terms of u. dx =
= du
Antidifferentiate by rule. = Sin
1
u + c
Replace u with 5x. = Sin
1
5x + c
1
1 25x
2
-------------------------
1
9 16x
2
-------------------------
8
9 5x
2
+
------------------
1
1
1 25x
2
------------------------
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
3
du
5
------
4
1
1 25x
2
------------------------
1
1 u
2
------------------

du
5
------
1
5
---
1
1 u
2
------------------
5
1
5
---
6
1
5
---
19
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
b Use the substitution u = 4x. b dx
Let u = 4x.
Find . = 4
Make dx the subject. or dx =
= du
Antidifferentiate by rule. = Cos
1
+ c
Replace u with 4x. = Cos
1
+ c
c Use the substitution u = x.
c dx
Let u = .
Find . =
dx =
= du
Express the integral in standard form. = du
Antidifferentiate by rule.
=
Replace u with x and simplify the
surd factor.
=
1
1
9 16x
2
------------------------
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
3
du
4
------
4
1
9 16x
2
------------------------
1
9 u
2
------------------
du
4
------
1
4
---
1
9 u
2
------------------
5
1
4
---
u
3
---
6
1
4
---
4x
3
------
1
5
8
9 5x
2
+
-----------------
5x
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 5
3
du
5
-------
4
8
9 5x
2
+
-----------------
8
9 u
2
+
--------------
du
5
-------
8
5
-------
1
9 + u
2
---------------
5
8
3 5
----------
3
9 u
2
+
--------------
6
8
3 5
---------- Tan
1
u
3
--- c +
7
5
8 5
15
---------- Tan
1
5x
3
---------- c +
Antiderivatives
involving all three
inverse trigonometric
functions can be
obtained using the
Mathcad le
Antidifferentiation
involving trigonometric
functions. The screen
at right shows the
answer for part (c) of
worked example 19.
M
a
th
c
a
d
Antiderivatives
Find the antiderivative of by rst simplifying the rational expression.
THINK WRITE
Divide x
2
+ 4 into x
3
+ 4x 16 to make the
rational expression antidifferentiable.
Simplify by long division:
x
3
+ 4x
16
so = x
Rewrite dx as two separate
integrals.
dx = dx
Express dx in standard form. = x dx 8 dx
Antidifferentiate both integrals. = x
2
8 Tan
1
+ c
x
3
4x 16 +
x
2
4 +
------------------------------
1
x
3
4x 16 +
x
2
4 +
-----------------------------
x
x
2
4 x
3
4x 16 + +
x
3
4x 16 +
x
2
4 +
-----------------------------
16
x
2
4 +
--------------
2
x
3
4x 16 +
x
2
4 +
-----------------------------
x
3
4x 16 +
x
2
4 +
-----------------------------
x x d
16
x
2
4 +
--------------

3
16
x
2
4 +
--------------

2
x
2
4 +
--------------
4
1
2
---
x
2
---
20
WORKEDExample
1. dx = Sin
1
+ c, a > 0
2. dx = Cos
1
+ c, a > 0
3. dx = Tan
1
+ c
1
a
2
x
2
----------------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
----------------
x
a
---
a
a
2
x
2
+
-----------------
x
a
---
remember
Antidifferentiation involving
inverse circular functions
1 a Differentiate Tan
1
and hence nd dx.
b Differentiate Cos
1
and hence nd dx.
c Differentiate Sin
1
and hence nd dx.
2 Find the antiderivative for each of the following expressions:
3 a Differentiate Sin
1
2x and hence nd dx.
b Differentiate Tan
1
4x and hence nd dx.
4 Find each of the following indenite integrals:
5
a The equivalent expression to is:
a b c
d e f
g h i
j
a dx b dx c dx
d dx e dx f dx
g h i dx
j dx k dx l dx
A B C
D
E
5E
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Inverse
trig.
derivatives
WORKED
Example
17
x
6
---
6
36 x
2
+
-----------------
x
3
---
1
9 x
2
------------------
x
5
---
1
25 x
2
---------------------
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Antidiffn
involving
inverse
trig.
functions
WORKED
Example
18
1
4 x
2
--------------
1
1 x
2
------------------
1
9 x
2
------------------
1
16 x
2
---------------------
2
4 x
2
+
--------------
5
25 x
2
+
-----------------
4
25 x
2
---------------------
3
9 x
2
------------------
6
9 x
2
+
--------------
20
16 x
2
+
-----------------
1
1 4x
2
---------------------
1
16x
2
1 +
--------------------
WORKED
Example
19a
1
1 9x
2
---------------------
1
1 16x
2
------------------------
1
1 4x
2
---------------------
1
1 25x
2
------------------------
3
1 9x
2
+
-----------------
5
1 25x
2
+
--------------------
dx
1 25x
2
------------------------
dx
1 36x
2
------------------------
8
1 64x
2
+
--------------------
6
1 49x
2
------------------------
10
1 16x
2
------------------------
24
1 4x
2
+
-----------------
multiple choice
1
1 4x
2
---------------------
1
(
1
2
---
)
2
x
2
---------------------------
1
2
---
1
(
1
2
---
)
2
x
2
---------------------------
2 1
(
1
2
---
)
2
x
2
---------------------------
1
2
--- 1
4 x
2
------------------
2 1
4 x
2
------------------
b The antiderivative of is:
6
The antiderivative of is:
7 Find f (x) if f (x) is equal to:
8 Find the antiderivative of each of the following expressions by rst simplifying the
rational expression.
9 Differentiate Sin
1
x
2
and hence nd dx.
10 Differentiate Cos
1
and hence nd dx.
A 2 Cos
1
2x + c
B 2 Cos
1
+ c C Cos
1
2x + c
D Cos
1
+ c E Sin
1
+ c
A Tan
1
+ c B Tan
1
+ c C Tan
1
+ c
D Tan
1
+ c E Tan
1
+ c
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n o
p q r
s t
u
v
a b c
d e f
g
1
1 4x
2
---------------------
x
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
x
2
---
1
2
---
x
2
---
multiple choice
2
49 25x
2
+
-----------------------
14
5
------
5x
7
------
2
5
---
7x
5
------
2
5
---
x
5
---
2
35
------
5x
7
------
2
7
---
x
7
---
WORKED
Example
19b
1
16 9x
2
------------------------
1
9 25x
2
------------------------
1
9 4x
2
---------------------
1
4 25x
2
------------------------
1
4 9x
2
+
-----------------
1
25 16x
2
+
-----------------------
1
5 x
2
------------------
1
6 x
2
------------------
1
1 7x
2
+
-----------------
4
5 3x
2
+
-----------------
1
7 4x
2
---------------------
1
10 9x
2
------------------------
1
1 x 3 + ( )
2
--------------------------------
1
1 x 2 ( )
2
--------------------------------
1
4 x 1 ( )
2
--------------------------------
1
9 x 4 + ( )
2
--------------------------------
1
1 x 3 ( )
2
+
----------------------------
1
16 x 5 + ( )
2
+
-------------------------------
1
4
1
4
--- x
2
---------------------
1
8
1
2
--- x
2
---------------------
3
2
---
9
1
4
--- x
2
+
-----------------
6
5
1
5
--- x
2
+
-----------------
WORKED
Example
20
2 x
2
+
1 x
2
+
--------------
x
2
7 +
4 x
2
+
--------------
x
3
x 1 + +
x
2
1 +
-----------------------
x
3
x 5 + +
x
2
1 +
-----------------------
x
3
9x 3 + +
x
2
9 +
---------------------------
3x
3
12x 8 +
x
2
4 +
---------------------------------
2x
3
32x 1 +
x
2
16 +
---------------------------------
2x
1 x
4
------------------
x
1
x 1 x ( )
------------------------

11 Differentiate Tan
1
and hence nd dx.
12 A curve has a gradient given by = and its graph passes through the
origin. Find the equation of the curve.
13 A curve has a gradient given by = and its graph passes through
(
,
)
. Find the equation of the curve.
x
1
1 x + ( ) x
------------------------
dy
dx
------ 2
1
1 x
2
------------------ +
dy
dx
------ 3x
2
1
1 4x
2
+
----------------- +
1
2
---

8
---
History
of mathematics
SOFIA KOVALEVSKAYA ( 15. 1. 1850 10. 2. 1891)
During her lifetime ...
The Salvation Army is formed.
Edison develops the electric light bulb.
Queensland becomes a separate State.
Abraham Lincoln is assassinated.
Soa Kovalevskaya was born in Moscow. Her family
were members of the Russian nobility and their
friends included the author Dostoyevsky. She was
interested in mathematics as a child and by the age of
11 her bedroom walls were covered with notes about
calculus. When she was 14 years old a neighbour
presented the family with a physics textbook he had
written. She read it with interest and tried to
understand the formulas by deducing them from rst
principles. The author was impressed and urged her
father to let her study mathematics.
Soa wanted to continue her education at
university. Women were not allowed to attend
university in Russia at this time and young unmarried
women were not allowed to travel alone. Partly to
resolve this problem, she married Vladimir
Kovalevsky in 1868. Shortly afterwards she went to
Germany to attend Heidelberg University. Once there
she found that women werent allowed to attend
lectures or matriculate.
In 1870 she met Karl Weierstrass who was one of
the most renowned mathematicians of the time. He
set a series of problems for her and found that her
mathematical abilities were remarkable. She studied
with him in Berlin for four years and received her
PhD in 1874. She was then dismayed to nd that
because of her sex the best job she could get was
teaching mathematics at primary school. She went
home to Russia and in 1878 her daughter Fufa was
born. In 1883 she returned to Berlin but later that
year she received the terrible news that her husband,
Vladimir, had committed suicide.
At last in 1884 she received an invitation to lecture
at the University of Stockholm. It was only a
temporary teaching post but her abilities became so
respected that after ve years Kovalevskaya was
appointed Chair of Mathematics. Only two other
women, the physicist Laura Bassi and the
mathematician Maria Agnesi, had ever achieved such
a position at a European university.
On Christmas Eve 1888, she won the famous Prix
Bordin. The rules specied that the entries were to be
judged without the panel knowing who wrote the
papers. The judges selected Kovalevskayas paper as
the winner. They also increased the prize money from
3000 francs to 5000 francs on account of the quite
extraordinary service rendered to mathematical
physics by this work. Many people were surprised
when it was revealed that the winner was a woman. A
little over two years later she died of inuenza
complicated by pneumonia.
Questions
1. What did Kovalevskaya nd when she arrived at
Heidelberg University?
2. What was the best job she could get after
receiving her PhD?
3. Why was her appointment to the Chair of
Mathematics at the University of Stockholm
unusual for the times?
Rate of change of angle
A hot-air balloon is released at ground level and rises at
a steady vertical speed of 2.0 m/s. One hundred metres
from the launch site a photographer controls a camera
aimed directly at the balloon. As the balloon rises the
camera is tilted and the axis of the camera makes an
angle to the horizontal. At time t the balloon is a
height y(t) above the ground
and the camera makes
an angle (t) to the
horizontal. This
is shown in
the gure.
a Find the height of the balloon after 5 seconds and consequently nd the angle
at that time.
b Find the height of the balloon after 10 seconds and thus the angle at that time.
c Find an expression for the height, y, in terms of the time, t, elapsed since
launching.
d Give an expression for the angle in terms of y and hence in terms of t.
e Use a graphics calculator or Graphmatica to sketch a graph of (t); t 0.
f At what time will = 30?
g Use calculus to nd and consequently nd the time and the height of the
balloon when = 0.020/s.
The camera is moved closer to the launch site.
h Use a series of values for the distance of the camera from the launch site and
plot (t) for the different values on the one axis.
i Comment on the effect that reducing the distance of the camera from the launch
site has on the rate that the camera angle changes per second as the balloon rises.
Camera
y
(
t
)

=

2
t
2.0 m/s
100 m
d
dt
------
d
dt
------
Derivatives of the tangent and inverse circular functions
(tan ax) = a sec
2
ax
[tan f (x)] = f (x) sec
2
[f (x)]

(
Sin
1
)
= , a > 0

(
Cos
1
)
= , a > 0

(
Tan
1
)
=
Using the second derivative to analyse the behaviour of functions
If y = f(x), then the rst derivative is denoted by or f (x).
The second derivative is denoted by or f (x).
Stationary points and points of inection can be established from the second
derivative:
x = a.
Antiderivatives involving inverse circular functions
dx = Sin
1
+ c, a > 0
dx = Cos
1
+ c, a > 0
dx = Tan
1
+ c
summary
d
dx
------
d
dx
------
d
dx
------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
d
dx
------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
d
dx
------
x
a
---
a
a
2
x
2
+
-----------------
dy
dx
------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
x
a
---
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
x
a
---
a
a
2
x
2
+
-----------------
x
a
---
Multiple choice
1 The derivative of tan 4x with respect to x is:
2 The derivative of 3 tan is equal to:
3 If f(x) = log
e
(tan 3x), then f (x) equals:
4 If y = e
2x
tan 5x, then is equal to:
5 The second derivative of 2x
6
5x
4
+ 3 is:
6 If g(x) = e
2x
5
, then g(x) is equal to:
7 If h(x) = log
e
5x
3
, then h(x) is equal to:
8 The second derivative of 9 cos is:
A 4 sec
2
4x B 4 sec
2
x
C sec
2
4x D sec
2
x E 4
A 9 sec
2
B 3 sec
2
C sec
2
D 9 sec
2
E 3 sec
2
(x)
A B C
D 3 sec
2
3x tan 3x
E
A e
2x
(sec
2
5x 2 tan 5x) B e
2x
(5 sec
2
5x 2 tan 5x) C e
2x
(5 sec
2
5x tan 5x)
D 10e
2x
sec
2
5x E 5e
2x
sec
2
5x
A 60x
4
60x
2
B 12x
5
20x
3
C 12x
4
20x
2
D 240x
3
120x E 12x
4
60x
2
+ 3
A 20x
3
e
2x
5
(5x
5
+ 2) B 100x
8
e
2x
5
C e
40x
3
D 40x
3
e
2x
5
E 10x
4
e
2x
5
A 30 B 15x C D E
A 6 sin B 4 cos C 4 sin
D 6 cos E 4 cos
CHAPTER
review
5A
1
4
---
1
4
---
5A
x
3
---

x
3
---

x
3
---

x
3
---

x
3
---

5A
1
x
---
1
tan 3x
--------------
sec
2
3x
tan 3x
------------------
3
sin 3x cos 3x
---------------------------------
5A
dy
dx
------
5B
5B
5B
3
x
---
3
x
2
-----
3
5x
4
--------
5B
2x
3
------
2x
3
------
2x
3
------
2x
3
------
2x
3
------
2x
3
------
For questions 9 to 11 consider the function f(x) = x
3
x
2
6x + 2.
9 f (x) has a local maximum stationary point at:
10 f (x) has a local minimum stationary point at:
11 f (x) has a point of inection at:
Use the graph at right to answer questions 12 and 13.
12 The graph of g(x) has:
A 2 stationary points
B 1 point of inection
C 3 stationary points and 2 points of inection
D 2 stationary points of inection
E no stationary points of inection
13 g(x) = 0 when x is equal to:
14 If y = e
kx
and , then k is equal to:
15 The gradient of y = tan 2x when x = is:
16 The gradient of f(x) = 4x 3 tan x is equal to zero when x is equal to:
17 If f(x) = Sin
1
then f (x) is equal to:
A
(
,
) B (2.22, 16.78) C ( , 0)
D (1.12, 7.29) E (2, 6)
A (2.34, 7.85) B ( , 0) C (1.79, 6.21)
D ( , 6) E
(
,
)
A (2, 6) B (2, 6) C ( , 6)
D
(
,
)
E
(
,
)
A 2 and 3 B 4 and 2 C 4 and 3 D 4, 2 and 3 E 4 and 1
A 0 or 1 B 1 or 4 C 1 or 4 D 0 or 4 E 0 or 4
A
B C D 8 E 4
A B C D E
A B C
D E
5C
1
3
---
2
27
------
4
3
---
5C
4
3
---
4
3
---
1
3
---
2
27
------
5C
4
3
---
1
3
---
2
27
------
1
3
---
2
27
------
x
0
y
5C
5C
5C
d
2
y
dx
2
-------- 5
dy
dx
------ 4y + + 0 =
5C

6
---
3
1
2
---
8
3
---
5C

6
---

3
---

4
---

2
---
5D
x
10
------
1
1 100x
2
---------------------------
1
1 100x
2
---------------------------
1
100 x
2
------------------------
1
100 x
2
------------------------
10
100 x
2
+
--------------------
18 If g(x) = 2 Cos
1
2x then g(x) is equal to:
19 The derivative of Tan
1
is equal to:
20 The antiderivative of is:
21 The antiderivative of is equal to:
22 The antiderivative of is equal to:
Short answer
1 Find the derivative of:
2 Given that f(x) = 3x
2
log
e
x, nd f (x).
3 If g(x) = (x 2)(x 3)(x + 1), nd:
4 For the function h(x) = 2x
3
15x
2
+ 24x 7 nd:
a all of its stationary points and their nature
b any points of inection.
5 Sketch the graph of the function y = x
4
3x
3
+ 2x
2
, clearly labelling all stationary points and
x-intercepts.
A B C
D E
A B C
D E
A 5 Tan
1
2x + c B 10 Tan
1
2x + c
C Tan
1
+ c
D Tan
1
2x + c E 5 Tan
1
+ c
A 2 Sin
1
3x + c
B 2 Sin
1
+ c
C 2 Cos
1
3x + c
D 2 Cos
1
+ c
E 6 Sin
1
2x + c
A 4 Sin
1
6x + c B 4 Cos
1
6x + c
C Cos
1
+ c
D 4 Cos
1
+ c
E 4 Cos
1
6x + c
a tan e
2x
b
a g(x) b g(x)
5D
1
4 x
2
------------------
2
1 4x
2
---------------------
4
1 4x
2
---------------------
4
4 x
2
+
--------------
4
1 4x
2
---------------------
5D
2x
3
------
6
4 9x
2
+
-----------------
6
9 4x
2
+
-----------------
3
9 4x
2
---------------------
3
2 9 4x
2
+ ( )
--------------------------
3
4 9x
2
+
-----------------
5E
5
4 x
2
+
--------------
5
2
---
x
2
---
5
2
---
x
2
---
5E
2
9 x
2
------------------
x
3
---
x
3
---
4
6 x
2
------------------
5E
2
3
--- 6
6x
6
-------
5A
x
2
1 +
tan 2x
--------------
5B
5B
5C
5C
6 If y = Sin
1
, nd a and b .
7 If y = Tan
1
4x, nd a and b .
8 Differentiate each of the following:
9 Find the antiderivative of .
10 If f (x) = and f = 5, nd f (x).
11 Find f (x) if f (x) = and f (0.1) = 1.
Analysis
1 The cost, $C, of producing x litres of a particular aromatic oil on any day is C = 144 + 2x + .
a Find the set up cost, i.e. the cost incurred before any oil is produced.
b Find the cost of producing 50 litres of oil.
The average cost per litre of oil produced, A, is A = .
c Express A as a function of x, A(x).
d Find the average cost of producing 100 litres.
e Find the minimum average cost and the number of litres produced for the minimum cost.
f Show that the rate of change of cost is the same as the average cost for the number of
litres producing the minimum cost.
2 The proportion of the original population of kangaroos remaining, P(t), t years after culling
was introduced onto an island can be modelled by the function: P(t) = Tan
1
, t 0.
a Sketch the graph of P(t).
b What percentage remains
1 year after culling
began?
c By what percentage has
the population dropped
after 4 years?
d When is the population
half of its original
number?
e Find the rate of change of
the population proportion
after 4 years.
f When is the rate of
decline of the population
proportion greatest?
g When is the rate of
decline of the population
proportion per year?
a Sin
1
(3x + 4) b Cos
1
(4 x) c Tan
1
(2x + 5)
5D
x
12
------
dy
dx
------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
5D
dy
dx
------
d
2
y
dx
2
--------
5D
5E
4
81 4x
2
------------------------
5E
1
16 x
2
+
----------------- 4 ( )
5E
2
9 25x
2
------------------------
x
2
10
------
C
x
----
1
2
---
t
2
---
test
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
yourself
test
yourself
5
1
10
---------
7
VCE
coverage
In this
chapter
7A Graphing the gradient
function from the graph of a
function
7B Limits and differentiation
from rst principles
7C The derivative of x
n
7D The chain rule
7E The derivative of e
x
7F The derivative of log
e
x
7G The derivatives of sin x and
cos x
7H The product rule
7I The quotient rule
7J Mixed problems on
differentiation

Differentiation

Area of study

262

M a t h e m a t i c a l M e t h o d s U n i t s 3 a n d 4

Graphing the gradient function from
the graph of a function

A function is

smooth

if there are no sharp
points on its graph.
The gradient does not exist where the function
is not smooth. An example is shown at right.
A function is

continuous

if there are no
breaks, jumps or asymptotes on its
graph. The gradient does not exist where
the function is not continuous.
An example is shown at right.
The gradient of a function exists wherever the
function is

smooth and continuous

. That is, the
gradient of a function exists at a point providing only

one

tangent can be drawn at that point. An example
is shown at right.

Gradient function of straight lines

In general, for straight lines in the form

f

(

x

)

=

mx

+

c

(or

y

=

mx

+

c

), the rule for the
gradient is

f

(

x

)

=

m

, that is, a horizontal straight line through

y

=

m

.
y
x
0
2
f (x) is not smooth at x = 2
so gradient does not exist
at x = 2. That is, gradient
exists for R\{2}
f (x)
y
x
0
1
There is a break in the
graph at x = 2 (discontinuous),
so gradient does not exist
at x = 1. That is, gradient
exists for R\{1}
f (x)
y
x
0
f (x)
The gradient of f (x)
exists for x R as
f (x) is smooth and
continuous.
2
2
Sketch the graph of the gradient function of the
following function.
THINK WRITE
Find the gradient of f (x) using
.
y
x
0
f (x)
1
2
1
m
rise
run
-------- =
m
1
2
--- =
1
WORKEDExample
C h a p t e r 7 D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

263

Gradient function of quadratic functions

The gradient function of a polynomial function is also a polynomial function but the
degree is reduced by 1. That is, the gradient function of

f

(

x

)

=

ax

2

+

bx

+

c

is of the
form

y

=

mx

+

c

. So the gradient of a quadratic function is a linear function.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the graph of y = to represent the
gradient function.
Note: The domain of f (x) is R as f (x) is smooth and continuous.
2
1
2
---
y
x 0
1
2
f '(x)
Sketch the graph of the gradient function for the quadratic function shown and state its
domain.
THINK WRITE
Find when f (x) = 0. f (x) = 0 if x = 1.
Find when f (x) > 0. f (x) > 0 if x > 1.
Find when f (x) < 0. f (x) < 0 if x < 1.
Sketch f (x).
Find where f (x) is smooth and continuous
and hence nd the domain of f (x).
Domain is R.
y
x
0
f (x)
1
1
2
3
4 y
x 0
1
f '(x)
5
2
WORKEDExample
264 M a t h e m a t i c a l M e t h o d s U n i t s 3 a n d 4
Gradient function of cubic functions
The gradient function of a cubic is a quadratic function.
Sketch the gradient function of the following function and
state its domain.
THINK WRITE
Find when f (x) = 0. f (x) = 0 if x = 3 and x = 1.
Find when f (x) > 0. f (x) > 0 if x < 3 and x > 1.
Find when f (x) < 0. f (x) < 0 if 3 < x < 1.
Sketch the graph of the gradient
function.
Find the domain by determining where
f (x) is smooth and continuous.
Domain is R.
y
x 0
3
1
f (x)
1
2
3
4
y
x 0
1 3
f '(x)
5
3
WORKEDExample
For the function f(x) shown, state the domain of the gradient
function f (x).
THINK WRITE
The function is smooth and continuous
everywhere except at x = 1
(discontinuous) and x = 2 (not smooth).
Domain = R\{1, 2}
y
x 0
2 1
f (x)
4
WORKEDExample
C h a p t e r 7 D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n 265
Graphing the gradient function
from the graph of a function
1 For each straight line function shown below, sketch the graph of its gradient
function.
a b c
d e
1. A function is smooth if there are no sharp points on its graph.
2. A function is continuous if the graph can be drawn without lifting pen from
paper.
3. The gradient of a function exists where the function is smooth and
continuous.
4. The gradient function of a polynomial function is also a polynomial function
but the degree is reduced by 1. For example, the gradient function of
f (x) = ax
2
+ bx + c is of the form y = mx + c.
5. Wherever the gradient of a function is zero, its gradient function will have an
x-intercept.
6. Wherever the gradient of a function is positive (sloping /), the gradient function
graph is above the x-axis.
7. Wherever the gradient of a function is negative (sloping \), the gradient
function graph is below the x-axis.
8. The gradient of a horizontal line is 0.
9. The gradient of a vertical line is undened.
remember
7A
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
7.1
WORKED
Example
1
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
7.2
y
x 0
1
1
f (x)
y
x 0
1
3
f (x)
y
x 0
2
1
f (x)
y
x 0
2
5
f (x)
y
x 0
3
f (x)
2
a The gradient of the line in the graph at right is:
b The graph of the gradient function in the graph at right
is represented by which of the diagrams below?
3 Sketch the graph of the gradient function for each quadratic function shown below.
A 1 B 2 C 0
D E 1
A B C
D E
a b c
d e
multiple choice
y
x 0
1
2
f (x)
1
2
---
y
x 0
1
2
f'(x)
y
x 0
2
1
f'(x)
y
x 0
2
f'(x)
y
x 0
1
2
f'(x)
y
x 0
2
f'(x)
WORKED
Example
2
y
x 0
g(x)
y
x 0
g(x)
y
x 0
g(x)
2
y
x 0
g(x)
3
y
x 0
g(x)
2
1
4
a The gradient of the function shown in the graph at right is:
b The gradient function for the graph at right is
shown by which of the graphs shown below?
5 For each cubic function f (x) graphed below, sketch the gradient function.
A always increasing B always decreasing
C decreasing then increasing D increasing then decreasing
E constant
A
B C
D E
a b c
d e f
g
multiple choice
y
x 0
f (x)
y
x 0
f'(x)
y
x 0
f'(x)
y
x 0
f'(x)
y
x
f'(x)
0
y
x 0
f'(x)
WORKED
Example
3
y
x 0
3 2
f (x)
y
x 0
4 1
f (x)
y
x 0
5
f (x)
y
x
0
f (x)
Gradient = 0
y
x 0
f (x) Gradient = 0
y
x 0
3
f (x)
y
x
0
2
Gradient = 0
f (x)
6
a The gure at right has a positive
gradient where:
A 1 < x < 2
B x < 1 only
C x > 2 only
D x < 1 and x > 2
E x > 0
b The gure above has a negative gradient where:
c The graph of the gradient function for the gure above is:
7 For the functions graphed below, state the domain (where applicable) where the
gradient:
i is equal to zero ii is positive iii is negative iv does not exist.
A x > 1 B x < 2 C 1 < x < 2
D x < 1 and x > 2 E x < 0
A B C
D E
a b c
d e f
multiple choice
y
x
0
f (x)
1 2
y
x 0
2 1
f' (x)
y
x 0
2 1
f' (x)
y
x 0
2 1
f' (x)
y
x 0
2 1
f' (x)
y
x 0
2 1
f' (x)
y
x
0
1
1
f (x)
y
x
0
6
2
f (x)
y
x 0
5
1
g(x)
y
x 0
4
4
g(x)
y
x 0
g(x)
Gradient = 0
y
x 0
2 3
f (x)
8 Sketch the gradient function for each function in question 7.
9 For each function f (x) graphed below, state the domain of the gradient function f (x).
(Do not sketch the graph of f (x).)
g
j
h i
a b c
d e f
g h i
j
y
x 0
2
1
f (x)
Gradient = 0
y
x 0
4 2
2
4
f (x)
y
x 0
1 2
g(x)
y
x 0
f (x)
WORKED
Example
4
y
x 0
8
3
2
2
f (x)
y
x 0
4
2
f (x)
y
x 0
f (x)
y
x 0
1 2
f (x)
y
x 0
3
f (x)
y
x 0
f (x)
y
x 0
f (x)
2
y
x 0
2
f (x)
y
x 0
5
f (x)
y
x 0
4 5
f (x)
Limits and differentiation from rst principles
The limit of a function is the value that the function approaches as x approaches a given
value.
If the function is continuous at the point in question then
the limit exists and can be found by direct substitution.
For example, the limit of f (x) = 3x + 1 as x approaches 1
is denoted as
In this example f (x) is a continuous function at x = 1.
(In fact, it is continuous for all values of x.)
Therefore, the limit is found by direct substitution, that is,
= 3(1) + 1 = 4
If the function is discontinuous at the point in question then the limit exists if the
function is approaching the same value from the left as it is from the right.
y
x
0
1
4 Continuous
1
f (x)
3x 1 + ( )
x 1
lim
3x 1 + ( )
x 1
lim
For example:
The limit exists at x = 2, as the function
is approaching 3 from the left and from
the right. Therefore:
For example:
The limit does not exist at x = 2, as the
function is approaching 3 from the left and
5 from the right. That is, if the left-hand
limit is not equal to the right-hand limit,
then the limit as x 2 does not exist.
y
x
0
2
3
Discontinuous
f (x)
f x ( )
x 2
lim 3 =
y
x 0
3
5
2
Discontinuous
at x = 2
f (x)
Evaluate the following limits.
a b
THINK WRITE
a Decide whether f (x) is continuous at
x = 5. If so, substitute x = 5 into f (x).
a = 5
2
3(5)
Evaluate. = 10
b Decide whether f (x) is continuous at
x = 0. If so, substitute x = 0 into f (x).
b =
Evaluate.
=
= 2
x
2
3x ( )
x 5
lim
x
2
5x 6 + +
x 3 +
---------------------------
x 0
lim
1
x
2
3x ( )
x 5
lim
2
1
x
2
5x 6 + +
x 3 +
---------------------------
x 0
lim
0
2
5 0 ( ) 6 + +
0 3 +
--------------------------------
2
6
3
---
5
WORKEDExample
The limit of rational expressions can be evaluated, if direct substitution makes the
denominator zero, by rst simplifying the expressions and then using direct
substitution.
Differentiation using rst principles
Consider the chord (straight line) to the curve below.
The gradient of =
=
As Q moves along the curve towards P, the value of h gets smaller and smaller. Or as
Q gets as close as possible to P, h 0, and becomes a tangent at P. The gradient
of the curve at a point P is the gradient of the tangent at that point.
That is, gradient at point P is f (x) = h 0.
Finding the gradient this way is known as differentiation from rst principles.
Differentiating f (x) gives f (x) or f (x) is the derivative of f (x).
Differentiating y gives , or is the derivative of y with respect to x.
Evaluate .
THINK WRITE
If the limit cant be found with f (x) in
the given form, factorise the numerator.
=
Simplify by cancelling. = , x 3
Substitute x = 3. = 3 + 2
Evaluate. = 1
x
2
5x 6 + +
x 3 +
---------------------------
x 3
lim
1
x
2
5x 6 + +
x 3 +
---------------------------
x 3
lim
x 3 + ( ) x 2 + ( )
x 3 +
----------------------------------
x 3
lim
2
x 2 + ( )
x 3
lim
3
4
6
WORKEDExample
PQ
y
x 0
x x + h
f ( x+h)
f ( x+h) f (x)
f (x)
f (x)
Q
P
h
PQ
rise
run
--------
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
PQ
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
h 0
lim
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
Find the gradient of the chord drawn to the curve
f (x) = x
2
+ 2 in the diagram.
THINK WRITE
Find the gradient and simplify.
.
Gradient = , h 0
=
=
=
=
=
= 2 + h
The gradient is 2 + h
PQ
y
x 0
Q [1 + h, f (1 + h)]
P [1, f (1)]
Gradient
rise
run
-------- =
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
f 1 h + ( ) f 1 ( )
h
--------------------------------------
1 h + ( )
2
2 1
2
2 + ( ) +
h
------------------------------------------------------
3 2h h
2
3 + +
h
------------------------------------
2h h
2
+
h
------------------
h 2 h + ( )
h
--------------------
7
WORKEDExample
Find the gradient of f (x) = x
2
1 at the point where x = 2 by:
a sketching a graph and nding the gradient of the tangent at x = 2
b differentiating using rst principles.
THINK WRITE
a Sketch the graph of f (x) over a domain
which includes the given value of x.
a
Construct a tangent at the given
point on the curve. (It is difcult to
be accurate.)
Find the gradient of this tangent by
evaluating .
Gradient of tangent at x = 2 is
approximately .
1 y
x 0
1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
5
5
4
3
2
6
7
8
(3, 6)
(0, 5)
3
11
2
3
rise
run
--------
11
3
------ 3
2
3
--- =
8
WORKEDExample
Note: Answer a (3 ) is very close to answer b (4).
THINK WRITE
b Find f (x) using rst principles. b f (x) = , h 0
=
=
=
=
=
= 2x
Evaluate f (2) to nd the gradient at x = 2. f (2) = 2(2)
f (2) = 4
1
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
h 0
lim
x h + ( )
2
1 x
2
1 ( )
h
-----------------------------------------------------
h 0
lim
x
2
2xh h
2
1 x
2
1 + + +
h
--------------------------------------------------------------
h 0
lim
2xh h
2
+
h
---------------------
h 0
lim
h 2x h + ( )
h
-----------------------
h 0
lim
2x h + ( )
h 0
lim
2
2
3
---
Use rst principles to differentiate g(x) = x
2
x.
THINK WRITE
a Find g(x + h) and simplify. a g(x + h) = (x + h)
2
(x + h)
= x
2
+ 2xh + h
2
x h
b Find g(x) using rst principles.
b g(x) = ,
=
=
=
=
=
= 2x 1
g x h + ( ) g x ( )
h
------------------------------------- h 0 ,
h 0
lim
x
2
2xh h
2
x h x
2
x ( ) + +
h
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
h 0
lim
x
2
2xh h
2
x h x
2
x + + +
h
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
h 0
lim
2xh h
2
h +
h
------------------------------
h 0
lim
h 2x h 1 + ( )
h
--------------------------------
h 0
lim
2x h 1 + ( )
h 0
lim
9
WORKEDExample
Limits and differentiation from
rst principles
1 Evaluate the following limits.
2 By rst simplifying the rational expression, evaluate the following limits.
a b c
d e
f
g h i
j
a b c
d e f
g h i
j
1. The limit of a function is the value that y approaches as x approaches a given
value.
2. If a function is continuous at a point then a limit exists at that point and can be
found by direct substitution.
3. If a function is discontinuous at a point then the limit exists only if the function
is approaching the same value from both left and right. If there is a break in the
curve and the point lies within the break then the limit does not exist.
4. The limit of expressions with a denominator can be found.
(a) If direct substitution makes the denominator equal to zero then factorise the
numerator, cancel and then use direct substitution.
(b) If direct substitution does not make the denominator equal to zero then use
direct substitution.
5. The gradient of a chord or secant is found using .
6. The gradient at a point P on a curve, is f (x) = , h 0.
7. The gradient at a point P on a curve is the gradient of the tangent to the curve
at that point.
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
h 0
lim
remember
7B
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Limits
WORKED
Example
5
x 4 + ( )
x 2
lim 2p 3 ( )
p 2
lim 8 3h ( )
h 0
lim
x
2
5 ( )
x 3
lim x
2
4x 3 + ( )
x 1
lim
x
3
5x 2 + ( )
x 3
lim
2m
2
5m 3 ( )
m 4
lim 10 x x
2
x
3
+ ( )
x 2
lim
x
2
5x 6 + +
x 2 +
---------------------------
x 0
lim
x
2
2x 3
x 3
--------------------------
x 1
lim
WORKED
Example
6
x
2
3x +
x
-----------------
x 0
lim
x
3
4x
2
5x +
x
--------------------------------
x 0
lim
3x
2
3x
x 1
--------------------
x 1
lim
2x
2
2x +
x 1 +
---------------------
x 1
lim
x
2
4
x 2
--------------
x 2
lim
x
2
3x 2 + +
x 1 +
---------------------------
x 1
lim
x
2
5x 6
x 6
--------------------------
x 6
lim
h
3
8
h 2
--------------
h 2
lim
x
3
27 +
x 3 +
-----------------
x 3
lim
x
2
4x 5 +
x 5 +
--------------------------
x 5
lim
3 Evaluate the following.
Questions 4 and 5 refer to the following diagram. Consider the chord drawn to the
curve f (x) as shown.
4 Find the gradient of the chord
drawn to the curve f(x) = x
2
+ 1 in the
diagram at right.
5
The gradient of the tangent at P in the
diagram is:
A h B 4 + h C 4h
D 4 + h
2
E 4
6 a Find the gradient of the chord to the function f (x) = x(x + 2) if the
x-coordinates of P and Q are 1 and 1 + h respectively.
b Hence, nd the gradient of the function at P.
7 Find the gradient of g(x) = 4 x
2
at the point where x = 2 by:
a sketching a graph and nding the gradient of the tangent at x = 2
b differentiating using rst principles.
8 Find the gradient of h(x) = 2x
2
6x at x = 1 by using:
a a sketch graph to nd the gradient of the tangent at x = 1
b differentiation from rst principles.
9
The gradient of a function f (x) at the point where x = 3 is:
10 Use rst principles to differentiate f (x) if:
11 Use rst principles to nd if:
a b c
d e f
g h
i
A B C
D E
a f (x) = 3x + 5 b f (x) = x
2
3 c f (x) = x
2
+ 6x
d f (x) = (x 4)(x + 2) e f (x) = 8 3x
2
f f (x) = x
3
+ 2
a y = 9 4x b y = x
2
+ 3x c y = x
2
2x + 7
d y = 3x
2
+ 8x 5 e y = x
3
4x f y = 5x 2x
3
g y = h y = x
2
2x
3x 4 ( )
x 3
lim
x
2
9
x 3 +
--------------
x 3
lim
x
2
x 6 +
x 2
-----------------------
x 2
lim
x
3
4 +
x 2 +
--------------
x 1
lim
h
3
64
h 4
-----------------
h 4
lim x
3
x
2
6 + ( )
x 2
lim
x
2
3x +
x 1
-----------------
x 3
lim
x
3
1 +
x 1
--------------
x 1
lim
x
2
7x 12 + +
x 4 +
------------------------------
x 4
lim
PQ
WORKED
Example
7
PQ
y
x 0
2
1
f (x) = x
2
+1
Q (2+h, f (2+h))
P (2, f (2))
multiple choice
PQ
WORKED
Example
8
multiple choice
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
h 0
lim
f 3 h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
h 0
lim
f 3 h + ( ) f 3 ( )
h
--------------------------------------
h 0
lim
f 3 h + ( ) f 3 ( )
h
--------------------------------------
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
WORKED
Example
9
M
a
th
c
a
d
Differentiation
from first
principles
dy
dx
------
x
2
3
-----
The derivative of x
n
Instead of using the procedure of differentiating from rst principles, rules can be
applied to nd derivatives. These rules can be derived from rst principles and have
been looked at in detail in Mathematical Methods Units 1 and 2.
If f (x) = ax
n
then f (x) = nax
n 1
, where a and n are constants.
If f (x) = c then f (x) = 0, where c is a constant. (This is because c = x
0
and, using the
rule, the derivative of x
0
is 0 x
1
or 0).
For example, if y = x
7
then = 7x
6
. If f(x) = 5x
4
then f (x) = 20x
3
.
If f (x) = g(x) + h(x) then f (x) = g(x) + h (x), that is, differentiate each term of a
function separately.
If f (x) = a g(x), where a is a constant, then f (x) = a g(x).
dy
dx
------
Differentiate .
THINK WRITE
Write the equation.
Differentiate each of the three terms
separately.
y x
4
3
2
--- x
2
7 + =
1
y x
4
3
2
--- x
2
7 + =
2
dy
dx
------ 4x
4 1
3
2
--- 2 ( )x
2 1
0 + =
4x
3
3x =
10
WORKEDExample
Find the derivative of:
a b .
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation. a
Rewrite and using negative
indices.
Differentiate each term.
Write the function in the form
originally given.
f x ( )
1
x
---
1
x
------- + = f x ( )
x x +
x
2
----------------- =
1
f x ( )
1
x
---
1
x
------- + =
2
1
x
---
1
x
------- f x ( ) x
1
x
1
2
---
+ =
3 f x ( ) x
1 1
1
2
--- x
1
2
--- 1
=
x
2
x
3
2
---
2
------- =
4

1
x
2
-----
1
2 x
3
------------ =
11
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
b Write the equation.
b
Rewrite using indices.
Separate the function into two terms
expressed in index form.
Simplify each term.
Differentiate each term.
Simplify f (x).
1 f x ( )
x x +
x
2
---------------- =
2
x
x x
1
2
---
+
x
2
-------------- =
3
x
x
2
-----
x
1
2
---
x
2
----- + =
4 x
1
x
3
2
---
+ =
5 f x ( ) 1x
1 1
3
2
--- x
3
2
--- 1
=
x
2
3
2
--- x
5
2
---
=
6
1
x
2
-----
3
2x
5
2
---
-------- =
1
x
2
----- =
3
2 x
5
------------
If , nd a f (x) b f (2).
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation. a f (x) = x
3
2x
2
+
Express f (x) so each term is in index
form.
= x
3
2x
2
+ 8x
1
Differentiate f (x) to obtain the
gradient function f (x).
f (x) = 3x
2
4x 8x
2
Simplify f (x). = 3x
2
4x
b Evaluate f (2). b f (2) = 3(2)
2
4(2)
= 12 8 2
= 2
Therefore the gradient of f (x) is 2 when
x = 2.
f x ( ) x
3
2x
2
8
x
--- + =
1
8
x
---
2
3
4
8
x
2
-----
8
2
2
-----
12
WORKEDExample
The derivative of x
n
1 Find the derivative of each of the following.
2 Differentiate each of the following.
a y = x
6
b y = 3x
2
c y = 5x
4
d y = x
20
e y = 4x
3
f y = 5x g y = x
3
h y =
i y = 10 j y = 8x
5
a f (x) = 4x
3
+ 5x b g(x) = 5x
2
+ 6x + 1
c h(x) = 9 + d h(x) = 4 3x + 6x
2
+ x
3
e g(x) = 7x
11
+ 6x
5
8 f f (x) =
g f(x) = 6x + 3x
2
4x
3
h g (x) = 7x
2
4x +
i h(x) = (x + 4)(x 1) j f (x) = (x
2
+ 2x)(3x 6)
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m x
3
4x + x
3
n
1. Rules for differentiating ax
n
(a) If f (x) = ax
n
then f (x) = nax
n 1
, where a and n are constants.
(b) If f (x) = c then f (x) = 0, where c is a constant.
(c) If f(x) = ag(x), where a is a constant then f (x) = ag(x).
2. If f (x) = g(x) + h(x) then f (x) = g(x) + h(x).
Differentiate each term of a function separately.
3. To evaluate f (a) where a is a constant, replace every x in the f (x) equation with
the value of a. For example, if f (x) = 2x
2
3x + 1, f (2) = 2 2
2
3 2 + 1 = 3.
remember
7C
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Derivatives
1
2
---
x
4
3
-----
WORKED
Example
10
x
3
5
-----
2x
5
5
--------
x
3
3
----- 10 + +
2
3
---
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
7.3
WORKED
Example
11
2
x
3
----- 3 x x
1
3
---
4x
5
4
---
x 2x
2
1
x
--- x
2
+
x
1
2
---
x
2
3
---
+
x 3 +
x
------------
x
2
x
3
+
x
----------------
3
4x
------
2
5x
2
--------
2
x
------- 3x
2
+
1
3
---
x x
1
4
---
+
x
--------------
4 If f (x) = 2x
5
10x + 5 nd:
5
If f (x) = x
2
6x then f (4) is equal to:
6
The value of f (9) if f (x) = x
2
+ 10x is:
7 Find g(2) if g(x) = .
8 Find the gradient of the curve y = at the point where a x = 2 and b x = 0.
9 Find the gradient of f (x) = 2x
3
x
2
+ at the point where x equals:
10 If g(x) = , nd a g (x) b g (1) c g (8) d g (8)
11 Show that the derivative of y = k, where k is a constant, is zero.
12 For each of the following:
i expand the brackets
ii differentiate the expanded expression
iii factorise.
13 Using the results of question 12 give the derivative of (ax + b)
n
in factorised form.
(a, b, n are constants.)
The gradient of a function at a particular point can be found by using the nDeriv
function on the graphics calculator. nDeriv(Y1, x, 2) will calculate the gradient of the
function entered as Y1 at the point when x = 2.
Or, to nd the gradient of f (x) = x
3
2x
2
+ at x = 2, follow these steps.
1. Press and 8 to access the nDeriv function.
2. Enter the equation as shown and press .
3. The answer 2.000 000 5 will appear, as the nDeriv
function gives an approximate answer only.
a f (x) b f (2)
A 8 B 12 C 12 D 2 E 16
A B 18 C 12 D 8 E 0
a 1 b 4 c 9
a (x + 1)
2
b (x + 1)
3
c (2x + 1)
2
d (2x + 1)
3
e (3x + 1)
2
f (3x + 1)
3
WORKED
E
12
multiple choice
multiple choice
x
3
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
x
2
----- 3x 8 +
5
x
4
-----
1
x
-------
x
3
4x +
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the gradient of a function at a
particular point
8
x
---
MATH
ENTER
xample
The chain rule
A function which can be expressed as a composition of two simpler functions is called
a composite function. For example, y = (x + 3)
2
can be expressed as y = u
2
where u = x + 3.
That is, to obtain y from x, the rst function to be performed is to add 3 to
x (u = x + 3), then this function has to be squared (y = u
2
).
Or if x = 1, to obtain y rst calculate 1 + 3 (= 4), then secondly square the result,
4
2
, giving y = 16.
Composite functions can be differentiated using the chain rule. For example, using
the previous function, y = (x + 3)
2
:
Let u = x + 3, so y = u
2
.
Then and .
But we require and . This is known as the chain rule. It is known
as the chain rule because u provides the link between y and x.
Now = 2u 1
= 2(x + 3) 1 (replacing u with x + 3)
= 2(x + 3)
The chain rule is used when it is necessary to differentiate a function of a function
as above.
du
dx
------ 1 =
dy
du
------ 2u =
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------ =
dy
dx
------
If y = (3x 2)
3
is expressed as y = u
n
, nd:
a b and hence c .
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation. a y = (3x 2)
3
Express y as a function of u.
Let y = u
3
where u = 3x 2
Differentiate y with respect to u.
b Express u as a function of x. b u = 3x 2
Differentiate u with respect to x.
c Find using the chain rule. c =
= 3u
2
3
= 9u
2
Replace u as a function of x.
=
dy
du
-------
du
dx
-------
dy
dx
------
1
2
3
dy
du
------ 3u
2
=
1
2
du
dx
------ 3 =
1
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
2 9 3x 2 ( )
2
13
WORKEDExample
A quicker way to apply the chain rule when a function can be expressed in index
form is as follows.
If f (x) = [g(x)]
n
then f (x) = n[g(x)]
n 1
g'(x). That is, differentiate the bracket and
then what is inside the bracket; outside then inside.
If nd f (x).
THINK WRITE
Write the equation.
Express f (x) in index form, that is, as
y = [g(x)]
n
.
Express y as a function of u.
Let where u = 2x
2
3x
Express u as a function of x. u = 2x
2
3x
Find f (x) using the chain rule. =
Replace u as a function of x and
simplify.
=
=
=
f x ( )
1
2x
2
3x
------------------------- =
1
f x ( )
1
2x
2
3x
------------------------- =
2 y 2x
2
3x ( )
1
2
---
=
3
y u
1
2
---
=
4
dy
du
------
1
2
--- u
3
2
---
=
5
6
du
dx
------ 4x 3 =
7
dy
dx
------ f x ( ) =
1
2
--- u
3
2
---
4x 3 ( )
8
1
2
--- 4x 3 ( ) 2x
2
3x ( )
3
2
---
4x 3 ( )
2 2x
2
3x ( )
3
2
---
-------------------------------
3 4x
2 2 ( x
2
3x )
3
-------------------------------------
14
WORKEDExample
Find the derivative of f (x) = (x
2
2x)
3
.
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. f (x) = (x
2
2x)
3
Let g(x) equal what is inside the bracket. g(x) = x
2
2x
Find g(x). g(x) = 2x 2
Use the rule f (x) = n[g(x)]
n 1
g(x)
to differentiate f (x).
n = 3, f (x) = 3(x
2
2x)
3 1
(2x 2)
= 3(x
2
2x)
2
[2(x 1)]
= 6(x 1)(x
2
2x)
2
Simplify f (x) as far as possible. = 6(x 1)[x(x 2)x(x 2)]
= 6x
2
(x 1)(x 2)
2
.
1
2
3
4
5
15
WORKEDExample
The chain rule
1 If each of the following functions are expressed in the form y = u
n
, state
i u and ii n.
2
If y = (x + 3)
5
is expressed as y = u
5
then:
3 If each of the following composite functions are expressed as y = u
n
, determine:
i ii and hence iii .
For questions 4, 5 and 6 below, y = is expressed as y = u
n
.
4
=
a y = (5x 4)
3
b y = c
d e y = (5x + 3)
6
f
A u = (x + 3)
5
B u = x + 3 C u = x
D u = 3 E u = x
5
a b c
d e y =
f
g y = 3(2x
2
+ 5x)
5
h y = (4x 3x
2
)
2
i
j y = 4(5 6x)
4
A
B C
D E
1. A composite function is a function composed of two (or more) functions.
2. Composite functions can be differentiated using the chain rule, .
3. A short way of applying the chain rule is:
If f (x) = [g(x)]
n
then f (x) = n[g(x)]
n 1
g(x).
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------ =
remember
7D
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Chain
rule
3x 1 + y
1
2x 3 + ( )
4
---------------------- =
y
1
7 4x
--------------- = y 4 3x ( )
4
3
---
=
multiple choice
WORKED
Example
13
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
dy
dx
------
y 3x 2 + ( )
2
= y 7 x ( )
3
= y
1
2x 5
--------------- =
y
1
4 2x ( )
4
---------------------- = 5x 2 +
y
3
3x 2
------------------- =
y x
1
x
--- +

6
=
x
2
3x 2 +
multiple choice
dy
du
------
1
2
--- u
u
1
2
--- 1
2 u
----------
1
2
--- u
3
2
---
1
2
--- u
1
2
---
5
=
6
Using the chain rule, is equal to:
7 Use the chain rule to nd the derivative of the following.
8 If , nd f (x).
9 Use the chain rule to nd the derivative of the following. (Hint: Simplify rst using
index notation and the laws of indices.)
a b
a f (x) = (x
2
+ 5x)
8
b y = (x
3
2x)
2
c d
11 If f (x) = (2x 1)
6
, nd f (3).
12 If g(x) = (x
2
3x)
2
, nd g(2).
13 If , nd:
14 Find the gradient of the function h(x) = at the point where x = 2.
15 Find the value of f (1) if f (x) = .
A 2x 3 B x
2
3x + 2 C x
2
3x
D x
2
x + 1 E x 3
A B C
D
E
a y = (8x + 3)
4
b y = (2x 5)
3
c f (x) = (4 3x)
5
d y =
e f (x) =
f g(x) = (2x
3
+ x)
2
g
h y = (x
2
3x)
1
a f (3) b f (x) c f (3) d f (x) when x = 2.
multiple choice
du
dx
------
1
2
---
3
2
---
multiple choice
dy
dx
------
2x 3
u
---------------
2x 3
2 x
2
3x 2 +
----------------------------------
x
2
3x 2 +
2 u
--------------------------
1
2
--- 2x 3 ( )
1
2
--- 2x 3 ( ) x
2
3x 2 + ( )
1
2
---
3x
2
4
x
2
4x ( )
1
3
---
g x ( ) x
1
x
---

6
=
WORKED
Example
14
f x ( )
1
4x 7 +
------------------- =
y
6x 5
6x 5
------------------- = f x ( )
x
2
2 + ( )
2
x 2 +
--------------------- =
WORKED
Example
15
f x ( ) x
3
2x
2
7 + ( )
1
5
---
= y 2x
4
3x
2
1 + ( )
3
2
---
=
f x ( ) x
2
2x 1 + =
3x
2
2x +
W
o
r
k
S
H
E
ET
7.1
3
5 4x
-------------------
The derivative of e
x
If f (x) = e
x
then using rst principles
f (x) = , h 0
=
=
=
=
Note that can be deduced by using a calculator and substituting values of h
close to zero.
h
That is,
Therefore, f (x) = e
x
1
= e
x
If f (x) = e
x
then f (x) = e
x
.
0.01 1.0050
0.0001 1.000 05
0.000 001 1.000 000
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
h 0
lim
e
x h +
e
x
h
----------------------
h 0
lim
e
x
e
h
e
x
h
---------------------
h 0
lim
e
x
e
h
1 ( )
h
------------------------
h 0
lim
e
x
e
h
1
h
--------------
h 0
lim
e
h
1
h
--------------
h 0
lim
e
h
1
h
--------------
e
h
1
h
--------------
h 0
lim 1. =
Differentiate y = e
5x
.
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. y = e
5x
Express u as a function of x and nd
.
Let u = 5x so
Express y as a function of u and nd
.
y = e
u
so
Find using the chain rule.
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 5 =
3
dy
du
------
dy
du
------ e
u
=
4
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ 5e
u
=
5 5e
5x
=
16
WORKEDExample
This example shows that if f (x) = e
kx
then f (x) = ke
kx
.
Find the derivative of y = e
2x + 1
.
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. y = e
2x + 1
.
Let u = 2x + 1 so
.
y = e
u
so
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 2 =
3
dy
du
------
dy
du
------ e
u
=
4
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ e
u
2 =
2e
u
=
2e
2x 1 +
= 5
17
WORKEDExample
Differentiate a f (x) = e
x
(e
x
2) b .
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation. a f (x) = e
x
(e
x
2)
Expand. = e
2x
2e
x
Differentiate. f (x) = 2e
2x
2e
x
Factorise in order to leave the answer in
the form it was given.
= 2e
x
(e
x
1)
b Write the equation. b
Write each term in the numerator over
each term in the denominator.
Divide the numerator of each term by its
denominator using the laws of indices.
Differentiate each term. f (x) = e
x
+ 4e
2x
Write your answer in the form it was
given.
f x ( )
e
2x
2e
x
e
x
------------------------ =
1
2
3
4
1 f x ( )
e
2x
2e
x
e
x
------------------------ =
2
e
2x
e
x
------- =
2e
x
e
x
----------
3 e
2x x
= 2e
x x
e
x
2e
2x
=
4
5
e
x
=
4
e
2x
------- +
18
WORKEDExample
This example shows that if f (x) = e
g(x)
then f (x) = g(x) e
g(x)
.
The following screen shows how a Mathcad le can be used to obtain the result in
worked example 19.
Find the derivative of .
THINK WRITE
Write the equation.
.
Let u = x
3
x so = 3x
2
1
.
y = e
u
so = e
u
y e
x
3
x
=
1 y e
x
3
x
=
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
3
dy
du
------
dy
du
------
4
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ e
u
3x
2
1 ( ) =
3x
2
1 ( )e
u
=
3x
2
1 ( )e
x
3
x
= 5
19
WORKEDExample
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Derivatives
The derivative of e
x
1 Differentiate each of the following using the chain rule.
3
The derivative of y = e
3x + 2
is equal to:
A 3e
3x + 2
B (3x + 2)e
3x + 2
C 3e
3x
D 3xe
3x + 2
E 3xe
3x
5 Find the derivative of each of the following:
6
The derivative of is equal to:
7 If f (x) = 5e
9 4x
, nd the exact value of f (2).
8 If , give the exact value of g(0).
9 Find the exact value of h(1) if .
a y = e
10x
b c
d y = e
x
e y = 2e
3x
f y = 4e
5x
g y = 6e
2x
h y = 5e
0.2x
i y = 2e
11x
a y = e
6x 2
b y = e
8 6x
c y = 2e
5x + 3
d y = 4e
7 2x
e y = 3e
8x + 1
f y = 2e
6 5x
g y = 10e
6 9x
h y = 5e
3x + 4
i y = 6e
7x
j k l
a b c
d e f
g h
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k
l
m
n
A B C
D E
1. If f (x) = e
x
, f (x) = e
x
. 2. If f (x) = e
kx
, f (x) = ke
kx
.
3. If f (x) = ae
kx + c
, f (x) = ake
kx + c
. 4. If f (x) = ae
g(x)
, f (x) = g(x) ae
g(x)
.
remember
7E
M
a
th
c
a
d
Derivatives
WORKED
Example
16
y e
1
3
--- x
= y e
x
4
---
=
WORKED
Example
17
y 2e
x
2
--- 1 +
= y 3e
2
x
3
---
= y 4e
x
4
--- 5 +
=
multiple choice
WORKED
Example
18
f x ( ) 2 e
x
1 + ( ) = f x ( ) 3e
2x
e
x
1 + ( ) = f x ( ) 5 e
4x
2x + ( ) =
f x ( ) e
x
2 + ( ) e
x
3 + ( ) = f x ( )
3e
3x
e
6x
+
e
x
-------------------------- = f x ( )
4e
7x
2e
x
e
2x
--------------------------- =
f x ( ) e
x
e
2
+ = f x ( ) 4e
5x
2x
2
e
3
+ =
WORKED
Example
19 y e
x
2
3x +
= y e
x
2
3x 1 +
= y e
x
2
2x
=
f x ( ) e
2 5x
= f x ( ) e
6 3x x
2
+
= g x ( ) e
x
3
3x 2 +
=
h x ( ) 3e
4x
2
7x
= y 5e
1 2x 3x
2
= y e
2x 1 + ( )
3
=
f x ( ) e
4 x ( )
4
= g x ( ) e
x 2 + ( )
2
=
y e
3x 4 +
=
f x ( ) e
x 1 + ( )
1
3
---
=
h x ( ) e
x
2
3x + ( )
2
=
multiple choice
6e
x
3
5x
3x
2
5 6 3x
2
5 ( )e
x
3
5x
3x
2
5 ( )e
x
3
5x
6 x
3
5x ( )e
x
3
5x
6 3x
2
5 ( )e
3x
2
5
g x ( ) 2e
x
2
3x 2 +
=
h x ( ) 5e
x
3
2x +
=
The derivative of log
e
x
The inverse of the function f (x) = e
x
is f
1
(x) = log
e
x.
If y = log
e
x then e
y
= x as shown in chapter 3, Exponential and logarithmic equations.
Let x = e
y
= e
y
But = and e
y
= x
Therefore, = .
=
That is, if f (x) = log
e
x then f (x) = .
If f (x) = log
e
kx, where k is a constant then f (x) = .
dx
dy
------
dy
dx
------
1
dx
dy
------
---------
dy
dx
------
1
e
y
----
1
x
---
1
x
---
Differentiate y = log
e
7x.
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. y = log
e
7x
Express u as a function of x and nd .
u = 7x, so
Express y as a function of u and nd .
y = log
e
u, so
Find . = 7
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 7 =
3
dy
du
------
dy
du
------
1
u
--- =
4
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
1
7x
------
1
x
--- =
20
WORKEDExample
1
x
---
Find the derivative of y = 2 log
e
(3x 4).
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. y = 2 log
e
(3x 4)
Express u as a function of x. Let u = 3x 4.
1
2
21
WORKEDExample
This example shows that if f (x) = log
e
[g(x)] then f (x) = .
THINK WRITE
Express y as a function of u. y = 2 log
e
u
Replace u with 3x 4.
3
du
dx
------ 3 =
4
5
dy
du
------ 2
1
u
--- =
2
u
--- =
6
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
2
u
--- 3 =
6
u
--- =
7
6
3x 4
--------------- =
Differentiate y = log
e
(x
2
+ 4x 1).
THINK WRITE
e
(x
2
+ 4x 1)
Let u equal the section in brackets. Let u = x
2
+ 4x 1
Express y as a function of u. y = log
e
u
Replace u with what is in the brackets.
1
2
3
du
dx
------ 2x 4 + =
4
5
dy
du
------
1
u
--- =
6
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
1
u
--- 2x 4 + ( ) =
7

2x 4 +
x
2
4x 1 +
-------------------------- =
22
WORKEDExample
g x ( )
g x ( )
------------
1. If f (x) = log
e
x, then f (x) = .
2. If f (x) = log
e
kx, then f (x) = .
3. If f (x) = log
e
(g(x)), then f (x) = .
1
x
---
1
x
---
g x ( )
g x ( )
------------
remember
e
x
1 If y = log
e
4x is expressed as y = log
e
u, then nd:
2 Differentiate each of the following.
a y = log
e
10x b y = log
e
5x
c y = log
e
(x) d y = log
e
(6x)
e y = 3 log
e
4x f y = 6 log
e
9x
g y = log
e
h y = log
e
i y = 4 log
e
j y = 5 log
e
3
e
8x is:
4
To differentiate y = log
e
(3x + 7) using the chain rule:
a u would be used to represent
b and are respectively
c Hence is equal to
a y = log
e
(2x + 5) b y = log
e
(6x + 1)
c y = log
e
(3x 4) d y = log
e
(8x 1)
a u b c d using the chain rule.
A 8 B C D E log
e
8
A 3x + 7 B 3x C log
e
x D log
e
3x E x
A and 3x + 7 B and 3x C 3 and
D and 3 E 1 and 3
A 3 B C
D E
7F
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Derivative
of log
e
x
du
dx
------
dy
du
------
dy
dx
------
WORKED
Example
20
x
2
---

x
3
---

x
5
---

2x
3
------

multiple choice
1
8
--- x
8
x
---
1
x
---
multiple choice
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
1
u
---
1
u
---
1
3x
------
1
u
---
dy
dx
------
1
x
---
3
3x 7 +
---------------
1
3x 7 +
---------------
3
x
---
WORKED
Example
21
e y = log
e
(3 5x) f y = log
e
(2 x)
g y = log
e
(4 7x) h y = 6 log
e
(5x + 2)
i y = 8 log
e
(4x 2) j y = 4 log
e
(12x + 5)
k y = 7 log
e
(8 9x)
6 Differentiate the following.
7
Using the chain rule the derivative of f (x) = log
e
(x
2
5x + 2) would be:
8 Find the gradient of the function f (x) = 6 log
e
(4 3x) when x = 1.
9 If g(x) = 3 log
e
(3x + 5) nd the value of g(0).
10 Find the exact value of f (2) if f (x) = 3x
2
+ 4 log
e
(x
2
+ x).
11 If , nd:
a
b the exact gradient when i x = 1 ii x = 2 iii x = 4 iv x = 10.
Can you explain this result?
12 If , nd:
a f (x)
b the exact value of i f (1) ii f (5) iii f (2).
a y = log
e
3x
4
b y = log
e
(x
2
+ 3)
c y = log
e
(x
2
+ 4x) d y = log
e
(x
2
3x + 2)
e y = log
e
(x
3
+ 2x
2
7x) f y = log
e
(x
2
2x
3
+ x
4
)
g y = log
e
h y = log
e
i y = log
e
j y = log
e
k y = log
e
l f (x) = log
e
m f (x) = log
e
n f (x) = log
e
(3x 2)
4
o f (x) = log
e
(5x + 8)
2
p f (x) = log
e
A B C
D E
WORKED
Example
22
2x 1 + 3 4x
x
2
2 +
x 3 + ( )
1
4
---
5x 2 + ( )
1
3
---
2 3x ( )
1
5
---
1
x 3 +
------------

2
4 3x +
---------------

multiple choice
1
x
2
5x 2 +
--------------------------
5
x
2
5x 2 +
--------------------------
2x 5
1
x 2x 5 ( )
-----------------------
2x 5
x
2
5x 2 +
--------------------------
y e
log
e
x
=
dy
dx
------
f x ( ) e
log
e
x
2
=
The derivatives of sin x and cos x
The derivatives of sin x and cos x can be obtained by differentiation from rst prin-
ciples but are beyond the requirements of this course.
If f (x) = sin x then f (x) = cos x and if f (x) = cos x then f (x) = sin x.
This example shows that if f (x) = sin ax, then f (x) = a cos ax.
Similarly if f (x) = cos ax, then f (x) = a sin ax.
This example shows that the chain rule can be applied as follows.
If f (x) = sin [g(x)] then f (x) = g(x) cos [g(x)].
If f (x) = cos [g(x)] then f (x) = g(x) sin [g(x)].
Find the derivative of y = sin 5x.
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. y = sin 5x
Let u = 5x so
y = sin u so
Replace u with 5x.
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 5 =
3
dy
du
------
dy
du
------ cos u =
4
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ 5 cos u =
5 5 cos 5x =
23
WORKEDExample
Differentiate y = cos (x
2
+ 2x 3).
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. y = cos (x
2
+ 2x 3)
Let u = x
2
+ 2x 3 so
y = cos u so
Find using the chain rule. = sin u (2x + 2)
Replace u with the part in brackets in the rule
and simplify.
= 2(x + 1) sin (x
2
+ 2x 3)
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 2x 2 + =
3
dy
du
------
dy
du
------ sin u =
4
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
5
24
WORKEDExample
The derivatives of sin x
and cos x
1 Find the derivative of each of the following:
3
a The derivative of sin 6x is:
b The derivative of cos 4x is:
c The derivative of sin (4x) is:
d The derivative of cos (8x) is:
e The derivative of sin is:
4 If y = sin (4x + 3) is expressed as y = sin u, nd:
a y = sin 8x b y = sin (6x) c y = sin x
d y = sin e y = sin f y = sin
a y = cos 3x b y = cos (2x) c y = cos
d y = cos 21x e y = cos (7x) f y = cos
g y = cos h y = cos
A 6 cos 6x B 6 cos x C 6 sin x D 6 cos 6x E cos 6x
A 4 sin 4x B 4 sin x C 4 sin x D 4 cos 4x E 4 sin 4x
A 4 cos (4x) B 4 cos (x) C 4 cos 4x D 4 cos (4x) E 4 sin 4x
A 8 cos (8x) B 8 sin (8x) C 8 sin (8x) D 8 sin (x) E 8 sin (x)
A 5 cos B cos C cos D sin E cos x
a b c using the chain rule.
1. If f (x) = sin x then f (x) = cos x
2. If f (x) = cos x then f (x) = sin x
3. If f (x) = sin ax then f (x) = acos ax
4. If f (x) = cos ax then f (x) = asin ax
5. If f (x) = sin [g(x)] then f (x) = g (x) cos [g(x)]
6. If f (x) = cos [g(x)] then f (x) = g (x) sin [g(x)]
remember
7G
M
a
th
c
a
d
Derivative
of sine and
cosine
WORKED
Example
23
x
3
---
x
2
---

2x
3
------
x
3
---
x
4
------
x
8
---

2x
5
------
multiple choice
1
6
---
x
5
---
x
5
---
1
5
---
x
5
---
1
5
---
x
5
---
1
5
---
x
5
---
1
5
---
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
dy
dx
------
5 If y = cos (3x + 1) is expressed as y = cos u, nd:
9 If f(x) = 3 sin (x
2
+ x) nd f (1) (answer correct to 3 decimal places).
10 Find the gradient of the curve g(x) = 2 cos (x
3
3x) at the point where x = 0.
11 For each of the following functions nd:
i f (x) and
ii the exact value of f .
a b c using the chain rule.
a y = sin (2x + 3) b y = sin (6 7x) c y = sin (5x 4)
d y = sin e y = sin f y = 5 sin 2 x
g y = 4 sin
a y = cos (3x 2) b y = cos (4x + 7) c y = cos (8 x)
d y = cos (6 5x) e y = cos f y = cos
g y = 4 cos 10 x h y = 6 cos (2x)
a cos (x
2
4x + 3) b sin (10 5x + x
2
)
c sin (e
x
) d cos (x
2
+ 7x)
e cos (4x x
2
) f sin (x
2
+ 3x)
g cos (log
e
x) h sin (e
4x
)
i sin (log
e
3x) j cos
k sin [log
e
(2x 1)]
l sin (3e
2x
)
m cos (2e
3x
)
n 3 cos (log
e
10x)
o 4 sin (x
3
+ 2x
2
)
p 8 sin
q 2 cos
r cos (x
2
+ 2x) + sin (3x 9)
s sin (x
2
4) 3 cos (8 3x)
t 5 cos + 6 sin + 4x
3
a f(x) = e
sin x
b f(x) = e
cos x
c f(x) = log
e
(sin x) d f(x) = log
e
(cos x)
dy
du
------
du
dx
------
dy
dx
------
3x 2 +
4
---------------

8 7x
3
---------------

3x
8
------
2x 3 +
3
---------------

4x 1
5
---------------

WORKED
Example
24
1
x
---

3x
5
------

x
4
---

3x 7 +
10
---------------

5 4x
3
---------------

6
---

The product rule
Any function which is a product of two simpler functions, for example,
1. f (x) = (x + 2)(x 5) or 2. f (x) = (x
2
5x + 6) sin (3x + 5)
can be differentiated using the product rule of differentiation.
While example 1 could be expanded and then differentiated, example 2 cannot and
therefore can be differentiated only by using the product rule.
Product rule
If y = uv then .
Or if f (x) = u(x) v(x) then f (x) = u(x) v(x) + v(x) u(x).
dy
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------ v
du
dx
------- + =
If y = (3x 1)(x
2
+ 4x + 3) is expressed as y = uv, nd:
a u and v b and c using .
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation. a y = (3x 1)(x
2
+ 4x + 3)
Identify u and v, two functions of x
which are multiplied together.
Let u = 3x 1 and v = x
2
+ 4x + 3.
b Differentiate u with respect to x. b
Differentiate v with respect to x.
c Apply the product rule to nd . c = u + v
= (3x 1)(2x + 4) + (x
2
+ 4x + 3) 3
Expand and simplify where possible. = 6x
2
+ 10x 4 + 3x
2
+ 12x + 9
= 9x
2
+ 22x + 5
du
dx
-------
dv
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------ v
du
dx
------- + =
1
2
1
du
dx
------ 3 =
2
dv
dx
------ 2x 4 + =
1
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dv
dx
------
du
dx
------
2
25
WORKEDExample
Find the derivative of y = log
e
4x sin (3x 2).
THINK WRITE
e
4x sin (3x 2)
Identify u and v. Let u = log
e
4x and let v = sin (3x 2).
Find and . = 3 cos (3x 2)
Find using the product rule. = log
e
4x 3 cos (3x 2) + sin (3x 2)
Simplify wherever possible.
= 3 log
e
4x cos (3x 2) + sin (3x 2)
1
2
3
du
dx
------
dv
dx
------
du
dx
------
1
x
--- =
dv
dx
------
4
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
1
x
---
5
1
x
---
26
WORKEDExample
The product rule
1 If y = (x + 3)(2x
2
5x) is expressed as y = u v, nd:
a u and v
b and
c using the product rule, .
a y = 4x
3
log
e
6x b g(x) = (3x 2) log
e
2x
3
The derivative of f (x) = x
2
sin 2x is:
4 Use the product rule to differentiate each of the following.
5 If f (x) = (2x + 1) log
e
(x + 3), nd the exact value of f (1).
6 Find g(0) if g(x) = 5e
2x
cos 4x.
7 Find the value of f (2) if f (x) = (x
2
+ 2) sin (4 3x) (answer correct to 3 decimal
places).
8 If g(x) = (6x + x
2
) e
x 3
, nd the exact value of g(2).
A f (x) = 2x cos 2x B f (x) = 4x cos 2x
C f (x) = 2x sin 2x + x
2
cos 2x D f (x) = 2x sin 2x + 2x
2
cos 2x
E f (x) = 2x sin x + 2x
2
cos x
a y = x cos x b y = 3x sin x
c y = (5x 2) e
x
d y = e
3x
(2 11x)
e y = x
5
cos (3x + 1) f y = 2x
3
log
e
7x
g y = e
2x
log
e
(2x 5) h y = 8 sin 5x log
e
5x
i y = 5 cos 2x sin x j y = sin cos x
k f (x) = e
4x 3
log
e
6x l f (x) = 4e
5x
sin (2 x)
m f (x) = cos 6x
n f (x) =
3x
o f (x) = 2x
3
sin (2x + 3) p f (x) = e
2x
log
e
(3x
2
+ 5)
q f (x) = (x
2
+ e
3x
)(4 e
3x
) r f (x) = (x
3
+ 7x
2
)(x
2
4x + 1)
s f (x) = (x
2
6)(2 + 3x x
2
) t f (x) = x cos 2x
1. If y = u v then .
2. If f (x) = u(x) v(x) then f (x) = u(x) v(x) + v(x) u(x).
dy
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------ = v
du
dx
------ +
remember
7H
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Product
rule
WORKED
Example
25
du
dx
------
dv
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------ v
du
dx
------ + =
WORKED
Example
26
multiple choice
4x
3
------
1
x
-------
x e
W
o
r
k
S
H
E
ET
7.2
The quotient rule
The quotient rule is used to differentiate functions which are rational expressions (that
is, one function divided by another). For example,
1. or 2.
Quotient rule
If y = then =
Or if f (x) = then f (x) = .
f x ( )
x
2
6x 3 +
5x 2 +
-------------------------- = f x ( )
e
3x 8 +
cos 6 x ( )
-------------------------- =
u
v
---
dy
dx
------
v
du
dx
------- u
dv
dx
------
v
2
--------------------------------------
u x ( )
v x ( )
-----------
v x ( )u x ( ) u x ( )v x ( )
v x ( ) [ ]
2
-----------------------------------------------------
If y = is expressed as y = , nd:
a u and v b and c .
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation. a y =
Identify u and v. Let u = 3 x and v = x
2
+ 4x.
b Differentiate u with respect to x. b
Differentiate v with respect to x.
c Apply the quotient rule to obtain
.
c =
=
Simplify where possible,
factorising the nal answer where
appropriate.
3 x
x
2
4x +
------------------
u
v
---
du
dx
-------
dv
dx
------
dy
dx
------
1
3 x
x
2
4x +
-----------------
2
1
du
dx
------ 1 =
2
dv
dx
------ 2x 4 + =
1
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
v
du
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------
v
2
-------------------------------------
x
2
4x + ( ) 1 3 x ( ) 2x 4 + ( )
x
2
4x + ( )
2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
dy
dx
------
x
2
4x 12 2x 2x
2
+ ( )
x
2
4x + ( )
2
---------------------------------------------------------------- =
x
2
4x 12 2x 2x
2
+
x
2
4x + ( )
2
------------------------------------------------------------ =
x
2
6x 12
x
2
4x + ( )
2
----------------------------- =
x
2
6x 12
x
2
x 4 + ( )
2
----------------------------- =
27
WORKEDExample
Compare the solution in the above worked example with the computer generated solution below.
Find the derivative of .
THINK WRITE
Write the equation.
Identify u(x) and v(x). Let u(x) = 2e
3x
.
Let v(x) = cos (2x 3).
Differentiate u(x) and v(x) with
respect to x.
u(x) = 6e
3x
v(x) = 2 sin (2x 3)
Apply the quotient rule to obtain
f (x).
f (x) =
=
Simplify where possible. =
=
f x ( )
2e
3x
cos 2x 3 ( )
------------------------------ =
1 f x ( )
2e
3x
cos 2x 3 ( )
------------------------------ =
2
3
4
v x ( )u x ( ) u x ( )v x ( )
v x ( ) [ ]
2
-----------------------------------------------------
cos 2x 3 ( ) 6e
3x
2e
3x
2 sin 2x 3 ( ) [ ]
cos 2x 3 ( ) [ ]
2
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5
6e
3x
cos 2x 3 ( ) 4e
3x
sin 2x 3 ( ) +
cos 2x 3 ( ) [ ]
2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2e
3x
3 cos 2x 3 ( ) 2 sin 2x 3 ( ) + [ ]
cos
2
2x 3 ( )
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
28
WORKEDExample
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Quotient
rule
1. If then .
2. If then .
y
u
v
--- =
dy
dx
------
v
du
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------
v
2
------------------------------------- =
f x ( )
u x ( )
v x ( )
----------- = f x ( )
v x ( )u x ( ) u x ( )v x ( )
v x ( ) [ ]
2
----------------------------------------------------- =
remember
The quotient rule
1 If y = is expressed as y = , nd:
a u and v
b and
c using the quotient rule, = .
2 If is expressed as f(x) = , nd:
a u(x) and v(x)
b u(x) and v(x)
c f (x) using the quotient rule.
4
If then h(x) equals:
a b c
d e f
g h
i
j
k
l
m n o
p
q r
s t
u
A B C
D E
7I
M
a
th
c
a
d
Quotient
rule
WORKED
Example
27
x 3 +
x 7 +
------------
u
v
---
du
dx
------
dv
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
v
du
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------
v
2
-------------------------------------
f x ( )
x
2
2x +
5 x
----------------- =
u x ( )
v x ( )
-----------
WORKED
Example
28 2x
x
2
4x
-----------------
x
2
7x 6 + +
3x 2 +
---------------------------
cos x
e
x
------------
4x 7
10 x
---------------
5 x
2
x
3
2
---
--------------
e
2x
x
-------
3x
2
log
e
4x
------------------
sin 4x
cos 2x
----------------
log
e
x 1 + ( )
x
2
2 +
-----------------------------
e
3x 2 +
cos 2x
----------------
log
e
5x 2 ( )
sin 3x 2 ( )
--------------------------------
4x
x
2
3x 2 +
--------------------------
2x
3
7x +
e
5x
---------------------
x
2
5
x
--------------
sin x
cos x
-------------
e
3x
3x 8 +
---------------
4 log
e
8x
x
2
2x
-----------------------
sin x
x
--------------
2 cos 3 2x ( )
x
2
-----------------------------------
3e
2 7x
x 3 +
-----------------
e
2x
2x 3
---------------
multiple choice
h x ( )
8 3x
2
x
----------------- =
9x
2
8
x
2
-----------------
8 9x
2
x
2
-----------------
3x
2
8 +
x
2
----------------------
3x
2
8
x
2
----------------------
3x
2
8 +
x
----------------------
5
The derivative of is:
6
If then g(x) is equal to:
7 If nd when x = 0.
8 Find the gradient of the function at the point where x = 1.
9 Find the exact value of g(5) if .
A B
C D
E
A B
C D
E
Derivation of the
quotient rule
Use the product rule and chain rule with y = to obtain and hence conrm the
formula for the quotient rule.
multiple choice
f x ( )
sin 4x
4x 1 +
--------------- =
f x ( )
4 4x 1 + ( ) cosx 4 sin 4x
4x 1 + ( )
2
--------------------------------------------------------------- = f x ( )
4x 1 + ( ) cos 4x 4 sin 4x
4x 1 + ( )
2
----------------------------------------------------------------- =
f x ( )
4 4x 1 + ( ) cos 4x 4 sin 4x
4x 1 +
-------------------------------------------------------------------- = f x ( )
4 4x 1 + ( ) cos 4x 4 sin 4x
4x 1 + ( )
2
-------------------------------------------------------------------- =
f x ( )
4 sin 4x 4 4x 1 + ( ) cos 4x
4x 1 + ( )
2
------------------------------------------------------------------- =
multiple choice
g x ( )
cos 3x 2 ( )
e
x
----------------------------- =
3e
x
sin 3x 2 ( ) e
x
cos 3x 2 ( )
e
2x
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
e
x
sin 3x 2 ( ) e
x
cos 3x 2 ( )
e
2x
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
e
x
cos 3x 2 ( ) 3e
x
cos 3x 2 ( ) +
e
2x
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3e
x
sin 3x 2 ( ) e
x
cos 3x 2 ( )
e
x
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3e
x
sin 3x 2 ( ) e
x
cos 3x 2 ( )
e
2x
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
y
cos 2x
e
3x
---------------- =
dy
dx
------
f x ( )
2x 3x
2
log
e
3x 4 + ( )
-------------------------------- =
g x ( )
4 log
e
2x
3x
----------------------- =
u
v
---
dy
dx
------
Mixed problems on differentiation
Problems on differentiation may involve any combination of chain, product and
quotient rules.
For each of the following decide which rule of differentiation, that is, chain, product or
quotient rule, would be useful to nd the derivative.
a b (x
2
5x)
6
c (x
2
+ 2x 3) cos 2x d e
x
2
+ 3x
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation.
a
It is of the form , that is, a rational
function.
Quotient rule
b Write the equation. b y = (x
2
5x)
6
It is a composite function of the form
u
6
, where u = x
2
5x.
Chain rule
c Write the equation. c y = (x
2
+ 2x 3) cos 2x
It is of the form u v, that is, the
product of two functions.
Product rule
d Write the equation. d y = e
x
2
+ 3x
It is a composite function of the form
e
u
, where u = x
2
+ 3x.
Chain rule
log
e
x
sin x
---------------
1 y
log
e
x
sinx
-------------- =
2
u
v
---
1
2
1
2
1
2
29
WORKEDExample
Find the derivative of y = 2x
3
cos (x
2
+ x).
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Write the equation. y = 2x
3
cos (x
2
+ x)
Decide which rule to use and
identify u and v to apply the rule.
u = 2x
3
and v = cos (x
2
+ x) so use the product rule.
1
2
3
du
dx
------ 6x
2
=
30
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
v is a composite function, so
differentiate v with respect to x
using the chain rule.
v = cos (x
2
+ x)
Let w = x
2
+ x.
= 2x + 1
v = cos w
= sin w
=
So = (sin w)(2x + 1)
= (2x + 1) sin (x
2
+ x)
Apply the product rule
to nd .
= u + v
= 2x
3
[(2x + 1)] sin (x
2
+ x) + cos (x
2
+ x) 6x
2
Simplify where possible.
= 2x
3
(2x + 1) sin (x
2
+ x) + 6x
2
cos (x
2
+ x)
= 2x
2
[3 cos (x
2
+ x) x(2x + 1) sin (x
2
+ x)]
4
dw
dx
-------
dv
dw
-------
dv
dx
------
dv
dw
-------
dw
dx
-------
dv
dx
------
5
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
dv
dx
------
du
dx
------
6
1. Chain rule
(a)
(b) A short way to apply the chain rule is:
If then .
2. Product rule
(a) If y = uv then .
(b) If f (x) = u(x) v(x) then f (x) = u(x) v(x) + v(x) u(x).
3. Quotient rule
(a) If then .
(b) If then .
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------ =
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
n
= f x ( ) n g x ( ) [ ]
n 1
g x ( ) =
dy
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------ = v
du
dx
------ +
y
u
v
--- =
dy
dx
------
v
du
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------
v
2
------------------------------------- =
f x ( )
u x ( )
v x ( )
----------- = f x ( )
v x ( )u x ( ) u x ( )v x ( )
v x ( ) [ ]
2
----------------------------------------------------- =
remember
Mixed problems on
differentiation
1 For each function given below, state which rule of differentiation would be used to nd
the derivative, that is, chain (C), product (P) or quotient (Q).
2 Using the appropriate rule nd the derivative of each function in question 1.
3 Find the derivative of each of the following. (Note that more than one rule will need to
be applied in some cases.)
a f (x) = log
e
8x b f (x) = 3x sin x c
d
e g(x) = e
5x
sin x
f
g h(x) = cos (x
2
4x) h f (x) = e
x
log
e
5x
i g(x) = log
e
(sin x)
j f (x) = sin
2
x
k
l
m g(x) = e
cos x
n f (x) = tan x
a y = e
5x
cos (4x 7)
b
c y = log
e
(x + 1)
3
d y = cos (x
2
6x)
e f (x) = e
x
cos 2x
f
g h y = log
e
(sin 3x)
i j f (x) = (x 1)(x
2
+ 5x + 3)
k g(x) = e
x
(x
2
+ 3)
l
m f (x) = e
4x
cos (4x 3) n y = cos
2
3x
o y = log
e
(cos 3x) p
q r f (x) = [log
e
(5x 1)]
4
s
t y = sin
u f (x) = 3x
5
cos (2x + 1)
v
w y = e
x sin x
x f (x) = 3 cos
2
x + e
7x
x
3
y
z h (x) = cos
3
x
7J
M
a
th
c
a
d
Derivatives
WORKED
Example
29
g x ( )
3x 7 +
4x
2
--------------- =
h x ( )
4x
cosx
----------- = g x ( )
x
2
9x 8 +
log
e
x
-------------------------- =
h x ( )
x 2
e
x
----------- =
f x ( ) log
e
x =
WORKED
Example
30
y
x 2
3x 1 +
------------------- =
f x ( )
sin 2x
cos 2x
---------------- =
f x ( )
1
sin x
------------ =
y 4e
3x
2
5x 2 +
=
g x ( )
2x 3 + ( )
5
x
3
5
---------------------- =
f x ( )
sin x
4
x
2
-------------- =
f x ( )
cos 2x
sin 2x
---------------- =
y
log
e
x
x
----------------- =
x 3 +
x 2
------------

g x ( )
log
e
x
3
2
---
x
2
----------------- =
x ( ) 3 sin 6x log
e
5x
2
( ) 4e
x
2
---
+ =
The gradient of a function exists wherever the graph of the function is smooth and
continuous.
If the gradient of a function, f (x), is zero at x = a, then its gradient function, f (x),
will have an x-intercept at x = a.
When the gradient of a function is positive, the graph of the gradient function is
above the x-axis and when the gradient of a function is negative, the graph of the
gradient function is below the x-axis.
A polynomial function has a gradient function which is also a polynomial function,
but its degree is reduced by one.
The gradient of a chord (secant) or the average rate of change is given by:
.
A limit is the value that y approaches as x approaches a given value.
A limit exists if the function is approaching the same value from both left and right.
The gradient of the tangent to a curve at a point P is the gradient of the curve at P
and is given by .
For a function y = f (x), its derivative is expressed as either or f (x).
Summary of derivatives:
f (x) f (x)
c 0
ax
n
nax
n 1
[g(x)]
n
ng(x)[g(x)]
n 1
e
x
e
x
e
kx
ke
kx
e
g(x)
g(x)e
g(x)
log
e
x
log
e
kx
log
e
[g(x)]
sin x cos x
sin ax a cos ax
cos x sin x
cos ax a sin ax
summary
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
f x h + ( ) f x ( )
h
--------------------------------------
h 0
lim
dy
dx
------
The chain rule of differentiation is:
The product rule of differentiation states:
1. if y = u v, then
2. if f (x) = u(x) v(x) then
f (x) = u(x) v(x) + v(x) u(x).
The quotient rule of differentiation states:
1. if then .
2. if then
f (x) =
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------ =
dy
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------ = v
du
dx
------ +
y
u
v
--- =
dy
dx
------
v
du
dx
------ u
dv
dx
------
v
2
------------------------------------- =
f x ( )
u x ( )
v x ( )
----------- =
v x ( )u x ( ) u x ( )v x ( )
v x ( ) [ ]
2
-----------------------------------------------------
1
x
---
1
x
---
g x ( )
g x ( )
------------
Multiple choice
1 The graph of f (x) is shown below.
The graph of its gradient function is:
2 For the function g(x) graphed below
the gradient function g(x) is dened over the domain:
3 The value of is:
4 is:
A B C
D E
A R B R\{1} C R\{4} D R\{1, 4} E [1, 4]
A undened B 0 C 1 D 4 E 6
A 22 B 22 C 6 D undened E 6
CHAPTER
review
7A
y
x
0
3
4
f (x)
y
x
0
3
y
x
0
3
y
x
0
3
y
x
0
3
y
x
0
4
7A
y
x
0
1 4
7B
x
2
2x 8
x 4
--------------------------
x 4
lim
7B
x
3
5x
x 1 +
-----------------
x 3
lim
5 The derivative of f (x) = 4x
3
x
2
+ 3x is:
6 The derivative of is:
7 The derivative of (2x + 5)
6
is:
9 If y = 5e
6x
then is equal to:
10 If y = e
4x + 7
then is:
11 The derivative of log
e
(3x 2) is:
12 The derivative of 2 log
e
(x
2
+ x) is:
13 If y = cos 8x then is:
14 If y = 2 sin (2x + 3) then is equal to:
A 12x
2
2x + 3 B 4x
2
2x + 3 C 12x
2
2x
D 12x
2
x + 3 E 4x
2
2x
A B C D E
A 6(2x + 5)
5
B 12x(2x + 5)
5
C 6x(2x + 5)
5
D 12(2x + 5)
5
E 12(2x + 5)
4
A
B
C
D
E
A 30e
6x
B 6e
6x
C 5e
6x 1
D 30e
6x 1
E 5e
7x
A 4e
4x + 6
B e
4x + 6
C e
4x + 7
D 4e
4x + 7
E 4e
3x + 7
A B C D E
A B C
D E
A 8 sin 8x B sin 8x C 8 sin 8x D 8x sin 8x E sin 8x
A 4x cos (2x + 3) B 4 cos (2x + 3) C 4 cos (2x + 3)
D 4 cos 2x E 2 cos (2x + 3)
7C
7C
g x ( )
1
x
2
----- 2 x =
1
x
---
2
x
-------
2
x
3
-----
2
x
-------
2
x
3
-----
1
x
-------
2
x
---
2
x
-------
2
x
3
-----
1
x
3
2
---
-----
7D
7D
1
4x 9
-------------------
2 4x 9
2
4x 9 ( )
3
--------------------------
4
4x 9 ( )
3
2
---
----------------------
4 4x 9
2
4x 9
---------------
7E
dy
dx
------
7E
dy
dx
------
7F
1
3x 2
---------------
1
3x
------
1
x
---
1
3 3x 2 ( )
-----------------------
3
3x 2
---------------
7F
2 2x 1 + ( )
x
2
x +
-----------------------
2 2x 1 + ( )
x
-----------------------
2x 1 +
x
2
x +
---------------
2x
x
2
x +
--------------
4x
x
2
x +
--------------
7G
dy
dx
------
7G
dy
dx
------
15 If f (x) = x
2
e
2x
then f (x) is equal to:
16 If g(x) = 2x log
e
3x then g(x) must be:
19 If g(x) = (x
2
+ 3x 7)
5
then g(x) is equal to:
20 The derivative of sin x cos x is:
Short answer
1 The graph of a cubic function is shown below.
Sketch the graph of its gradient function.
2 Find .
3 a Find the derivative of f (x) = x
3
+ 2x using rst principles.
b Hence nd the gradient at the point where x = 1.
A 2xe
2x
+ 2x
2
e
2x
B 2xe
2x
C 4xe
2x
D 2xe
2x
2x
2
e
2x
E 2xe
2x
+ x
2
e
2x
A 2 log
e
3x + B 2 log
e
3x + 2 C 2 log
e
3x + 6x
D 2 log
e
3x E 2 log
e
3x + 6x log
e
3x
A B C
D 4x 5 E
A B C
D E
A 5(x
2
+ 3x 7)
4
B (2x + 3)(x
2
+ 3x 7)
4
C 5(2x + 3)
4
D 5(2x + 3)(x
2
+ 3x 7)
4
E (x
2
+ 3x 7)
4
A 2 sin x cos x
B sin
2
x cos
2
x C sin
2
x + cos
2
x
D cos
2
x sin
2
x E sin
2
x cos
2
x
7H
7H
2
3
---
2
3
---
7I
2x 1 +
x 2
---------------
4x 5
x 2 ( )
2
-------------------
3
x 2 ( )
2
-------------------
4x 3
x 2 ( )
2
-------------------
5
x 2 ( )
2
-------------------
7I
e
4x
x
2
-------
x 2 ( )e
4x
x
3
------------------------
2 1 2x ( )
x
3
-----------------------
2 2x 1 ( )e
4x
x
3
-------------------------------
x
2
e
4x
2e
4x
x
4
-----------------------------
2e
4x
x
3
----------
7J
7J
7A
y
x 0
2 1 3 1 4
f (x)
7B
h
3
2h
2
4h + +
h
---------------------------------
h 0
lim
7B
4 a Find the gradient function if g(x) = .
b Find the gradient of g(x) when x = 3.
5 If , nd:
a h(x)
b i h(1) ii h(2).
6 If , nd the gradient when a x = 2 and b x = 1.
7 Find the derivative of .
8 Differentiate f(x) = e
2x 1
.
9 a Find f (x) if f(x) = .
b What is the value of x when f (x) = 0?
10 Find if y = log
e
(2x
3
4).
11 The tangent to the curve f(x) = log
e
(ax 1) when x = 2, has a gradient of 1.
a Find the value of a.
b Find the equation of the tangent at the point when x = 2.
12 Find f (x) if f(x) = 3 sin 2x and hence nd f (2).
13 If y = 3x
2
log
e
6x, nd .
14 Find f (x) if f(x) = .
15 Differentiate e
sin 2x
.
Analysis
A section of a roller-coaster ride follows part of the curve with
the equation y = (x
3
+ 30x
2
) as shown on the right.
a For what values of x (domain) is the gradient:
i zero?
ii positive?
iii negative?
b Sketch the gradient function.
c Use the graph of the gradient function to nd the value of x
where the gradient is steepest over the domain [25, 10].
d Find .
e Find the gradient where x equals:
i 25
ii 10
iii 10.
f Does this verify your answer to part c? Briey explain.
g What is the highest point reached by the roller-coaster? (Give your answer in metres.)
7C
x
3
3
----- 4x
7C
h x ( )
3x
4
2
--------
x
3
4
----- 3x + =
7D
y 4x 1 + ( )
3
2
---
=
7D
x
2
4 +
7E
7E
e
x
2
7F
dy
dx
------
7F
7G
7H
dy
dx
------
7I
cos x
x
------------
7J
y
x
0
12 20 28
1
200
---------
dy
dx
------
test
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
yourself
test
yourself
7
9
VCE
coverage
Area of study
Unit 2 Calculus
In this
chapter
9A Rates of change
9B Sketching graphs
containing stationary
points
9C Solving maximum and
minimum problems
9D Applications of
antidifferentiation

Applications
of
differentiation
396


Rates of change

The rate of change of a function refers to the rate at which its gradient is changing. For linear
functions the gradient is constant; however, the gradient for other functions such as quadratic
or cubic polynomials is continually changing.
Differentiation provides us
with a tool to describe the gradient
of a function and hence determine its
rate of change at any particular point.
In essence, while average rates of
change can be determined from the
original function, differentiation of this
function provides a new function that
describes the instantaneous rate of change.

Note

: The term

instantaneous rate of
change

is often referred to as

rate of change

.
The rate of change of
velocity with respect to
time is acceleration.
If f (x) = x
2
2x + 4 nd:
a the average rate of change between x = 2 and x = 4
b a new function that describes the rate of change
c the instantaneous rate of change when x = 4.
THINK WRITE
a Write the function.
a f(x) = x
2
2x + 4
Average rate of change = . Average rate of change =
=
= 4
b Differentiate f (x). b f (x) = 2x 2
c Substitute x = 4 into f (x). c f (4) = 2(4) 2
= 6
So the rate of change when x = 4 is 6.
1
2
change in f x ( )
change in x
------------------------------------
f 4 ( ) f 2 ( )
4 2
-----------------------------
12 4
2
---------------
1
WORKEDExample
The rate of change of
position with respect to
time is velocity.
C h a p t e r 9 A p p l i c a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n 397
It is worth noting that there are two common ways of writing the derivative as a func-
tion. For example, the derivative of the function P(x) = x
2
+ 5x 7 may be written as
P(x) = 2x + 5 or as .
A javelin is thrown so that its height, h metres above the
ground, is given by the rule:
h(t) = 20t 5t
2
+ 2, where t represents time in seconds.
a Find the rate of change of the height at any time, t.
b Find the rate of change of the height when i t = 1 ii t = 2 iii t = 3.
c Briey explain why the rate of change is initially positive,
then zero, and then negative over the rst 3 seconds.
d Find the rate of change of the height when the javelin rst
reaches a height of 17 metres.
THINK WRITE
a Write the rule. a h(t) = 20t 5t
2
+ 2
Differentiate h(t). h(t) = 20 10t
b Evaluate h(1). b h(1) = 20 10(1)
= 10 m/s
Evaluate h(2). h(2) = 20 10(2)
= 0 m/s
Evaluate h(3). h(3) = 20 10(3)
= 10 m/s
c For rates of change:
Positive means increasing.
Zero means neither increasing nor decreasing.
Negative means decreasing.
c The javelin travels upward during the
rst 2 seconds.
When t = 2 seconds the javelin has
reached its maximum height.
When t > 2 seconds the javelin is
travelling downward.
d Find the time at which a height of 17 m
occurs, by substituting h = 17 into h(t).
d 20t 5t
2
+ 2 = 17
Make RHS = 0. 5t
2
+ 20t 15 = 0
Solve for t.
Note: the quadratic formula could also
be used to solve for t.
t
2
4t + 3 = 0
(t 1)(t 3) = 0
t = 1 or 3
The rst time it reaches 17 m is the
smaller value of t.
It rst reaches 17 m when t = 1 s.
Evaluate h(1). h(1) = 20 5(1)
2
= 15 m/s
Rate of change of height is 15 m/s.
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
2
WORKEDExample
dP
dx
------- 2x 5 + =
The shockwave from a nuclear blast
spreads out at ground level in a
circular manner.
a Write down a relationship
between the area of ground,
A km
2
, over which the
shockwave passes and its
radius, r km.
b Find the rate of change of
A with respect to r.
c Find the rate of change of
A when the radius is 2 km.
d What is the rate of change
of A when the area covered
is 314 km
2
?
THINK WRITE
a State the formula for the area of a circle. a A(r) = r
2
b Differentiate A(r). b A(r) = 2 r
c Substitute r = 2 into A(r).
Note: The units for the rate of change of
A (km
2
) with respect to r (km) are
km
2
per km or km
2
/km.
c A(2) = 2(3.14)(2)
= 12.56
Rate of change of A when the radius is
2 km is 12.56 km
2
/km.
d Substitute A = 314 into the area
function A(r) and solve for r.
d A(r) = r
2
314 = 3.14r
2
r
2
=
= 100
r = 10 since r > 0
Find the rate of change when r = 10. A(10) = 2(10)
= 62.8
Rate of change of A when area is 314 km
2

is 62.8 km
2
/km.
1
314
3.14
----------
2
3
WORKEDExample
r km
Area A km
2
Average rates of change are calculated using the original function, while
differentiation of this function is needed in order to calculate instantaneous rates
of change at specic points.
remember
Rates of change
1 If f (x) = x
2
+ 5x + 15 nd:
a the average rate of change between x = 3 and x = 5
b a new function that describes the rate of change
c the (instantaneous) rate of change when x = 5.
2 A balloon is inated so that its volume, V cm
3
, at any time, t seconds later is:
V = t
3
+ 24t
2
, t [0, 10]
a What is the volume of the balloon when:
i t = 0? ii t = 10?
b Hence, nd the average rate of change between t = 0 and t = 10.
c Find the rate of change of volume when
i t = 0 ii t = 5 iii t = 10.
3
The average rate of change between x = 1 and x = 3 for the function y = x
2
+ 3x + 5 is:
4
The instantaneous rate of change of the function f (x) = x
3
3x
2
+ 4x, when x = 2 is:
5
If the rate of change of a function is described by = 2x
2
7x, then the function
could be:
6 In a baseball game the ball is hit
so that its height above the
ground, h metres, is
h(t) = 1 + 18t 3t
2
t seconds after being struck.
a Find the rate of change, h(t).
b Calculate the rate of change
of height after:
i 2 seconds
ii 3 seconds
iii 4 seconds.
c What happens when
t = 3 seconds?
d Find the rate of change of
height when the ball rst
reaches a height of 16 metres.
A 1 B 9 C 5 D 3 E 7
A 2 B 2 C 28 D 3 E 12
A y = 6x
3
14x
B y = x
3
7x C y = x
3
x
2
+ 5
D y = x
3
x
2
+ 2
E 2x
2
7x + 5
9A
WORKED
Example
1
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
9.1
M
a
th
c
a
d
Gradient
between two
points on
a graph
8
5
---
E
X
C
E
L
Spre
a
d
s
h
e
e
t
Gradient
between two
points on
a graph
multiple choice
multiple choice
multiple choice
dy
dx
------
2
3
---
2
3
---
7
2
---
7
2
---
WORKED
Example
2
7 The position, x metres, of a lift (above ground level) at any time, t seconds,
is given by:
x(t) = 2t
2
+ 40t
a Find the rate of change of displacement (velocity) at any time, t.
b Find the rate of change when:
i t = 5 ii t = 9 iii t = 11.
c What happened between t = 9 and t = 11?
d When and where is the rate of change zero?
8 The number of seats, N, occupied in a soccer stadium t hours after the gates
are opened is given by:
N = 500t
2
+ 3500t, t [0, 5]
a Find N when:
i t = 1 and ii t = 3.
b What is the average rate of change between t = 1 and t = 3?
c Find the instantaneous rate when:
i t = 0 ii t = 1 iii t = 3 iv t = 4.
d Why is the rate increasing in the rst 4 hours?
9 The weight, W kg, of a foal at any time, t weeks, after birth is given by:
W = 80 + 12t t
2
where 0 < t < 20
a What is the weight of the foal at birth?
b Find an expression for the rate of change of weight at any time, t.
c Find the rate of change after:
i 5 weeks ii 10 weeks iii 15 weeks.
d Is the rate of change of the foals weight increasing or decreasing?
e When does the foal weigh 200 kg?
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
9.2
3
10
------
10 The weekly prot, P (hundreds of dollars), of a factory is given by ,
where n is the number of employees.
a Find .
b Hence, nd the rate of change of prot, in dollars per employee, if the number of
employees is:
i 4
ii 16
iii 25.
c Find n when the rate of change is zero.
11 Gas is escaping from a cylinder so that its volume, V cm
3
, t seconds after the leak
starts, is described by V = 2000 20t t
2
.
a Find the rate of change after:
i 10 seconds
ii 50 seconds
iii 100 seconds.
b Is the rate of change ever positive? Why?
12 Assume an oil spill from an oil tanker is circular and remains that way.
a Write down a relationship between the area of the spill, A m
2
, and the radius,
r metres.
b Find the rate of change of A with respect to the radius, r.
c Find the rate of change of A when the radius is:
i 10 m
ii 50 m
iii 100 m.
d Is the area increasing more rapidly as the radius increases? Why?
13 A spherical balloon is being inated.
a Express the volume of the balloon, V m
3
, as a function of the radius, r metres.
b Find the rate of change of V with respect to r.
c Find the rate of change when the radius is:
i 0.1 m
ii 0.2 m
iii 0.3 m.
P 4.5n n
3
2
---
=
dP
dn
-------
1
100
---------
WORKED
Example
3
r
14 A rectangular sh tank has a square base with its height being equal to half its base
length.
a Express the length and width of the base in terms of its height, h.
b Hence, express the volume, V m
3
, in terms of the height, h, only.
c Find the rate of change of V when:
i h = 1 m
ii h = 2 m
iii h = 3 m.
15 For the triangular package shown nd:
a x in terms of h
b the volume, V, as a function of h only
c the rate of change of V when
i h = 0.5 m
ii h = 1 m.
16 A new estate is to be established on the side of a hill.
Regulations will not allow houses to be built on slopes where the gradient is greater
than 0.45. If the equation of the cross-section of the hill is
y = 0.000 02x
3
+ 0.006x
2

nd:
a the gradient of the slope
b the gradient of the slope when x equals:
i 160
ii 100
iii 40
iv 20
c the values of x where the gradient is 0.45
d the range of heights for which houses cannot be built on the hill.
17 A bushre burns out A hectares of land, t hours after it started according to the rule
A = 90t
2
3t
3
a At what rate, in hectares per hour, is the re spreading at any time, t?
b What is the rate when t equals:
i 0 ii 4 iii 8 iv 10 v 12 vi 16 vii 20?
c Briey explain how the rate of burning changes during the rst 20 hours.
d Why isnt there a negative rate of change in the rst 20 hours?
e What happens after 20 hours?
f After how long is the rate of change equal to 756 hectares per hour?
30
h
x
6
200
y
x
80
dy
dx
------
Sketching graphs containing stationary
points
The derivative of a function gives its gradient function that is, it gives the gradient of
a tangent to the curve for any specied value of the independent variable. When the
derivative equals zero the tangent is horizontal. The point, or points, on the curve where
this occurs are called stationary points.
In other words, a function f (x) has stationary points when f (x) = 0.
Stationary points can take the form of:
1. A local minimum turning point
2. A local maximum turning point, or
3. A point of inection.
Local minimum turning point
Just to the left of a, the gradient is negative; that is, if
x < a, but close to a, then f (x) < 0.
At the point where x = a the gradient is zero; that is, at
x = a, f (x) = 0.
Just to the right of a the gradient is positive; that is, if
x > a, but close to a, f (x) > 0.
In other words, for a stationary point at x = a, if the
gradient changes from negative to positive as we
move from left to right in the vicinity of a, it is a local minimum.
Local maximum turning point
If x < a, but close to a, then f (x) > 0.
At x = a, f (x) = 0.
If x > a, but close to a, f (x) < 0.
In other words, for a stationary point at x = a. If the
gradient changes from positive to negative as we move
from left to right in the vicinity of a, it is a local maximum.
The term local maximum or local minimum implies
that the function has a maximum or minimum in the
vicinity of x = a. This is important because some functions can have more than one
stationary point.
Point of inection
If x < a, but close to a, then f (x) > 0. If x < a, but close to a, f (x) < 0.
At x = a, f (x) = 0. At x = a, f (x) = 0.
If x > a, but close to a, f (x) > 0. If x > a, but close to a, f (x) < 0.
In other words, for a stationary point at x = a, if the gradient remains positive or
negative in the vicinity of a it is a point of inection.
y
x 0
a
f' (x) < 0
f' (x) > 0
f' (a) = 0
y
x 0
a
f' (x) > 0
f' (x) < 0
f' (a) = 0
y
x 0
a
f' (x) < 0
f' (x) < 0
f' (a) = 0
y
x 0
a
f' (x) > 0
f' (x) > 0
f' (a) = 0
If f (x) = x
3
6x
2
15x, nd:
a the value(s) of x where the gradient is zero b the stationary point(s).
THINK WRITE
a Write the function. a f(x) = x
3
6x
2
15x
Differentiate f (x) to nd the gradient
function f (x).
f (x) = 3x
2
12x 15
Solve f (x) = 0 to nd the x-values of
each stationary point.
For stationary points: f (x) = 0
3x
2
12x 15 = 0
3(x
2
4x 5) = 0
x
2
4x 5 = 0
(x 5)(x + 1) = 0
x = 5 or x = 1
b Substitute each value of x into f (x) to nd
the corresponding y-values.
b f (5) = (5)
3
6(5)
2
15(5)
= 100
f (1) = (1)
3
6(1)
2
15(1)
= 8
Write the coordinates of each stationary
point.
Stationary points occur at (5, 100)
and (1, 8).
1
2
3
1
2
4
WORKEDExample
If y = x
3
+ 2x
2
+ 3x 2 nd all stationary points and determine their nature.
THINK WRITE
Write the rule.
y = x
3
+ 2x
2
+ 3x 2
Differentiate y to nd the gradient function . = x
2
+ 4x + 3
Solve = 0 to nd the x-values of
For stationary points: = 0
x
2
+ 4x + 3 = 0
(x + 3)(x + 1) = 0
x = 3 or x = 1
Substitute each value of x into
y = x
3
+ 2x
2
+ 3x 2 to nd the
corresponding y-values.
When x = 3,
y = (3)
3
+ 2(3)
2
+ 3(3) 2
y = 2
One stationary point is (3, 2).
When x = 1,
y = (1)
3
+ 2(1)
2
+ 3(1) 2
y = 3
The other one is (1, 3 ).
1
3
---
1
1
3
---
2
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
3
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
4
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
5
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Determine the nature of the stationary
point at x = 3 by evaluating to the left
and right, say at x = 4 and at x = 2.
Since the gradient changes from positive
to negative as we move from left to right
in the vicinity of x = 3, the stationary
point (3, 2) is a local maximum.
When x = 4
= (4)
2
+ 4(4) + 3
= 3.
When x = 2
= (2)
2
+ 4(2) + 3
= 1.
(3, 2) is a local maximum.
point at x = 1 by evaluating to the left
and right, say at x = 2 and at x = 0.
Since the gradient changes from negative
to positive as we move from left to right in
the vicinity of x = 1, the stationary point
(1, 3 ) is a local minimum.
When x = 2
= (2)
2
+ 4(2) + 3
= 1.
When x = 0
= (0)
2
+ 4(0) + 3
= 3.
(1, 3 ) is a local minimum.
5
dy
dx
------
6
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
x
4 3 2
Zero gradient
Negative
gradient
Positive
gradient
7
dy
dx
------
8
1
3
---
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
x
2 1 0
Zero gradient
Positive
gradient
Negative
gradient
1
3
---
Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = 5 + 4x x
2
labelling all intercepts and stationary
points.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Write the function. f(x) = 5 + 4x x
2
Find the y-intercept by letting x = 0. y-intercept: if x = 0,
f (0) = 5 + 4(0) (0)
2
= 5
so y-intercept is (0, 5).
1
2
6
WORKEDExample
To nd a local maximum or minimum point on a func-
tion, enter it in the Y= menu and follow these steps.
1. Press [CALC] and select 4:maximum (or
3:minimum).
2. Use the arrow key to scroll to the left of a turning point
and press .
3. Use the arrow key to scroll to the right of the same
turning point and press twice.
THINK WRITE
Find the x-intercepts by letting f (x) = 0. x-intercepts: if f(x) = 0,
5 + 4x x
2
= 0
x
2
4x 5 = 0
(x + 1)(x 5) = 0
x = 1 or x = 5
so x-intercepts are (1, 0) and (5, 0).
Differentiate f (x) to nd the gradient
function f (x).
f (x) = 4 2x
Solve f (x) = 0 to nd the x-value/s of
For stationary points: f (x) = 0
4 2x = 0
2x = 4
x = 2
Substitute this value of x into
f (x) = 5 + 4x x
2
to nd the
corresponding y-value.
f (2) = 5 + 4(2) (2)
2
= 9
so there is a stationary point at (2, 9).
point at x = 2 by evaluating f (x) to the left
and right, say at x = 1 and x = 3.
Since the gradient changes from positive
to negative as we move from left to right
in the vicinity of x = 2, the stationary point
f (1) = 4 2(1)
= 2
f (3) = 4 2(3)
= 2
Sketch the graph.
3
4
5
6
7
8
x
1 2 3
Zero gradient
Negative
gradient
Positive
gradient
9
y
f (x)
x
0
5
2
1
9
5
(2, 9)
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding stationary (turning) points
2nd
ENTER
ENTER
Sketching graphs containing
stationary points
1 For each of the following functions determine the value(s) of x where the gradient is
zero.
a f (x) = x
2
+ 2x b f (x) = x
2
8x + 5
c f (x) = x
3
3x
2
d f (x) = 2x
3
+ 6x
2
18x + 1
e y = (x + 6)(x 2) f y = x
2
(x 1)
g y = 10 + 4x x
2
h y = x
3
3x
2
+ 5x 2
2 For each function in question 1 determine all of the stationary points.
3 If f (x) = x
2
8x + 1:
a show that it has a stationary point when x = 4
b evaluate f (3) and f (5) c state which type of stationary point it is.
4 For the function f (x) = 5 x
2
:
a nd x when f (x) = 0 b state what type of stationary point it has
5 If f (x) = x
3
4 then:
a show that it has a stationary point when x = 0 only
b nd f (1) and f (1) c state which type of stationary point it is
6 If f (x) = x
3
x
2
3x + 5:
a show there are stationary points when x = 1 and x = 3
b evaluate f (2), f (0) and f (4) c state what type of stationary points they are.
7
When x = 1, the curve y = 2x
2
3x + 1:
8
When x = 1 the function y = x
3
2x
2
7x:
A is decreasing B has a local maximum C has a local minimum
D is increasing E does not exist
A is decreasing B has a local maximum C has a local minimum
D is increasing E does not exist
When sketching graphs of polynomial functions, four main features should be
indicated:
1. the y-intercept (found by calculating y when x = 0)
2. the x-intercept(s) (found by solving the equation for x when y = 0)
3. the stationary point(s) (found by solving the equation = 0)
4. the type of stationary point(s) (found by checking the sign of the gradient to the
left and right of the stationary point).
dy
dx
------
remember
9B
E
X
C
E
L
Spre
a
d
s
h
e
e
t
Cubic
graphs
M
a
th
c
a
d
Cubic
graphs
WORKED
Example
4a
M
a
th
c
a
d
Quadratic
graphs
E
X
C
E
L
Spre
a
d
s
h
e
e
t
Quadratic
graphs
1
3
---
WORKED
Example
4b
1
3
---
multiple choice
multiple choice
9
The graph below best representing a function with f (2) = 0, f (x) < 0 if x < 2, and
f (x) > 0 if x > 2 is:
10
f (1) = f (4) = 0 and f (x) < 0 if 1 < x < 4 and f (x) > 0 if x < 1 and x > 4. The graph
below which satises these conditions is:
11 For each of the following nd the stationary points and determine their nature.
12 Sketch graphs of the following functions, labelling all intercepts and stationary points.
A B C
D
E
A B C
D E
a y = x
2
+ 6x + 2 b y = 8x 2x
2
c y = x
3
x
2
d y = x
3
+ x
2
3 e y = x
3
x
2
2x f y = (x 1)
3
g y = x
3
+ 3 h y = x
3
27x + 5
a f (x) = x
2
2x 3 b f (x) = x
3
3x 2
c f (x) = x
3
2x
2
+ x d f (x) = x
2
(3 x)
e f (x) = x
3
+ 4x
2
+ 4x f f (x) = x
3
4x
2
11x + 30
g f (x) = (x + 2)
3
h f (x) = 24 + 10x 3x
2
x
3
i f (x) = x
3
2x
2
x + 2 j f (x) = 8 x
3
multiple choice
y
f (x)
x 0
2
y
f (x)
x 0
2
y
f (x)
x 0
2
y
f (x)
x 0
2
f (x)
y
x 0
2
multiple choice
y
x 0
4 1
f (x)
x 0
4 1
f (x)
y y
x 0
4 1
f (x)
y
x 0
1 4
f (x)
y
x 0
1 4
f (x)
WORKED
Example
5
1
2
---
1
3
---
1
2
---
WORKED
Example
6
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
9.3
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
9.4
Solving maximum and minimum problems
There are many practical situations where it is necessary to determine the maximum or
minimum value of a function. For quadratic functions, differentiation makes this a rela-
tively simple task because as we saw in the previous section, setting the derivative
equal to zero allows us to solve an equation to obtain the value(s) of x for which the
local maximum or minimum values (turning points) occur.
When solving maximum or minimum problems it should be veried that it is in fact
a maximum or minimum by checking the sign of the derivative to left and right of the
turning point.
In the case of cubic and higher order polynomials,
the local maximum (or minimum) may or may not be
the highest (or lowest) value of the function in a given
domain.
An example where the local maximum, found by
solving f (x) = 0, is not the largest value of f(x) in the
domain [a, b] is shown. Here, B is the point where f(x) is greatest in this domain, and
is called the absolute maximum for the interval.
Case 1. The function is known
f (x)
y
x
0 a b
Absolute
maximum in
the interval
[a, b]
Local
maximum
A baseball elder throws the ball so that the equation of its path is:
y = 1.5 + x 0.02x
2
where x (metres) is the horizontal distance travelled by the ball and y (metres) is the
vertical height reached.
a Find the value of x for which the maximum height is reached (verify that it is a
maximum).
b Find the maximum height reached.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation of the path.
a y = 1.5 + x 0.02x
2
Find the derivative . = 1 0.04x
Solve the equation = 0 to nd the
value of x for which height is a
maximum.
For stationary points: = 0
1 0.04x = 0
0.04x = 1
x = 25
Determine the nature of this stationary
point at x = 25 by evaluating to the
left and right, say, at x = 24 and at x = 26.
When x = 24
= 1 0.04(24)
= 0.04.
When x = 26
= 1 0.04(26)
= 0.04.
1
2
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
3
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
4
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
Zero gradient
Negative
gradient
Positive
gradient
dy
dx
------
7
WORKEDExample
Case 2. The rule for the function is not given
If the rule is not given directly then the following steps should be followed:
1. Draw a diagram if necessary and write an equation linking the given information.
2. Identify the quantity to be maximised or minimised.
3. Express this quantity as a function of one variable only (often this will be x).
4. Differentiate, set the derivative equal to zero, and solve.
5. Determine, in the case of more than one value, which one represents the maximum
or minimum value.
6. For some functions, a maximum or minimum may occur at the extreme points of the
domain so check these also.
7. Answer the question that is being asked.
8. Sketch a graph of the function if it helps to answer the question, noting any restric-
tions on the domain.
THINK WRITE
Since the gradient changes from positive to
negative as we move from left to right in the
vicinity of x = 25, the stationary point is a
local maximum.
The stationary point is a local maximum.
b Substitute x = 25 into y = 1.5 + x 0.02x
2
to
nd the corresponding y-value (maximum
height).
b When x = 25,
y = 1.5 + 25 0.02(25)
2
= 14
So the maximum height reached is
14 m.
5
A farmer wishes to fence off a rectangular paddock on a straight stretch of river so that
only 3 sides of fencing are required. Find the largest possible area of the paddock if
240 metres of fencing is available.
THINK WRITE
Draw a diagram to represent the
situation, using labels to represent the
variables for length and width and write
an equation involving the given
information.
Let w = width
l = length
P = perimeter
P = l + 2w = 240 [1]
Write a rule for the area, A, of the paddock
in terms of length, l, and width, w.
A = l w [2]
1
Fence Fence
Fence
w
l
w
River
2
8
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Express the length, l, of the rectangle
in terms of the width, w, using
equation [1].
l + 2w = 240
l = 240 2w [3]
Express the quantity, A, as a function of
one variable, w, by substituting [3]
into [2].
Substituting [3] into [2]:
A(w) = (240 2w)w
= 240w 2w
2
Solve A(w) = 0. A(w) = 240 4w
For stationary points: A(w) = 0
240 4w = 0
240 = 4w
w = 60
Test to see if the stationary point at
w = 60 will produce a maximum or
minimum value for the area by evaluating
A(w) to the left and right, say, at w = 59
and at w = 61.
When w = 59
A(59) = 240 4(59)
= 4.
When w = 61
A(61) = 240 4(61)
= 4.
Since the gradient changes from positive to
negative as we move from left to right in the
vicinity of w = 60, the stationary point is a
local maximum.
Find the maximum area of the paddock
by substituting w = 60 into the function
for area.
The stationary point is a local maximum.
The area of the paddock is a maximum when
w = 60.
A(60) = (240 2 60) 60
= 7200 m
2
3
4
5
6
7
Zero gradient
Negative
gradient
Positive
gradient
8
Dening a function and setting its derivative equal to zero to form an equation
helps to tell us when a local maximum or minimum occurs. The solution(s) must
then be substituted into the original function to nd the actual maximum or
minimum value(s).
remember
Solving maximum and
minimum problems
1 A golfer hits the ball so that the
equation of its path is:
y = 1.2 + x 0.025x
2
where x (metres) is the horizontal
distance travelled by the ball and
y (metres) is the vertical height
reached.
a Find the value of x for which
the maximum height is reached
(and verify that it is a
maximum).
b Find the maximum height
reached.
2 If the volume of water, V litres, in a familys hot water tank t minutes after the shower
is turned on is given by the rule V = 200 1.2t
2
+ 0.08t
3
, where 0 t 15:
a nd the time when the volume is minimum (that is, the length of time the shower
is on)
b verify that it is a minimum by checking the sign of the derivative
c nd the minimum volume
d nd the value of t when the tank is full again.
3 A ball is thrown into the air so that its height, h metres, above the ground at time t
seconds after being thrown is given by the function:
h(t) = 1 + 15t 5t
2
a Find the greatest height reached by the ball and the value of t for which it occurs.
b Verify that it is a maximum.
4 A gardener wishes to fence off a rectangular vegetable patch against her back fence so
that only 3 sides of new fencing are required. Find the largest possible area of the
vegetable patch if she has 16 m of fencing material available.
5 The sum of two numbers is 16.
a By letting one number be x, nd an expression for the other number.
b Find an expression for the product of the two numbers, P.
c Hence, nd the numbers if P is a maximum.
d Verify that it is a maximum.
6 The rectangle at right has a perimeter of 20 cm.
a If the width is x cm, nd an expression for the
length.
b Write an expression for the area, A, in terms of x
only.
c Find the value of x required for maximum area.
d Find the dimensions of the rectangle for maximum area.
e Hence, nd the maximum area.
9C
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Quadratic
graphs
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Cubic
graphs
E
X
C
E
L
S
p
readsh
e
e
t
Quadratic
graphs
E
X
C
E
L
S
p
readsh
e
e
t
Cubic
graphs
G
C
p
r
o
g
ram
Maximum
G
C
p
r
o
g
ram
Minimum
WORKED
Example
7
WORKED
Example
8
Width = x
Length
7 A farmer wishes to create a rectangular pen to contain as much area as possible using
60 metres of fencing.
a Write expressions for the dimensions (length and width) of the pen.
b Hence, nd the maximum area.
8 The cost of producing a particular toaster is $(250 + 1.2n
2
) where n is the number pro-
duced each day. If the toasters are sold for $60 each:
a write an expression for the prot, P, dollars
b nd how many toasters should be produced each day for maximum prot
c hence, nd the maximum daily prot possible.
9 A companys income each week is $(800 + 1000n 20n
2
) where n is the number of
employees. The company spends $760 per employee for wages and materials.
a Write an expression for the company weekly prot, P dollars.
b Determine the number of employees required for maximum prot and hence cal-
culate the maximum weekly prot.
10 The sum of two numbers is 10. Find the numbers if the sum of their squares is to be a
minimum.
11 A square has four equal squares cut out of the corners as
shown at right. It is then folded to form an open rectangular
box.
a What is the range of possible values for x?
b In terms of x nd expressions for the
i height, ii length, and iii width of the box.
c Write an expression for the volume, V (in terms of x
only).
d Find the maximum possible volume of the box.
12 The base and sides of a shirt box are to be made from a rectangular sheet of cardboard
measuring 50 cm 40 cm. Find:
a the dimensions of the box required for maximum volume
b the maximum volume.
(Give answers correct to 2 decimal places.)
13 The volume of the square-based box shown at right is 256 cm
3
.
a Find h in terms of l.
If the box has an open top nd:
b the surface area, A, in terms of l only
c the dimensions of the box if the surface area is to be a
minimum
d the minimum area. (Hint: = l
1
.)
14 A closed, square-based box of volume 1000 cm
3
is to be constructed using the
minimum amount of metal sheet possible. Find its dimensions.
15 The cost of ying an aircraft on a 900 km journey is 1600 + v
2
dollars per hour,
where v is the speed of the aircraft in km/h. Find:
a the cost, C dollars, of the journey if v = 300 km/h
b the cost, C dollars, of the journey in terms of v. (Hint: time = distance speed.)
c the most economical speed and minimum cost.
12 cm
12 cm
x
h
l
l
1
l
---
W
o
r
k
S
H
E
ET
9.1
1
100
---------
When is a maximum not a maximum?
Often nding a maximum (or minimum) of a function is achieved by setting the
derivative equal to zero and solving for the independent variable (such as x). This
value of x is then substituted into the original function to nd the maximum
(or minimum) value of the function.
One danger of this method is that it assumes the local maximum or minimum is
the absolute maximum or minimum (see page 409).
Consider nding the maximum value of the function f(x) = 2x
2
+ 3x + 2
between x = 0 and x = 6:
f (x) = x
2
4x + 3
f (x) = (x 1)(x + 3)
So x = 1 or x = 3 for a local maximum or minimum.
A computer generated graph of f(x) reveals that the absolute maximum of f(x) in
the interval [0, 6] is not at x = 1 or x = 3!
The absolute maximum of f(x) obviously occurs at x = 6, and equals
f(6) = 2(3
2
) + 3(3) + 2
= 20
1 Find the absolute maximum of f(x) = x
3
+ 5x
2
8x 12 between x = 0 and x = 3.
2 Find the minimum of f(x) = x
3
+ 4x
2
+ 11x 30 in the interval [1, 5].
3 The temperature TC of a pottery classroom x minutes after the class has started
is described by the function T(x) = 0.000 08x(x + 2)
2
+ 21.
Sketch a graph of the temperature during a 50-minute class and determine when
the classroom is hottest, and what the temperature is then.
x
3
3
-----
y
x
0
2 2 4 6
10
5
5
10
f (x) =
x
3
3
2x
2
+ 3x + 2
6
3
3
-----
Applications of antidifferentiation
We will now consider the situation where the derivative of a function (the gradient
function) is known but the original function is unknown. Finding the original function
requires a process called antidifferentiation.
If f (x) = x
n
, n N, then
f (x) =
where c represents a constant.
This can be veried by differentiating .
The result is x
n
.
Similarly, if f (x) = ax
n
, a R, n N, then
f (x) =
We saw previously that an alternative expression for the derivative was .
Likewise, if , then
y =
The derivative of a function is also known as the gradient function and describes
the rate of change of the function.
The pieces of information used to nd the value of the constant that is generated
following antidifferentiation are called boundary conditions.
1
n 1 +
------------ x
n 1 +
c +
1
n 1 +
------------ x
n 1 +
c +
a
n 1 +
------------ x
n 1 +
c +
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ x
n
=
1
n 1 +
------------ x
n 1 +
c +
Find the rule for the function f(x) if f (x) = 3 + 4x x
2
and f(0) = 7.
THINK WRITE
Write the given expression. f (x) = 3 + 4x x
2
Antidifferentiate f (x) to obtain the
general rule for f (x).
f (x) = 3x + 2x
2
+ c
Substitute x = 0 and f (x) = 7 into f (x)
and solve to nd the value of the
constant, c.
7 = 3(0) + 2(0)
2
+ c
c = 7
Write the rule for f (x). f (x) = 3x + 2x
2
+ 7
1
2
x
3
3
-----
3
0 ( )
3
3
----------
4
x
3
3
-----
9
WORKEDExample
The Mathcad le Antidifferentiation may be used to check your antiderivatives, and
takes into account boundary conditions if there are any.
The rate of change of the volume, V cm
3
, of a balloon at any time, t seconds, after it is
inated beyond 6 litres is given by:
t [0, 3]
a Express V as a function of t. b What is the volume of the balloon when t = 1?
THINK WRITE
a Write the given expression. a = 3t
2
8t + 1
Find the general rule for volume by
antidifferentiation.
V(t) = t
3
4t
2
+ t + c
Find the value of the constant, c, by
substituting t = 0 and V = 6 into V(t).
6 = (0)
3
4(0)
2
+ (0) + c
c = 6
Write the rule for V(t). V(t) = t
3
4t
2
+ t + 6
b Substitute t = 1 into the volume function
V(t).
b V(1) = (1)
3
4(1)
2
+ (1) + 6
= 4
So the volume of the balloon at t = 1 is 4
litres.
dV
dt
------- 3t
2
8t 1 + =
1
dV
dt
-------
2
3
4
10
WORKEDExample
When nding the antiderivative of a function:
For each term in the function, increase the power of the variable by one and divide
by the resulting power. Add a constant.
remember
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Antidifferentiation

C h a p t e r 9 A p p l i c a t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

417

Applications of
antidifferentiation

1

Find the rule for the function

f

(

x

) if

f

(

x

)

=

3

x

2

2

x

and

f

(2)

=

0.

2

If

f

(

x

)

=

3

+

5

x

2

x

2

and the

y

-intercept is 7, nd

f

(

x

).

3

The

y

-intercept of a curve is 10 and . Find the value of

y

when

x

=

3.

4

If the gradient function of a curve that passes through the point (2, 2) is

f

(

x

)

=

2

x

5,
then the function

f

(

x

) is:

5

If

f

(

x

)

=

4

x

+

1 and the

y

-intercept is

3 then

f

(

x

) equals:

6

A curve passes through the point (2, 1) and has a gradient function

f

(

x

)

=

x

(3

x

5).
The function must be:

7

The velocity (

v

) of an aircraft is changing as it accelerates. Its acceleration (rate of
change of velocity) at any time,

t

, after it begins accelerating from rest along a runway
is given by
where

v

is in km/h and

t

is in seconds.

a

Express

v

as a function of

t

.

b

Find the velocity after 5 seconds.

A

x

2

5

x

+

8

B

x

2

5

x

1

C

x

2

5

D

x

2

5

x

E

x

2

2

A

x

2

+

2

x

3

B

2

x

2

+

x

1

C

2

x

2

+

x

3

D

2

x

2

+

2

x

1 E x
2
+ x
A f (x) = x
3
3x
2
+ 5 B f (x) = x
3
x
2
+ 2 C f (x) = 3x
2
5x 1
D f (x) = x
3
x
2
+ 3 E f (x) = x
4
x
3
+ 9
9D
WORKED
Example
9
M
a
th
c
a
d
Antidifferentiation
dy
dx
------ x 1 + ( ) x 3 ( ) =
multiple choice
multiple choice
multiple choice
5
2
---
5
2
---
3
4
---
5
2
---
WORKED
Example
10
dv
dt
------ 6t
2
4t 5 + =
Ch 09 MM 1&2 YR 11 Page 417 Friday, June 29, 2001 11:28 AM
h
8 The rate of change of position (velocity) of a particle travelling in a straight line is
given by , where x is in metres and t is in seconds.
If the particle starts at x = 1, nd its position when t = 3.
9 The rate of increase of volume per unit increase in depth for a particular container is
given by:
where V cm
3
is the volume and the depth is h cm.
a If V = 0 when h = 0, express V as a function of h.
b Find the volume at a height of 7 cm.
10 The weekly rate of change of prot with respect to the number of employees, n, in a
factory is:
where P is in thousands of dollars.
a Find the number of employees for maximum prot (assume P = 0 when n = 0).
b Hence nd the maximum prot.
11 The rate of deection from the horizontal of a 2 m long diving board when a 70 kg
person is x metres from its xed end is:
a What is the deection, y, when x = 0.
b Find the equation that measures the deection at any point on the board.
c Find the maximum deection. (Be careful.)
12 The rate of change of height of a hot
air balloon is given by = 4t 1
where h is the height above the ground
in metres after t seconds.
a Write h as a function of t.
b Find the height after
4 seconds.
c How long does it take the
balloon to reach a height of
60 metres?
dx
dt
------ t
2
6t 2 + =
dV
dh
------- 2 h 5 + ( )
2
=
dP
dn
------- 3.182
3
4
--- n =
dy
dx
------ 0.06 x 1 + ( )
2
0.06 + =
x 0
Deflection
y
W
o
r
k
S
H
E
ET
9.2 dh
dt
------
h
Rates of change
Average rate of change = .
The derivative of a function, f (x) (or ), is needed in order to calculate the
(instantaneous) rate of change at a particular point. The rate of change of a
function, f (x), at x = a is given by f (a).
Sketching graphs containing stationary points
Stationary points occur when f (x) = 0.
Three types of stationary point exist and, by testing the sign of
the gradient to the left and right of a stationary point, the nature
(type) can be determined.
1. Local maximum turning points. ( f (x) changes from + to
moving left to right.)
2. Local minimum turning points. ( f (x) changes from to +
moving left to right.)
3. Points of inection. ( f (x) remains the same sign on both
sides moving left to right.)
Solving maximum and minimum problems
By solving the equation f (x) = 0, and substituting the solutions into the original
function, the maximum or minimum value of a quantity may be found. When the
function is not provided it is necessary to formulate a rule in terms of one variable using
the information given. Drawing a diagram to represent the situation is often useful.
Always test to determine if a stationary point is a
maximum or a minimum by checking the sign of the
gradient to the left and right of the point.
Check whether or not the local maximum or minimum
is the absolute maximum or minimum. The absolute
maximum or minimum may be the value of the
function at one end of a specied interval.
Applications of antidifferentiation
When the derivative of a function is known, antidifferentiation can provide the
original function. Since the original function may have contained a constant, this
must be allowed for, and can be found using the boundary conditions provided in
the question.
summary
change in y
change in x
---------------------------
dy
dx
------
y
x
0
Local
maximum
y
x
0
Local
minimum
y
x
0
Point of
inflection
f (x)
y
x
0 a b
Absolute
maximum in
the interval
[a, b]
Local
maximum
Multiple choice
1 The rate of change of f (x) = 2x
3
5x
2
+ 7 when x = 2 is:
2 If V = 3t
2
+ 7t + 50 then the average rate of change between t = 1 and t = 4 is:
3 If f (x) = 5 + 15x + 6x
2
x
3
then the gradient is zero when x equals:
4 The curve y = x
2
10x + 21 has:
5 When x = 2, the graph of y = 2x
2
+ 3x 5:
6 For a particular function g(x), g(1) = 0 and g(x) < 0 if x 1. The graph which could
represent g(x) is:
7 The maximum value of f (x) = 2x
2
+ 8x is:
8 The local minimum value of h(x) = x
3
+ 6x
2
28x 3 occurs when x equals:
A 4 B 7 C 36 D 0 E 4
A 10 B 10 C 6 D 8 E 0
A 1 or 5 B 1 or 5 C 1 or 5 D 1 or 5 E 0 and 1
A a local maximum at (5, 0) B a local minimum at (5, 4)
C a point of inection at (5, 0) D a local maximum at (5, 4)
E a point of inection at (5, 4)
A is increasing B has a local maximum
C has a point of inection D has a local minimum
E is decreasing
A B C
D E
A 40 B 0 C 4 D 24 E 8
A 2 B 4 C 0 D 3 E 1
CHAPTER
review
9A
9A 2
3
---
9B
9B
9B
9B
g(x)
y
x 0
1
g(x)
y
x 0
1
y
x 0
1
g(x)
g(x)
y
x 0
1
g(x)
y
x 0
1
9B
9B
1
3
---
9 The function g(x) = (x + 3)
3
has:
10 A curve with a local maximum and a local minimum is:
11 The antiderivative of 12x + 3 is:
12 If the gradient of a curve is and its y-intercept is 3, then its rule is:
Short answer
1 If the position of a particle moving in a straight line is given by the rule
x(t) = 2t
2
+ 8t + 3, where x is in centimetres and t is in seconds, nd:
a the initial position of the particle
b the rate of change of displacement (that is, the velocity) at any time, t
c the rate of change when t = 4
d when and where the velocity is zero
e whether the particle is moving to the left or to the right when t = 3
f the distance travelled in the rst 3 seconds.
2 For the function f (x) = x
3
3x + 2:
a nd the y-intercept
b nd the x-intercepts
c nd the stationary points and state their type
d sketch the graph of f (x).
3 If the volume of liquid in a vat, V litres,
during a manufacturing process is given
by V = 6t t
2
, where t [0, 6], nd:
a the rate of change 2 hours after the
vat starts to ll up
b when the vat has a maximum volume.
4 If a piece of wire is 80 cm long:
a nd the area of the largest rectangle
that can be formed by the wire
b determine whether a circle would give
a larger area.
5 Find the maximum possible volume of a fully enclosed cylindrical water tank given that the
total internal surface area of the tank is 600 square units.
A a local maximum when x = 3 B a point of inection when x = 3
C a local minimum where x = 3 D a local minimum where x = 3
E a point of inection where x = 3
A y = x
3
+ 2x
2
7x + 1 B y = x
2
3x + 1 C y = x
3
+ 7
D y = (x 2)
3
E y = x
2
+ 6x
A 6x
2
+ 3x B 24x
2
+ 3x + c C 24x
2
+ 3x
D 6x
2
+ 3x + c E 6x
2
A y = x
3
+ x
2
10x 3 B y = x
3
+ x
2
5x 3
C y = x
3
+ 3x
2
10x 3
D y = x
3
+ x
2
10x 10 E y = x
4
10x
2
9B
9C
9D
9D
dy
dx
------ x 2 ( ) x 5 + ( ) =
1
3
---
3
2
---
1
3
---
3
2
---
1
3
---
3
2
---
1
4
---
9A
9B
9C
9C
9C
6 The rate of increase of height, h metres, of an ascending helicopter at any time, t minutes after
it takes off is .
a Find an expression for the height at any time.
b Find the height 6 minutes after takeoff.
c Find the maximum height reached in the rst 9 minutes.
7 A particle travels such that its velocity at any time, t, is given by v = 2t + 1.
a Given that velocity represents the rate of change of position, x, write down the relationship
between v and x.
b If x = 3 when t = 2 write an expression for x in terms of t.
c Find the position of the particle when t = 10.
Analysis
1 A ball is thrown vertically up so that its
height above the ground, h metres, at any
time, t seconds, after leaving the
throwers hand is given by the function
h(t) = t t
2
+ 2.
a Find the height of the ball as it leaves
the throwers hand.
b Find when and where the ball reaches
its greatest height.
c Find when the ball returns to the same
level that it left the throwers hand.
d If the ball isnt hit, nd when the ball
hits the ground to the nearest
thousandth of a second.
e Hence state the domain and range of h(t).
f Sketch the graph of h versus t.
2 A piece of wire of length 100 cm is to be cut so that one piece is used to form a square, while
the other is used to form a circle. If the edge length of the square is x cm, nd, in terms of x,
a the radius of the circle
b the area of the circle, and
c the total area of the two shapes.
Show that, when x = 14, the total area is minimum.
h
9D
dh
dt
------ t
2
14t 45 + =
9D
9B
8
3
---
8
9
---
9C
test
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
yourself
test
yourself
9
6
In this
chapter
6A Substitution where the
derivative is present in the
integrand
6B Linear substitution
6C Antiderivatives involving
trigonometric identities
6D Antidifferentiation using
partial fractions
6E Denite integrals
6F Applications of integration
6G Volumes of solids of
revolution
6H Approximate evaluation
of denite integrals and
areas
VCE
coverage
Area of study
Integral
calculus
Integration techniques and applications
You will have seen in your Maths Methods course and elsewhere that some functions
can be antidifferentiated (integrated) using standard rules. These common results are
shown in the table below where the function f(x) has an antiderivative F(x).
In this chapter you will learn how to nd antiderivatives of more complex functions
using various techniques.
Technique 1: Substitution where the
derivative is present in the integrand
Since , n 1, as an application of the chain rule,
then it follows that:
Since ; f(x) 0
then it follows that .
The method relies on the derivative, or multiple of the derivative, being present and
recognisable. Then, the appropriate substitutions may be made according to the above
rules.
f(x) F(x)
ax
n
log
e
kx + c
e
kx
sin kx
cos kx
sec
2
kx
, x (a, a)
, x (a, a)
ax
n 1 +
n 1 +
--------------- c +
1
x
---
e
kx
k
------- c +
cos kx
k
------------------ c +
sin kx
k
-------------- c +
tan kx
k
-------------- c +
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
Sin
1
x
a
--- c +
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
Cos
1
x
a
--- c +
a
a
2
x
2
+
----------------- Tan
1
x
a
--- c +
d f x ( ) [ ]
n 1 +
dx
---------------------------- n 1 + ( ) f x ( ) f x ( ) [ ]
n
=
f x ( ) f x ( ) [ ]
n
dx
f x ( ) [ ]
n 1 +
n 1 +
------------------------- c n 1. , + =
d log
e
f x ( ) [ ]
dx
-----------------------------
f x ( )
f x ( )
------------ =
f x ( )
f x ( )
------------
dx log
e
f x ( ) c + =
C h a p t e r 6 I n t e g r a l c a l c u l u s 213
Find the antiderivative of the following expressions.
a (x + 3)
7
b 4x(2x
2
+ 1)
4
c
THINK WRITE
a Recognise that the derivative of
x + 3 is 1. Let u = x + 3.
a Let u = x + 3.
Find .
Make dx the subject. or dx = du
Substitute for x + 3 and dx. So
(x + 3)
7
dx =
u
7
du
Antidifferentiate with respect to u. =
Replace u with x + 3 and state answer
in terms of x.
=
b Recognise that 4x is the derivative of
2x
2
+ 1. Let u = 2x
2
+ 1.
b Let u = 2x
2
+ 1.
Find .
Make dx the subject. or
Substitute u for 2x
2
+ 1 and for dx. So
4x(2x
2
+ 1)
4
dx
=
4x u
4

Simplify the integrand by cancelling
out the 4x.
=
u
4
du
Replace u with 2x
2
+ 1. = + c
c Recognise that 3x
2
+ 1 is the derivative
of x
3
+ x. Let u = x
3
+ x.
c Let u = x
3
+ x.
Find .
3x
2
1 +
x
3
x +
-------------------
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 1 =
3
4
5
u
8
8
----- c +
6
x 3 + ( )
8
8
------------------- c +
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 4x =
3
dx
4x
------ du =
4
du
4x
------
du
4x
------
5
6
u
5
5
----- c +
7
2x
2
1 + ( )
5
5
-------------------------
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 3x
2
1 + =
1
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Substitute u for x
3
+ x and for
dx.
So
=
Cancel out 3x
2
+ 1. =
Express the integrand in index form. =
Replace u with x
3
+ x. =
Express in root notation.
=
3
dx
du
3x
2
1 +
------------------ =
4
du
3x
2
1 +
------------------
3x
2
1 +
x
3
x +
------------------dx
3x
2
1 +
u
------------------
du
3x
2
1 +
------------------
5
du
u
-------
6
u
1
2
---
du
7
2u
1
2
---
c +
8
2 x
3
x + ( )
1
2
---
c +
9
2 x
3
x + c +
Antidifferentiate the following functions with respect to x.
a b
THINK WRITE
a Express in integral notation. a
Recognise that x + 3 is half of the
derivative of x
2
+ 6x.
Let u = x
2
+ 6x.
Let u = x
2
+ 6x.
Find .
Substitute u for x
2
+ 6x and for dx. So =
Factorise 2x + 6. =
Cancel out x + 3 and express u in index
form on the numerator.
=
f x ( )
x 3 +
x
2
6x + ( )
3
-------------------------- = f x ( ) x
2
1 ( ) cos 3x x
3
( ) =
1
x 3 +
x
2
6x + ( )
3
-------------------------dx
2
3
4
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 2x 6 + =
5
dx
du
2x 6 +
--------------- =
6
du
2x 6 +
---------------
x 3 +
x
2
6x + ( )
3
-------------------------dx
x 3 +
u
3
------------
du
2x 6 +
---------------
7
x 3 +
u
3
------------
du
2 x 3 + ( )
--------------------
8
1
2
--- u
3
du
2
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Replace u with x
2
+ 6x. =
Express the answer with a positive
index number. (Optional.)
=
b Express in integral notation. b
Recognise that x
2
1 is a multiple of
the derivative of 3x x
3
.
Let u = 3x x
3
.
Let u = 3x x
3
.
Find .
Substitute u for 3x x
3
and
for dx.
So
=
Factorise 3 3x
2
.
=
=
Cancel out x
2
1. = du
Replace u with 3x x
3
. =
9
u
2
4
------- c +
10
x
2
6x + ( )
2
4
--------------------------- c +
11
1
4 x
2
x + ( )
2
------------------------- c +
1
x
2
1 ( ) cos 3x x
3
( ) dx
2
3
4
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 3 3x
2
=
5
dx
du
3 3x
2
----------------- =
6
du
3 3x
2
-----------------
x
2
1 ( ) cos 3x x
2
( ) dx
x
2
1 ( ) cos u
du
3 3x
2
-----------------
7
x
2
1 ( ) cos u
du
3 1 x
2
( )
----------------------
x
2
1 ( ) cos u
du
3 x
2
1 ( )
-------------------------
8
cos u
3
----------------
9
sin u
3
--------------- c +
10
sin 3x x
3
( )
3
-------------------------------- c +
Evaluate the following indenite integrals.
a
cos x sin
4
x dx b c d
sin
2
x cos
3
x dx
THINK WRITE
a Recognise that cos x is the derivative of sin x. a
Let u = sin x. Let u = sin x.
Tan
1
x
2
---
4 x
2
+
------------------dx

log
e
4x
x
----------------dx
1
2
3
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Find .
Substitute u for sin x and for dx.
So
cos x sin
4
x dx =
Cancel out cos x.

=
Antidifferentiate with respect to u. = u

5
+ c
Replace u with sin x. = sin
5
x + c
b Recognise that is half of the
derivative of Tan
1
.
b
Let u = Tan
1
. Let u = Tan
1
.
Find .
Substitute u for Tan
1
and
for dx.
So dx
=
Cancel out 4 + x
2
. =
Replace u with Tan
1
.
=
c Recognise that is the derivative of log
e
4x.
c
Let u = log
e
4x. Let u = log
e
4x.
Find .
Make dx the subject. or dx = x du
3
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ cos x =
4
dx
du
cos x
------------ =
5
du
cos x
------------
cos x ( )u
4
du
cos x
------------
6
u
4
du
7
1
5
---
8
1
5
---
1
1
4 x
2
+
--------------
x
2
---
2
x
2
---
x
2
---
3
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
2
4 x
2
+
-------------- =
4 dx
4 x
2
+ ( )du
2
-------------------------- =
5
x
2
---
4 x
2
+ ( )du
2
--------------------------
Tan
1
x
2
---
4 x
2
+
-----------------
u
4 x
2
+
--------------

4 x
2
+ ( )du
2
--------------------------
6
u
2
--- du
7
u
2
4
----- c +
8
x
2
---
Tan
1
x
2
---

2
4
------------------------- c +
1
1
x
---
2
3
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
1
x
--- =
4
THINK WRITE
Substitute u for log
e
4x and x du for dx
in the integral.
So
=
Cancel out x. =
2
+ c
Replace u by log
e
4x. = (log
e
4x)
2
+ c
d Express cos
3
x as cos x cos
2
x. d

sin
2
x cos
3
x dx
=
sin
2
x cos x cos
2
x dx
Express cos x cos
2
x as cos x (1 sin
2
x)
(using the identity sin
2
x + cos
2
x = 1).
=
sin
2
x cos x (1 sin
2
x) dx
Let u = sin x as its derivative is a factor
of the new form of the function.
Let u = sin x.
Find .
Substitute u for sin x and for dx.
So sin
2
x cos
3
x dx
=
u
2
cos x (1 u
2
)
Cancel out cos x. =
u
2
(1 u
2
) du
Expand the integrand. =
(u
2
u
4
) du
3
u
5
+ c
Replace u by sin x. = sin
3
x sin
5
x + c
5
log
e
4x
x
----------------dx
u
x
--- x du
6 u du
7
1
2
---
8
1
2
---
1
2
3
4
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ cos x =
5
dx
du
cos x
------------ =
6
du
cos x
------------
du
cos x
------------
7
8
9
1
3
---
1
5
---
10
1
3
---
1
5
---
If f(x) = 4xe
x
2
and f(0) = 5, nd f(x).
THINK WRITE
Express f(x) in integral notation.
f(x) =
4xe
x
2
dx
Recognise that 4x is twice the
derivative of x
2
.
Let u = x
2
.
Let u = x
2
.
Find .
1
2
3
4
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 2x =
4
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
Substitution where the
derivative is present in the
integrand
1 Find the antiderivative for each of the following expressions.
a 2x(x
2
+ 3)
4
b 2x(6 x
2
)
3
c 3x
2
(x
3
2)
5
d 2(x + 2)(x
2
+ 4x)
3
e
f
g 3x
2
(x
3
5)
2
h
i 4x
3
e
x
4
j (2x + 3) sin(x
2
+ 3x 2)
k (3x
2
+ 5) cos(x
3
+ 5x) l cos x sin
3
x
THINK WRITE
Substitute u for x
2
and for dx.
So f(x) =

4xe
u

Cancel out 2x. =
2e
u
du
Antidifferentiate with respect to u.
= 2e
u
+ c
Replace u by x
2
. f(x) = 2e
x
2
+ c
Substitute x = 0 and f(0) = 5.
f(0) = 2e
0
+ c = 5
Solve for c.
2 + c = 5
c = 3
State the function f(x).
Therefore f(x) = 2e
x
2
+ 3.
5
dx
du
2x
------ =
6
du
2x
------
du
2x
------
7
8
9
10
11
12
1. Since
then .
2. Since
then .
d f x ( ) [ ]
n 1 +
dx
---------------------------- n 1 + ( ) f x ( ) f x ( ) [ ]
n
n 1 , =
f x ( ) f x ( ) [ ]
n
dx
f x ( ) [ ]
n 1 +
n 1 +
------------------------- c n 1 , + =
d log
e
f x ( )
dx
--------------------------
f x ( )
f x ( )
------------ =
f x ( )
f x ( )
------------
dx log
e
f x ( ) c + =
remember
6A
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Anti-
differentiation
WORKED
Example
1 & 2
2x 5 + ( ) x
2
5x +
2x 3
x
2
3x ( )
4
------------------------
3x
2
4x +
x
3
2x
2
+
------------------------
2
Given that the derivative of (x
2
+ 5x)
4
is 4(2x + 5)(x
2
+ 5x)
3
, then the antiderivative of
8(2x + 5)(x
2
+ 5x)
3
is:
3
a The integral dx can be found by making the substitution u equal to:
b After the appropriate substitution the integral becomes:
c Hence the antiderivative of is:
4 Antidifferentiate each of the following expressions with respect to x.
m sin
4
x cos x n
o sec
2
x tan
3
x
p
A 2(x
2
+ 5x)
4
+ c
B (x
2
+ 5x)
4
+ c
C 4(x
2
+ 5x)
4
+ c
D 2(x
2
+ 5x)
2
+ c
E (x
2
+ 5x)
2
+ c
A x
2
B x
C D x
2
+ 3
E 2x
A B C
D E
A B C
D E
a 6x
2
(x
3
2)
5
b x(4 x
2
)
3
c x
2
(x
3
1)
7
d (x + 3)(x
2
+ 6x 2)
4
e (x + 1)(x
2
+ 2x + 3)
4
f
g
h
i (6x 3)e
x
2
x + 3
j x
2
e
x + 2
k (x + 1) sin(x
2
+ 2x 3) l (x
2
2) cos(6x x
3
)
m sin 2x cos
4
2x n cos 3x sin
2
3x
o p
log
e
x
x
-------------
Sin
1
x ( )
2
1 x
2
-------------------------
multiple choice
1
2
---
1
2
---
multiple choice
x
x
2
3 +
------------------
x
u
1
2
---
du
1
2
--- u
1
2
---
du
1
2
--- u 3 + ( )
1
2
---
du
u 3 + ( )
1
2
---
du
2 u
1
2
---
du
x
x
2
3 +
--------------
2
3
--- x
2
3 + ( )
3
2
---
c + 4 x
2
3 + ( )
1
2
---
c +
2
3
--- x
2
6 + ( )
3
2
---
c +
x
2
6 + ( )
1
2
---
c + x
2
3 + ( )
1
2
---
c +
WORKED
Example
2
4x 6 +
x
2
3x +
----------------------
2x 5
x
2
5x 2 + ( )
6
----------------------------------
x
2
1 ( ) 4 3x x
3
+
log
e
3x
2x
----------------
(4x 2) log
e
(x
2
x)
x
2
x
-----------------------------------------------------
5 Evaluate the following indenite integrals.
6 Find the antiderivative for each of the following expressions.
7 If and f(2) = 1 nd f(x).
8 If and f(0) = 3 nd f(x).
9 If g(1) = 2 and then nd g(x).
10 If and g(x) = 16 sin x cos
3
x then nd g(x).
a
b
c d
e f
g
h
i
j
k l
m
n
o
a
b
c sin x sec
3
x
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k sin
3
x cos
2
x l cos
3
x sin
4
x
m
WORKED
Example
3
x x
2
1 + ( )
5
2
---
dx
x 1 x
2
dx
e
x
3 2e
x
+ ( )
4
dx
sin x
cos
3
x
------------- dx
x
2
sin x
3
dx
sin x e
cos x
dx

cos x log
e
sin x ( )
sin x
------------------------------------------- dx
e
3x
1 e
3x
( )
2
dx
2 Cos
1

x
3
---
9 x
2
--------------------------- dx
2x 1 + ( ) x x
2
3 + dx
x 2 + ( ) cos x
2
4x + ( ) dx
e
x 1 +
x 1 +
---------------- dx
Sin
1
4x
1 16x
2
------------------------ dx
Tan
1
x
1 x
2
+
------------------- dx
x
1 4x
2
----------------- dx
cos x
1 3 sin x +
------------------------------
sec
2
x 2 tan x +
e
2x
e
2x
3 ( )
2
-----------------------
sec
2
x
5 tan x ( )
3
----------------------------
4
xlog
e
x
----------------
log
e
x ( )
3
x
--------------------
e
tan x
cos
2
x
-------------
e
x
e
x
e
x
e
x
+
----------------------
sin x cos x
sin x cos x +
------------------------------
log
e
tan x ( )
sin x cos x
---------------------------
WORKED
Example
4
f x ( )
x
x
2
5 +
------------------ =
f x ( )
e
x
x
-------- =
g x ( )
4 log
e
x
2
x
-------------------- =
g

4
---

0 =
Technique 2: Linear substitution
For antiderivatives of the form where g(x) is a linear function,
that is, of the type mx + c, and f(x) is not the derivative of g(x), the substitution u = g(x)
is often successful in nding the integral. Examples of this type of integral are:
1. . In this example f(x) = 1 and g(x) = 4x + 1 with n = . By letting
u = 4x + 1, and consequently dx = du, the integral becomes which can be
readily antidifferentiated.
2. . In this example f(x) = 4x and g(x) = x 3 with n = 4. By letting
u = x 3, the function f(x) can be written in terms of u, that is, u = x 3, thus
4x = 4(u + 3) and further, dx = du. The integral becomes which
can be readily antidifferentiated.
The worked examples below illustrate how the use of the substitution u = g(x)
simplies integrals of the type .
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
n
dx n 0 ,
4x 1 + dx
1
2
---
1
4
---
1
4
--- u du
4x x 3 ( )
4
dx
4 u 3 + ( ) u du
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
n
dx
i Using the appropriate substitution, express the following integrals in terms of u only.
ii Evaluate the integrals as functions of x.
a b
THINK WRITE
a i Let u = x 2.
a i Let u = x 2 and x = u + 2.
Find .
dx = du
Substitute u for x 2, u + 2 for x and
du for dx.
So
=
Expand the integrand.
=
ii Antidifferentiate with respect to u. ii =
Replace u with x 2.
=
x x 2 ( )
5
2
---
dx
x
2
x 1 +
---------------- dx
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 1 =
3
4
x x 2 ( )
5
2
---
dx
u 2 + ( )u
5
2
---
du
5
u
7
2
---
2u
5
2
---
+

dx
1
2
9
--- u
9
2
---
4
7
--- u
7
2
---
c + +
2
2
9
--- x 2 ( )
9
2
---
4
7
--- x 2 ( )
7
2
---
c + +
5
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
Take out the factor of
.
=
Simplify the other factor.
=
=
b i Express x + 1 in index form. b i
=
Let u = x + 1. Let u = x + 1.
Find . = 1
Make dx the subject. or dx = du
Express x in terms of u. x = u 1
Hence express x
2
in terms of u. x
2
= u
2
2u + 1
Substitute u for x + 1, u
2
2u + 1
for x
2
and du for dx.
So
=
Expand the integrand.
=
ii Antidifferentiate with respect to u.
ii =
Replace u with x + 1.
=
Take out as a factor. =
Simplify the other factor.
=
=
=
3
2 x 2 ( )
7
2
---
2 x 2 ( )
7
2
---
x 2
9
-----------
4
7
--- +

c +
4
2 x 2 ( )
7
2
---
7x 14 36 +
63
------------------------------

c +
2 x 2 ( )
7
2
---
7x 22 +
63
------------------

c +
1
x
2
x 1 +
---------------- dx
x
2
x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
dx
2
3
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
4
5
6
7
x
2
x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
x d
u
2
2u 1 + ( )u
1
2
---
du
8
u
3
2
---
2u
1
2
---
u
1
2
---
+

du
1
2
5
--- u
5
2
---
4
3
--- u
3
2
---
2u
1
2
---
c + +
2
2
5
--- x 1 + ( )
5
2
---
4
3
--- x 1 + ( )
3
2
---
2 x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
c + +
3
2 x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
2 x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
x 1 + ( )
2
5
-------------------
2 x 1 + ( )
3
-------------------- 1 + c +
4
2 x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
x
2
2x 1 + + ( )
5
--------------------------------
2x 2 ( )
3
------------------------ 1 + + c +
2 x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
3x
2
6x 3 10x 10 15 + + +
15
---------------------------------------------------------------------- c +
2 x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
3x
2
4x 8 +
15
------------------------------ c +
Note: Recall that the logarithm of a negative number cannot be found.
a Find the antiderivative of . b State the domain of the antiderivative.
THINK WRITE
a Since e
2x
= (e
x
)
2
, it can be
antidifferentiated the same as a linear
function by letting u = e
x
+ 1.
a Let u = e
x
+ 1.
Find . = e
x
Make dx the subject. or dx =
Express e
x
in terms of u. and e
x
= u 1
Substitute u for e
x
+ 1 and for dx.
So
=
Cancel out e
x
. =
Substitute u 1 for the remaining e
x
. =
Simplify the rational expression. =
Antidifferentiate with respect to u. = u log
e
u + c
Replace u with e
x
+ 1. = e
x
+ 1 log
e
(e
x
+ 1) + c
b e
x
+ 1 > 0 for all values of x as e
x
> 0
for all x. The function log
e
f(x) exists
wherever f(x) > 0.
b For log
e
(e
x
+ 1) to exist e
x
+ 1 > 0, which
it is for all x.
State the domain.
Therefore the domain of the integral is R.
e
2x
e
x
1 +
--------------
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
3
du
e
x
------
4
5
du
e
x
------
e
2x
e
x
1 +
-------------- dx
e
x
e
x
u
----------
du
e
x
------
6
e
x
u
----- du
7
u 1
u
------------ du
8
1
1
u
---

du
9
10
1
2
6
WORKEDExample
For antiderivatives of the form , make the substitution
u = g(x) and so [g(x)]
n
dx, n 0 becomes g(x) u
n
du, n 0. This technique can be
used for the specic case where g = mx + c since g(x) = m. The function f(x) needs
to be transformed in terms of the variable u as well.
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
n
dx n 0 ,
remember
Linear substitution
1 By making the appropriate substitution for u:
i express the following integrals in terms of u
ii evaluate the integrals as functions of x.
2
a The integral can be found by letting u equal:
b The integral then becomes:
3
a Using the appropriate substitution, becomes:
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
k l
m n
o p
A B
C x + 2 D 4x E 2x
A
B
C
D E
A
B C
D
E
6B
WORKED
Example
5
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Anti-
differentiation
4
x 3
----------- dx
2
3x 5 +
--------------- dx
4x 1 + dx
3 2x dx
x x 1 + ( )
3
dx
4x x 3 ( )
4
dx
2x 2x 1 + ( )
4
dx
3x 1 3x ( )
5
dx
6x 3x 2 ( )
3
4
---
dx
x 2x 7 + ( )
1
3
---
dx
x x 3 + dx
x 3x 4 dx
x 2 + ( ) x 4 ( )
3
2
---
dx
x 3 ( ) 2x 1 + ( )
5
2
---
dx
2x
x 6
---------------- dx
3x
8 x
---------------- dx
multiple choice
4x x 2 + dx
x 2 + x
u
5
2
---
du
2u
1
2
---
4u
1
2
---

du
2u
1
2
---
du
4u
1
2
---
2u
3
2
---

du
4u
3
2
---
8u
1
2
---

du
multiple choice
x
2
x 1
---------------- dx
u du
u
3
2
---
2u
1
2
---
u
1
2
---
+ +

du
u
1
2
---
2u
1
2
---
+

du
u
5
2
---
2u
3
2
---
u
1
2
---
+ +

du
u
3
2
---
du

b The result of the integration is:
4 Find the antiderivative of each of the following expressions.
5 a If and f(1) = 2, nd f(x).
b State the domain of f(x).
6 a If and f(0) = 1, nd f(x).
7 a Given that and g(2) = 0, nd g(x).
b State the domain of g(x).
8 a Given that g(0) = 2 log
e
2 and , nd g(x).
A B
C D
E
a x
2
(x 4)
4
b x
2
(5 x)
3
c
d
e f
g h
i
j k
l
m n o
p q r
s t
u
v
2
3
--- x 1 ( )
3
2
---
c +
2
3
--- x 1 ( )
3
2
---
4 x 1 ( )
1
2
---
c + +
2
5
--- x 1 ( )
5
2
---
c +
2
5
--- x 1 ( )
5
2
---
4
3
--- x 1 ( )
3
2
---
2 x 1 ( )
1
2
---
c + + +
2
7
--- x 1 ( )
7
2
---
4
5
--- x 1 ( )
5
2
---
4
3
--- x 1 ( )
3
2
---
c + + +
WORKED
Example
6a
x
2
x 1
x
2
3 x
x
2
x 2 + ( )
4
3
---
x
2
1 x ( )
3
4
---
x 1 + ( )
2
x 2 x 3 ( )
2
x 1 +
e
x
e
x
1 +
--------------
x
2
x 1 +
----------------
2x
2
3 x
----------------
x
3
x 1
x
3
x 4 +
----------------
2x
3
1 x
----------------
x 3 +
x 2 ( )
2
-------------------
2x 1
x 1 + ( )
3
-------------------
4x
x 2 + ( )
2
-------------------
x
2
x 1 ( )
2
-------------------
x 3 + ( )
2
x 2 +
-------------------
x 2 ( )
2
2 x
-------------------
e
2x
e
x
2 +
--------------
e
3x
e
x
1
--------------
WORKED
Example
6b
f x ( ) 5 x ( )
1
2
---
10 5 x ( )
1
2
---
+ =
f x ( )
5 x 1 + ( )
3
2
---
2
---------------------- 3 x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
x 1 + ( )
1
2
---
2
--------------------- + =
g x ( )
2x 1 +
x 1 ( )
2
------------------- =
g x ( )
e
2x
e
x
1 +
-------------- =
Technique 3: Antiderivatives involving
Different trigonometric identities can be used to antidifferentiate sin
n
x and cos
n
x;
n J
+
depending on whether n is even or odd. Functions involving tan
2
ax are
also discussed.
Even powers of sin x or cos x
The double-angle trigonometric identities can be used to antidifferentiate even powers
of sin x or cos x. The rst identity is:
cos 2x = 1 2 sin
2
x
= 2 cos
2
x 1
Therefore sin
2
x = (1 cos 2x)
or cos
2
x = (1 + cos 2x)
The second identity is: sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
or sin x cos x = sin 2x
These may be expressed in the following general forms:
sin
2
ax = (1 cos 2ax) Identity 1
cos
2
ax = (1 + cos 2ax) Identity 2
sin ax cos ax = sin 2ax Identity 3
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
a sin
2
b 2cos
2
THINK WRITE
Use identity 1 to change sin
2
. =
Take the factor of to the front of the integral. =
Antidifferentiate by rule. =
Simplify the answer. =
x
2
---
x
4
---
1
sin
2
x
2
--- dx
2
x
2
---
1
2
--- 1 cos x ( ) dx
3
1
2
---
1
2
--- 1 cos x ( ) dx
4
1
2
--- x sin x ( ) c +
5
x
2
---
1
2
--- sin x c +
1
2cos
2
x
4
--- dx
7
WORKEDExample
Odd powers of sin x or cos x
For integrals involving odd powers of sin x or cos x the identity:
sin
2
x + cos
2
x = 1
can be used so that the derivative method of substitution then becomes applicable.
The following worked example illustrates the use of this identity whenever there is an
odd-powered trigonometric function in the integrand.
THINK WRITE
Use identity 2 to change cos
2 .
=
Simplify the integral. =
2
x
4
--- 2
1
2
---

1 cos
x
2
--- +

dx
3
1 cos
x
2
--- +

dx
4 x 2sin
x
2
--- c + +
Evaluate the following indenite integrals as functions of x.
a b
THINK WRITE
a Use identity 3 to change sin x cos x.
Note: The integral could be
antidifferentiated using technique 1
since the derivative of sin x is cos x.
a
=
b Express sin
2
cos
2
as a perfect square. b
=
Use identity 3 to change sin cos . =
Square the identity. =
Use identity 1 to change sin
2
x. =
Simplify the answer. =
sin x cos x dx
4 sin
2
x
2
--- cos
2
x
2
--- dx
1 sin x cos x dx
1
2
--- sin 2x dx
2
1
4
--- cos 2x c +
1
x
2
---
x
2
--- 4 sin
2
x
2
--- cos
2
x
2
--- dx
4 sin
x
2
--- cos
x
2
---

2
dx
2
x
2
---
x
2
--- 4
1
2
--- sin x ( )
2
dx
3
4
1
4
--- sin
2
x ( ) dx
4 sin
2
x dx
5
1
2
--- 1 cos 2x ( ) dx
6
1
2
--- x
1
2
--- sin 2x ( ) c +
7
x
2
---
1
4
--- sin 2x c +
8
WORKEDExample
a cos
3
x b cos x sin 2x c cos
4
2x sin
3
2x
THINK WRITE
Factorise cos
3
x as cos x cos
2
x. =
Use the identity: (1 sin
2
x) for cos
2
x. =
Let u = sin x so the derivative method
can be applied.
Let u = sin x.
Find .
Substitute u for sin x and for dx. So
=
Cancel out cos x. =
Antidifferentiate with respect to u. = u u
3
+ c
Replace u with sin x. = sin x sin
3
x + c
Use identity 3 in reverse to express
sin 2x as 2 sin x cos x.
=
Simplify the integrand. =
Let u = cos x so that the derivative
method can be applied.
Let u = cos x.
Find .
Substitute u for cos x and for dx.
So
=
1
cos
3
x dx
2
cos x cos
2
x dx
3
cos x 1 sin
2
x ( ) dx
4
5
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ cos x =
6
dx
du
cos x
------------ =
7
du
cos x
------------ cos x 1 sin
2
x ( ) dx
cos x 1 u
2
( )
du
cos x
------------
8
1 u
2
( ) du
9
1
3
---
10
1
3
---
1
cos x sin 2x dx
2
cos x 2 sin x cos x ( ) dx
3
2sin x cos
2
x dx
4
5
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ sin x =
6
dx
du
sin x
-------------- =
7
du
sin x
--------------
2 sin x cos
2
x dx
2 sin x u
2
( )
du
sin x
--------------
9
WORKEDExample
Using the identity sec
2
x = 1 + tan
2
x
The identity sec
2
ax = 1 + tan
2
ax is used to antidifferentiate expressions involving
tan
2
ax + c where c is a constant since the antiderivative of sec
2
x is tan x.
Otherwise, expressions of the form tan
n
x sec
2
x can be antidifferentiated using the
derivative method of exercise 6A.
THINK WRITE
Cancel out sin x. =
3
+ c
Replace u with cos x. = cos
3
x + c
c Express in integral notation. c
Factorise sin
3
2x as sin 2x sin
2
2x. =
Use the identity 1 cos
2
2x for sin
2
2x. =
Let u = cos 2x so that the derivative
method can be applied.
Let u = cos 2x.
Find .
Substitute u for cos 2x and
for dx.
So
Cancel out sin 2x. =
Expand the integrand. =
Antidifferentiate with respect to u. = ( u
7
u
5
) + c
Simplify the result. = u
7
u
5
+ c
Replace u with cos 2x. = cos
7
2x cos
5
2x + c
8
2u
2
du
9
2
3
---
10
2
3
---
1
cos
4
2x sin
3
2x dx
2
cos
4
2x sin 2x sin
2
2x dx
3
cos
4
2x sin 2x 1 cos
2
2x ( ) dx
4
5
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 2 sin 2x =
6
dx
du
2 sin 2x
---------------------- =
7
du
2 sin 2x
----------------------
u
4
sin 2x 1 u
2
( )
du
2sin 2x
----------------------
8
1
2
--- u
4
1 u
2
( ) du
9
1
2
--- u
6
u
4
( ) du
10
1
2
---
1
7
---
1
5
---
11
1
14
------
1
10
------
12
1
14
------
1
10
------
Find an antiderivative for each of the following expressions.
a b
THINK WRITE
a Express 2 + tan
2
x as 1 + sec
2
x using the identity. a
=
Antidifferentiate by rule. There is no need to add
c as one antiderivative only is required.
= x + tan x
b Let u = tan 3x so that the derivative method can
be applied.
b Let u = tan 3x.
Find .
Substitute u for tan 3x and for dx. So 3 tan
2
3x sec
2
3x dx
=
Cancel out 3sec
2
3x. =
3
Replace u with tan 3x. = tan
3
3x
2 tan
2
x + ( ) dx
3 tan
2
3x sec
2
3x dx
1 2 tan
2
x + ( ) dx
1 sec
2
x + ( ) dx
2
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 3 sec
2
3x =
3
dx
du
3 sec
2
3x
--------------------- =
4
du
3 sec
2
3x
--------------------
3 u
2
sec
2
3x
du
3sec
2
3x
--------------------
5
u
2
du
6
1
3
---
7
1
3
---
10
WORKEDExample
1. Trigonometric identities can be used to antidifferentiate odd and even powers
of sin x and cos x. These identities are:
sin
2
ax = (1 cos 2ax)
cos
2
ax = (1 + cos 2ax)
sin ax cos ax = sin 2ax
2. The identity sec
2
ax = 1 + tan
2
ax is used to antidifferentiate expressions
involving tan
2
ax + c where c is a constant.
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
remember
Antiderivatives involving
2 Evaluate the following indenite integrals as functions of x.
3
If a is a constant, then,
a is equal to:
b is equal to:
c is equal to:
a cos
2
x b sin
2
2x c 2 cos
2
4x d 4 sin
2
3x
e cos
2
5x f sin
2
6x
g cos
2
h sin
2
i 3 cos
2
j 2 sin
2
k cos
2
l sin
2
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
k l
A 2x sin 2ax + c B x 2asin 2ax + c C
D E
A B C
D E
A a cos ax 3a cos
3
ax + c B a sin ax 3 cos
3
ax + c
C D
E
6C
WORKED
Example
7
M
a
th
c
a
d
Anti-
differentiation
x
2
---
x
3
---
x
6
---
x
4
---
2x
3
------
3x
2
------
WORKED
Example
8
2 sin x cos dx
4 sin 2x cos 2x dx
3x 3x cos sin dx
2 sin 4x cos 4x dx
sin
2
x cos
2
x dx
sin
2
2x cos
2
2x dx
2 sin
2
4x cos
2
4x dx
2 sin
2
3x cos
2
3x dx
6 sin
2
x
2
--- cos
2
x
2
--- dx
4 sin
2
x
3
--- cos
2
x
3
--- dx
sin
2
5x
2
------ cos
2
5x
2
------ dx
2 sin
2
4x
3
------ cos
2
4x
3
------ dx
multiple choice
sin
2
ax dx
x
2
---
sin 2ax
4a
------------------ c +
x
1
2
--- sin
ax
2
------ c +
x
2
---
1
a
--- sin
ax
2
------ c +
sin
2
ax cos
2
ax dx
x
8
---
sin 4ax
32a
------------------ c +
x
2
---
sin ax
4a
-------------- c +
x
4
---
cos ax
8a
--------------- c +
x
sin 4ax
16a
------------------ c +
x
8
---
cos 4ax
16a
------------------- c + +
cos
3
ax dx
cos
4
ax
4a
---------------- c +
sin
4
ax
4a
--------------- c +
1
3a
------ 3 sin ax sin
3
ax ( ) c +
4 Find an antiderivative of each of the following expressions.
5 Use the appropriate identities to antidifferentiate the following expressions.
7 Find the following integrals.
8 Find an antiderivative for each of the following expressions:
9 Find the following integrals where n J
+
.
a sin
3
x b cos
3
2x c 6 sin
3
4x d 4 cos
3
3x
e sin
3
7x f cos
3
6x
g h
i j k l
a sin x cos 2x b cos 2x cos 4x c sin 3x cos 6x
d cos 4x cos 8x e f
a sin x cos
4
x b sin 2x cos
3
2x
c
d cos 3x sin
4
3x
e f
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
k l
m n
a 1 + tan
2
2x
b
c tan
2
x sec
2
x
d tan
3
x sec
2
x e 4 tan
5
2x sec
2
2x
f
g tan
2
x sec
4
x h 6 tan
2
2x sec
4
2x
i
j 3 tan
3
3x sec
4
3x
k
l 12 tan
5
6x sec
6
6x
a b c
d e
WORKED
Example
9a
3 sin
3
x
2
--- 2 cos
3
x
3
---
sin
3
3x
2
------ cos
3
5x
2
------ sin
3
3x
4
------ cos
3
4x
3
------
WORKED
Example
9b
sin
x
2
--- cos x cos
x
3
--- cos
2x
3
------
sin
x
2
--- cos
5
x
2
---
cos
x
5
--- sin
6
x
5
--- cos
2x
3
------ sin
7
2x
3
------
WORKED
Example
9c
cos
2
x sin
3
x dx
sin
2
x cos
3
x dx
cos
2
2x sin
3
2x dx
sin
2
3x cos
3
3x dx
cos
2
x
2
---sin
3
x
2
--- dx
sin
2
3x
2
------cos
3
3x
2
------ dx
4 cos
2
x
3
--- sin
3
x
3
--- dx
6 sin
2
5x
4
------ cos
3
5x
4
------ dx
sin
3
x cos
4
dx
cos
3
2x sin
4
2x dx
2sin
3
2x cos
5
2x dx
2 cos
3
3x sin
6
3x dx
4 sin
3
x
2
--- cos
6
x
2
--- dx
cos
3
3x
2
------ sin
7
3x
2
------ dx
WORKED
Example
10
1 tan
2
x
3
--- +
8 tan
4
x
2
--- sec
2
x
2
---
2 tan
2
x
2
--- sec
4
x
2
---
tan
4
x
5
--- sec
4
x
5
---
sin x cos
n
x dx
cos x sin
n
x dx
sec
2
x tan
n
x dx
sin
3
x cos
n
x dx
cos
3
x sin
n
x dx

10 If f (x) = 6 sin x cos
2
x and , nd f(x).
11 If f (x) = 4 sin
2
2x cos
2
2x and , nd f(x).
12 Find g(x) if g(x) = sin
3
cos
4
and g(0) = .
The graph of a function and the
graphs of its antiderivatives
Given f(x) = , what do the graphs of its
antiderivatives look like?
Using a graphics calculator, press , enter
Y1= 2(cos(X/2))
2
, move down to , press
and select 9:fnInt(. Complete to obtain
fnInt(Y1,X,0,X).
(Remember that to insert the symbol Y1, press , select and
1:Function. Then select 1:Y1 and press (and similarly for any Y variable).
As the given function is trigonometric, press
and select 7: ZTrig.
(Since the numeric integral is repeatedly applied
for every X-value on the screen, the antiderivative
graph can take some time to plot. You can speed it
up considerably by changing the value of Xres in
the WINDOW settings to 5.)
1 Which is the graph of f(x) = and which is the graph of the antiderivative?
The antiderivative graph in the second screen
is the line that cuts 0 at x = 0, since the integral
from 0 to 0 of any function is 0. To see another
antiderivative graph, go to , press ,
select 9 and complete 9: fnInt(Y1,X,1,X) and
then press .
2 Generate another two antiderivative graphs on your calculator. Sketch the
function and the four antiderivative graphs. Describe any relationships you can
nd.
3 Choose another function and investigate the relationship between the graph of
the function and the graphs of its antiderivatives.
f

3
---

0 =
f

4
---

=
x
2
---
x
2
---
4
35
------
2cos
2x
2
---
Y=
Y2 =
MATH
VARS Y-VARS
ENTER
ZOOM
2cos
2x
2
---
Y3 = MATH
GRAPH
Technique 4: Antidifferentiation using
partial fractions
Recall that rational expressions, in particular those with denominators that can be
expressed with linear factors, can be transformed into partial fractions. A summary of
two common transformations is shown in the table below. These transformations are
useful when the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator;
otherwise long division is generally required before antidifferentiation can be performed.
We have seen how this procedure simplies the sketching of graphs of rational func-
tions. Similarly, expressing rational functions as partial fractions enables them to be
antidifferentiated quite easily. However, it is preferable to use a substitution method, if
it is applicable, as the partial-fraction technique can be tedious.
Rational expression Equivalent partial fraction
where f (x) is a linear function
f x ( )
ax b + ( ) cx d + ( )
----------------------------------------
A
ax b + ( )
--------------------
B
cx d + ( )
-------------------- +
f x ( )
ax b + ( )
2
----------------------
A
ax b + ( )
2
----------------------
B
ax b + ( )
-------------------- +
Find a, b and c if ax(x 2) + bx(x + 1) + c(x + 1)(x 2) = 2x 4.
THINK WRITE
Let x = 0 so that c can be evaluated. Let x = 0, 2c = 4
Solve the equation for c. c = 2
Let x = 2 so that b can be evaluated. Let x = 2, 6b = 0
Solve the equation for b.
b = 0
Let x = 1 so that a can be evaluated. Let x = 1, 3a = 6
Solve the equation for a.
a = 2
State the solution. Therefore a = 2, b = 0 and c = 2.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
11
WORKEDExample
For each of the following rational expressions:
i express as partial fractions ii antidifferentiate the result.
a b
THINK WRITE
a i Express the rational expression as two
separate fractions with denominators
(x + 2) and (x 3) respectively.
a i
Express the partial fractions with the
original common denominator.
=
x 7 +
x 2 + ( ) x 3 ( )
-----------------------------------
2x 3
x
2
3x 4
---------------------------
1
x 7 +
x 2 + ( ) x 3 ( )
---------------------------------- =
a
x 2 + ( )
-----------------
b
x 3 ( )
---------------- +
2
a x 3 ( ) b x 2 + ( ) +
x 2 + ( ) x 3 ( )
----------------------------------------------
12
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Equate the numerator on the left-
hand side with the right-hand side.
so x + 7 = a(x 3) + b(x + 2)
Let x = 2 so that a can be evaluated. Let x = 2, and thus 5 = 5a
Solve for a. a = 1
Let x = 3 so that b can be evaluated. Let x = 3, and thus 10 = 5b
Solve for b. b = 2
Rewrite the rational expression as
partial fractions.
Therefore
ii Express the integral in partial
fraction form.
ii
=
= log
e
(x + 2) + 2 log
e
(x 3) + c (x > 3)
Simplify using log laws.
= log
e
+ c
b i Factorise the denominator. b i =
Express the partial fractions with
denominators (x 4) and (x + 1)
respectively.
=
Express the right-hand side with the
=
Equate the numerators. So 2x 3 = a(x + 1) + b(x 4)
Let x = 4 to evaluate a. Let x = 4, 5 = 5a
Solve for a. a = 1
Let x = 1 to evaluate b. Let x = 1, 5 = 5b
Solve for b. b = 1
Rewrite the rational expression as
partial fractions.
Therefore =
ii Express the integral in its partial
fraction form.
ii
=
= log
e
(x 4) + log
e
(x + 1) + c (x > 4)
= log
e
[(x 4)(x + 1)] + c (x > 4)
or log
e
(x
2
3x 4) + c (x > 4)
3
4
5
6
7
8
x 7 +
x 2 + ( ) x 3 ( )
----------------------------------
1
x 2 +
------------
2
x 3
----------- + =
1
x 7 +
x 2 + ( ) x 3 ( )
---------------------------------- dx
1
x 2 +
------------
2
x 3
----------- +

dx
2
3
x 3 ( )
2
x 2 +
-------------------
1
2x 3
x
2
3x 4
--------------------------
2x 3
x 4 ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------
2
a
x 4
-----------
b
x 1 +
------------ +
3
a x 1 + ( ) b x 4 ( ) +
x 4 ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------------------
4
5
6
7
8
9
2x 3
x
2
3x 4
--------------------------
1
x 4
-----------
1
x 1 +
------------ +
1
2x 3
x
2
3x 4
-------------------------- dx
1
x 4
-----------
1
x 1 +
------------ +

dx
2
3
Find the following integrals.
a b
THINK WRITE
a Factorise the denominator of the integrand. a =
Express into partial fractions with
denominators (1 x) and (1 + x).
=
=
Equate the numerators.
so 2 = a(1 + x) + b(1 x)
Let x = 1 to nd a.
Let x = 1, 2 = 2a
Solve for a.
a = 1
Let x = 1 to nd b.
Let x = 1, 2 = 2b
Solve for b.
b = 1
Express the integrand in its partial
fraction form.
Therefore
=
= log
e
(1 x) + log
e
(1 + x) + c,
(1 < x < 1)
Simplify using log laws. = log
e
(1 < x < 1)
b The degree of the numerator is the
same as the degree of the denominator
and hence the denominator should
divide the numerator using long division.
b
Expand the denominator.
Divide the denominator into the
numerator.
Using long division:
1
x
2
+ 5x + 4 ) x
2
+ 6x 1
x
2
+ 5x + 4
x 5
The division yields 1 with remainder
(x 5).
2
1 x
2
-------------- dx
x
2
6x 1 +
x 4 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------- dx
1
2
1 x
2
--------------
2
1 x ( ) 1 x + ( )
----------------------------------
2
a
1 x
-----------
b
1 x +
------------ +
3
a 1 x + ( ) b 1 x ( ) +
1 x
2
----------------------------------------------
4
5
6
7
8
9
2
1 x
2
-------------- dx
1
1 x
-----------
1
1 x +
------------ +

dx
10
11
1 x +
1 x
------------

c +
1
2
x
2
6x 1 +
x 4 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------
x
2
6x 1 +
x
2
5x 4 + +
--------------------------- =
3
13
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Rewrite the rational expression using
the result of the division.
Therefore
Express as partial
fractions with denominators (x + 4) and
(x + 1).
Now
Rewrite the partial fractions with the
=
and thus x 5 = a(x + 4) + b(x + 1)
Let x = 1 to nd a. Let x = 1, 6 = 3a
Solve for a. a = 2
Let x = 4 to nd b. Let x = 4, 9 = 3b
Solve for b.
b = 3
Express the original integrand in its
partial fraction form.
Therefore,
=
Antidifferentiate by rule. = x 2log
e
(x + 4) + 3log
e
(x + 1) + c,
(x > 1).
4
x
2
6x 1 +
x 4 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
---------------------------------- 1
x 5
x 4 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
---------------------------------- + =
5
x 5
x 4 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------
x 5
x 4 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------
a
x 4 +
------------
b
x 1 +
------------ + =
6
a x 4 + ( ) b x 1 + ( ) +
x 4 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
-----------------------------------------------
7
8
9
10
11
12
x
2
6x 1 +
x 4 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
---------------------------------- dx
1
2
x 4 +
------------
3
x 1 +
------------ + +

dx
13
Rational polynomials can be antidifferentiated by rewriting the expressions as
partial fractions or by long division. If the numerator is of degree less than the
denominator then use partial fractions; otherwise rewrite the expression by long
division. Two common partial fraction transformations are shown below.
f x ( )
ax b + ( ) cx d + ( )
----------------------------------------
A
ax b + ( )
--------------------
B
cx d + ( )
-------------------- +
f x ( )
ax b + ( )
2
----------------------
A
ax b + ( )
2
----------------------
B
ax b + ( )
-------------------- +
remember
Antidifferentiation using
partial fractions
1 Find the values of a, b and c in the following identities.
a ax + b(x 1) = 3x 2
b a(x + 2) + b(x 3) = x 8
c a(x 4) + b = 3x 2
d a(3x + 1) + b(x 2) = 5x + 4
e a(2 3x) + b(x + 5) = 9x + 11
f a(x + 2) + bx = 2x 10
g a + b(x + 2) + c(x + 2)(x + 3) = x
2
+ 4x 2
h a(x + 2)(x 3) + bx(x 3) + cx(x + 2) = 3x
2
x + 6
2 Express each of the following rational expressions as partial fractions.
3 Find the antiderivative of each rational expression in question 2.
4
a If = , then:
b Hence dx is equal to:
5
The antiderivative of is equal to:
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n
A a = 2, b = 3 B a = 2, b = 3 C a = 3, b = 2
D a = 2, b = 3 E a = 1, b = 1
A 2log
e
(x + 6) 3log
e
(4 x) + c B 2log
e
(x + 6) 3log
e
(4 x) + c
C 3log
e
(x + 6) + 2log
e
(4 x) + c D 3log
e
(x + 6) 2log
e
(4 x) + c
E
A 2log
e
(x + 3) log
e
(x 2) + c B 2log
e
C 2log
e
D log
e
(x + 3) 2log
e
(x 2) + c
E log
e
(x + 1) 2log
e
(x 6) + c
6D
WORKED
Example
11
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Partial
fractions
WORKED
Example
12i
1
x 1 + ( ) x 2 + ( )
----------------------------------
12
x 2 ( ) x 2 + ( )
----------------------------------
6x
x 3 + ( ) x 1 ( )
----------------------------------
3x
x 2 ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------
x 3 +
x 2 + ( ) x 3 + ( )
----------------------------------
x 20 +
x 4 ( ) x 4 + ( )
----------------------------------
4x 5 +
x 2 + ( )
2
-------------------
5x 26
x 5 ( )
2
-------------------
x 4 +
x x 2 ( )
-------------------
7x 4
x 2 ( ) x 3 + ( )
----------------------------------
8x 10
2x 1 + ( ) x 3 ( )
-------------------------------------
9x 11
3x 2 ( ) x 1 + ( )
-------------------------------------
11 3x
2 x ( ) x 3 + ( )
----------------------------------
12 2x
1 x ( ) 3 x ( )
---------------------------------
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Anti-
differentiation
WORKED
Example
12ii
multiple choice
5x 10 +
24 2x x
2
-----------------------------
a
x 6 +
------------
b
4 x
----------- +
5x 10 +
24 2x x
2
-----------------------------
log
e
x 6 + ( )
4 x
---------------------------
multiple choice
10
x
2
x 6 +
-----------------------
x 1 +
x 6
------------ c +
x 3 +
x 2
------------ c +
6 Antidifferentiate each of the following rational polynomials by rst expressing them
as partial fractions.
7 By rst simplifying the rational expression using long division, nd the antiderivative
of each of the following expressions.
8 Evaluate the following integrals in terms of x.
9 a If and f(2) = 3log
e
2, nd f(x).
10 a Find g(x) if and g(4) = 4 log
e
5.
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
a b c
d e f
g h i
j
Challenge
k l
m n
WORKED
Example
13a
3x 10 +
x
2
2x +
------------------
5x 4
x
2
x 2
-----------------------
x 3 +
x
2
3x 2 + +
---------------------------
6x 1
x
2
5x 6
--------------------------
5x 7
x
2
4x 3 +
--------------------------
x 16 +
x
2
7x 6 + +
---------------------------
7x 9 +
x
2
9
---------------
7x 1 +
x
2
1
---------------
5x
2x
2
3x 2
-----------------------------
16 2x
3x
2
7x 6 +
------------------------------
x 4 +
2x
2
5x 2 +
------------------------------
4
4 x
2
--------------
3x 4
16 x
2
-----------------
x 13 +
5 4x x
2
+
--------------------------
WORKED
Example
13b
x 1
x 5 +
------------
x 3 +
x 2
------------
x
2
1
x
2
3x +
-----------------
x
2
2x 4 + +
x
2
4x
---------------------------
x
2
x
x 3 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------
x
2
x 4 + +
x
2
2x 3
--------------------------
x
2
3x 2 +
x
2
4
--------------------------
x
3
4x
2
x +
x 2 + ( ) x 1 + ( )
----------------------------------
x
3
4x 13 +
x
2
4x 5
-----------------------------
2x
3
x
2
5 +
x
2
1
-----------------------------
x
2
x 2 +
x
2
2x 1 + +
---------------------------
2x
2
9x 7 +
x
2
6x 9 +
------------------------------
4 x
x x 2 + ( )
--------------------dx
9x 8 +
x 3 ( ) x 4 + ( )
----------------------------------dx
5 x 1 + ( )
x
2
25
--------------------dx
x
2
3 +
x
2
9
--------------dx
x
2
3x 4 +
x 4 ( ) x 2 + ( )
----------------------------------dx
x
2
4x 1 + +
x
2
6x 7 +
---------------------------dx
x
3
x
2
4x +
x
2
4x 4 +
-----------------------------dx
4x
2
6x 4 +
2x
2
x 6
------------------------------dx
x 1 +
x
2
4 +
--------------dx
4x 2
x
2
9 +
---------------dx
5x
2
2x 17 + +
x 1 ( ) x 2 + ( ) x 3 ( )
---------------------------------------------------dx
x
2
18x 5 + +
x 1 + ( ) x 2 ( ) x 3 + ( )
---------------------------------------------------dx
x
2
8x 9 + +
x 1 ( ) x 2 + ( )
2
------------------------------------dx
x
2
5x 1 + +
x
2
1 + ( ) 2 x ( )
------------------------------------dx
f x ( )
6
x
2
1
-------------- =
g x ( )
x
2
1 +
x
2
2x 3
-------------------------- =
Denite integrals
The quantity is called the indenite integral of the function f(x). However,
is called the denite integral of the function f(x) and is evaluated using
the result that:
=
= F(b) F(a)
where F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x).
The denite integral can be found only if the integrand, f(x), exists for
all values of x in the interval [a, b]; that is, a x b.
When using substitution to evaluate denite integrals there is no need to return to an
expression in terms of x providing the terminals are expressed in terms of u. In fact it is
mathematically incorrect to show the integral in terms of u but with terminals in terms
of x. Therefore when using a substitution, u = f(x), the terminals should also be
adjusted in terms of u.
f x ( ) dx
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
For each of the following integrals, state:

i the domain of the integrand ii whether the integral exists.
a b
THINK WRITE
a i For the integrand to exist,
must be greater than 0.
a i The integrand exists if .
Solve the inequation for x.
x
2
< 9
3 < x < 3
State the domain. The domain is (3, 3).
ii The integral exists for all values of x
between the terminals 2 and 2.
ii The integral exists.
b i The integrand does not exist for
x = 3 and 1, as these values make
the denominator equal to zero.
b i x 3, 1
State the domain. Domain is R\{3, 1}.
ii The integral does not exist for all values
of x between the terminals 0 and 4
(as 1 lies in the interval).
ii The integral does not exist.
2
2
1
9 x
2
------------------ dx
4
0

2
x 1 ( ) x 3 + ( )
----------------------------------- dx
1
9 x
2
9 x
2
0 >
2
3
1
2
14
WORKEDExample
Use an appropriate substitution to express each of the following denite integrals in terms
of u, with the terminals of the integral correctly adjusted.
a b
THINK WRITE
a Antidifferentiate the integrand by letting
u = x
2
1 so the derivative method can be
applied.
a Let u = x
2
1.
Find .
Express dx in terms of du.
or
Adjust the terminals by nding u when x = 2
and x = 3.
When x = 2, u = 2
2
1
= 3
When x = 3, u = 3
2
1
= 8
Rewrite the integral.
Therefore the integral is
b Antidifferentiate the integrand by using the
linear substitution u = x 2.
b Let u = x 2.
Find .
Express dx in terms of du. or dx = du
Express x in terms of u. x = u + 2
Adjust the terminals by nding u when x = 3
and x = 6.
When x = 3, u = 3 2
= 1
When x = 6, u = 6 2
= 4
Rewrite the integral.
Therefore the integral is
Simplify the integrand.
=
3
2

x
x
2
1
-------------- dx
6
3

x
x 2
---------------- dx
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 2x =
3 dx
du
2x
------ =
4
5
x
u
---
du
2x
------
3
8
8
3
1
2u
------ du
1
2
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 1 =
3
4
5
6
4
1
u 2 +
u
1
2
---
------------ du
7
4
1
u
1
2
---
2u
1
2
---
+

du
15
WORKEDExample
Evaluate the following denite integrals.
a b
THINK WRITE
a Write the integral. a
Factorise the denominator of the
integrand.
Consider: =
Express in partial fraction form with
denominators x + 1 and x + 4.
=
=
x 2 = a(x + 4) + b(x + 1)
Let x = 1 to nd a.
Let x = 1, 3 = 3a
a = 1
Let x = 4 to nd b.
Let x = 4, 6 = 3b
b = 2
Rewrite the integral in partial fraction
form.
So
=
Antidifferentiate the integrand.
= [log
e
(x + 1) + 2log
e
(x + 4)]
2
0
Evaluate the integral.
= [log
e
3 + 2log
e
6] [log
e
1 + 2log
e
4]
= log
e
3 + 2log
e
6 2log
e
4
= 2log
e
1.5 log
e
3
= log
e
2.25 log
e
3
= log
e
0.75
(or approx. 2.88)
b Write the integral.
b
Let u = 1 + sin x to antidifferentiate. Let u = 1 + sin x
Find .
Express dx in terms of du. or
2
0
x 2
x
2
5x 4 + +
---------------------------- dx
2
---
0
cos x 1 sin x + dx
1
2
0
x 2
x
2
5x 4 + +
--------------------------- dx
2
x 2
x
2
5x 4 + +
---------------------------
x 2
x 1 + ( ) x 4 + ( )
----------------------------------
3
a
x 1 +
------------
b
x 4 +
------------ +
4
a x 4 + ( ) b x 1 + ( ) +
x
2
5x 4 + +
-----------------------------------------------
5
6
7
8
2
0
x 2
x
2
5x 4 + +
--------------------------- dx
2
0
1
x 1 +
------------
2
x 4 +
------------ + dx
9
10
11
1
cos x 1 sin x + dx
0
2
---
2
3
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ cos x =
4
dx
du
cos x
------------ =
16
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Change terminals by nding u when
x = 0 and x = .
When x = 0, u = 1 + sin 0
= 1
When , u = 1 + sin
= 1 + 1
= 2
So
=
=
=
=
=
or
5
2
---
x

2
--- =

2
---
6 cos x 1 sin x + dx
0
2
---
cos x ( )u
1
2
---
du
cos x
------------
1
2
u
1
2
---
du
1
2
7
2
3
--- u
3
2
---
1
2
8
2
3
--- 2
3
2
---
2
3
--- 1
3
2
---
4 2
3
----------
2
3
---
4 2 2
3
-------------------
By using the substitution x = sin , evaluate .
THINK WRITE
Let x = sin . Let x = sin .
Find .
Make dx the subject. or dx = cos d
Change the terminals by nding when
x = and x = 0.
When x = , = sin
=
When x = 0, 0 = sin
= 0
1 x
2
dx
0
1
2
---
1
2
dx
d
------
dx
d
------ cos =
3
4
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
6
---
17
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
To nd the value of a denite integral, press and select 9:fnInt(. Then type in
the integrand, the function variable, the lower terminal and the upper terminal. Press
to evaluate the integral.
Alternatively, if the function is already in Y1, press , select 9:fnInt(, complete
9: fnInt(Y1,X,0, 2) and press . (Remember that to insert the symbol Y1, press
, select YVARS and 1:Function, then 1:Y1 (similarly for any Y variable).
1 The screen shows both methods for (Worked example 16a).
2 To estimate cos
2
dx, press , select 9:fnInt( and complete by entering
2(cos(X 2))
2
,X,0,) and pressing .
THINK WRITE
=
=
=
Replace cos
2
by its identity
(1 + cos 2).
=
=
=
=
=
=
5 1 x
2
dx
0
1
2
---
1 sin
2
cos d
0
6
---
cos cos d
0
6
---
cos
2
d
0
6
---
6
1
2
---
1
2
--- 1 cos 2 + ( ) d
0
6
---
1
2
--- 1 cos 2 + ( )
0
6
---
d
7
8
1
2
---
1
2
--- sin 2 +
0
6
---
1
2
---

6
---
1
2
--- sin
3
--- +

0
1
2
--- sin 0 + ( )
1
2
---

6
---
1
2
---
3
2
-------

+
12
------
3
8
------- +
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the numeric integral at the
HOME screen
MATH
ENTER
MATH
ENTER
VARS
x 2
x
2
5x 4 + +
---------------------------
0
2
dx
2
0
x
2
--- MATH
ENTER
A handy trick to use, if the answer is a simple fraction, is to press , select
1: Frac and press but it doesnt work in this case.
If the answer could possibly be a fractional multiple of , rst try dividing by then
pressing , selecting 1: Frac and pressing . In this case, the answer is
just itself. (Dont expect this trick to always work!)
Denite integrals
1 For each of the following denite integrals , state i the maximal domain
of the integrand f(x) and ii whether the integral exists.
a b c
d
e f
g h i
j
k
l
m n
MATH
L
ENTER
MATH
L
ENTER
1. =
= F(b) F(a), where F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x).
2. The denite integral can be found only if the integrand, f(x), exists
for all values of x in the interval [a, b]; that is, a x b.
f x ( ) dx
a
b
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
remember
6E
WORKED
Example
14
f x ( ) dx
a
b
2
1
1
9 x
2
-------------- dx
1
0
1
4 x
2
------------------ dx
5
3
dx
16 x
2
---------------------
2
1
dx
1 x
2
+
--------------
4
1
2
x
--- dx
1
2
dx
x x 1 + ( )
--------------------
1
1
4x 10 +
x
2
5x 6 + +
--------------------------- dx
2
0
1
x 1 ( )
2
------------------- dx
3
1
3x 2 +
x
2
8x 12 +
----------------------------- dx
3
2
-------
0
dx
4x
2
9 +
------------------
0
1
dx
1 9x
2
--------------------- 2x 1 ( )
3
2
---
dx
1
2
---
2
2
0
x
1
x 2
----------- +

dx e
x
e
x
+ ( )
2
dx
0
3

2 Evaluate the integrals in question 1 provided that the integrand, f(x), exists for all
values within the domain of the integral.
3
The denite integral dx can be evaluated after substituting u = x
3
+ 1.
a The integral will then be equal to:
b The value of the integral is:
4
a can be evaluated by rst making the substitution:
b The integral will then be equal to:
c When evaluated, the integral is equal to:
5 By choosing an appropriate substitution for u, express the following integrals in terms
of u. (Do not forget to change the terminals.)
6 Evaluate each of the integrals in question 5.
A B C
D
E
A 11
B C 9 D 12
E
A u = sin x B u = cos x
C
D u = cot x E u = 1 + sin x
A B C D
E
A 2
B
C 2
D
E
a b
c
d e f
g
h i
j k l
m
n
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Integrator
multiple choice
2x
2
x
3
1 +
0
2
2
0
2 u
3
---------- du
9
0
3 u 1 +
2
------------------- du
9
1
2 u
3
---------- du
2
0
2x
2
u du
7
0
4u
3
2
---
9
-------- du
5
9
---
8 2
9
----------
4
9
---
10 10 1
multiple choice
2
---
0
cos x
1 sin x +
------------------------- dx
u 1 sin x + =
u
1
2
---
du
0
1
u
1
2
---
du
1
0
u
1
2
---
du
0
2
u
1
2
---
du
1
2
1 u + du
0
1
2 2 2 2 2
2
3
---
WORKED
Example
15
x
2
2 x
3
+ ( ) dx
0
2

2
1
4x
x
2
3
2
---------------- dx
x x
2
1 + dx
0
1
x 1 ( ) x
2
2x dx
2
4
x x 1 dx
1
2

3
0
x
2
x 1 +
---------------- dx
3
1
log
e
x
x
------------- dx
sin x e
cos x
dx
3
---
2
---
x 1 x ( )
10
dx
0
1
cos x sin x dx
0
2
---
tan
3
x sec
2
x dx
0
4
---
x sin x
2
dx
0
2
---
cos
3
x dx
2
---
e
x
e
x
1 +
------------------ dx
0
1

7 Evaluate the following denite integrals.
8 By substituting x = sin , evaluate .
9 By substituting x = 2sin , evaluate .
10 By making the substitution x = tan , evaluate .
11 If , nd the value of a.
12 If , nd a.
13 If , nd a.
14 If , nd a.
a b
c d
e
f
g h
i j
k
l
m
n
o p
q r
WORKED
Example
16
4xe
x
2
dx
2
0
4x 7 + ( ) 2x
2
7x + dx
0
1
2 x 3 + dx
3
2

0
1
x 1 +
1 x
---------------- dx
sin x cos
4
x dx
0
3
---

2
0
x 5 +
x
2
4x 3 + +
--------------------------- dx
1
1
1
4 x
2
------------------ dx
1
x 3 ( )
2
1 +
----------------------------
0
3
dx
1
1
1
4 x 1 ( )
2
---------------------------- dx sin
3
x cos
2
x dx
0
cot x dx
4
---
2
---

6
5
3x 10
x
2
7x 12 +
----------------------------- dx
2x
2
x
2
1 +
-------------- dx
1
1
2 sin 2x cos x dx
0
2
---
2x 1 + ( )e
x
2
x +
dx
0
1
2 tan
2
x + ( ) dx
4
---
3
---
x
2
x 1
---------------- dx
2
5
2x
3
x
2
2x 4 +
x
2
4
----------------------------------------- dx
3
4
WORKED
Example
17
1 x
2
dx
0
1
4 x
2
dx
0
3
dx
1 x
2
+ ( )
2
---------------------
0
1
4
1 x
2
+
-------------- dx
0
a
=
4
4 x
2
-------------- dx
0
a
log
e
3 =
3 x 1 + dx
1
a
6 3 =
1
4 x
2
------------------ dx
a
a

2
--- =
W
o
r
k
S
H
E
ET
6.1
You can check your answers by using the Mathcad le Integrator found on the Maths
Quest CD-ROM.
Applications of integration
In this section, we shall examine how integration may be used to determine the area
under a curve and the area between curves.
Areas under curves
You will already be aware that the area between a curve
which is above the x-axis and the x-axis itself is as shown in
the diagram at right.
Area =
Further, the area between a curve which is below the
x-axis, and the x-axis itself, is as shown in the second
diagram.
Area =
=
The modulus is required here since, for a curve segment that lies below the x-axis,
the integral associated with that curve segment is a negative number. Area is a positive
number and in this case the integral is negative.
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Integrator
y
x 0
b a
y = f (x)
f x ( ) dx
a
b
y
x 0
b a
y = g(x)
g x ( ) dx
a
b
g x ( ) dx
a
b

Similarly, the area between a curve and the y-axis can be
found if the rule for the curve is expressed as a function of
y, that is, x = f (y).
Area = (integral measures to the right of the
y-axis are positive)
or
Area = (integral measures to the left of the
y-axis are negative)
Area =
If the graph crosses the x-axis, then the areas of the
regions above and below the x-axis have to be calculated
separately. In this case the x-intercepts must be determined.
In the gure at right a single intercept, c, is shown.
Area =
=
Similarly the shaded region in the gure at right has an
area given by:
Area =
=
y
x 0
a
b
x = f (y)
f y ( ) dy
a
b
y
x 0
a
b
x = g (y)
g y ( ) dy
a
b
g y ( ) dy
a
b
y
x 0
b c a
y = f (x)
f x ( ) dx
c
b
f x ( ) dx
a
c
+
f x ( ) dx
c
b
f
a
c
x ( ) dx
y
x 0
a
b
c
x = f (y)
f y ( ) dy
c
b
f y ( ) dy
a
c
+
f y ( ) dy
c
b
f
a
c
y ( ) dy
If y = , nd:
a the x-intercepts b the area bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the line x = 3.
THINK WRITE
a For x-intercepts, y = 0, when 2log
e
x = 0.
a x-intercepts occur when 2log
e
x = 0.
Solve for x.
That is, x = 1.
b Sketch a graph showing the region
required. (A graphics calculator may
be used.)
b
2 log
e
x
x
-----------------
1
2
1
y
x 0
3 1
y =
2 log
e
x
x
18
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
A graphics calculator should be used here to verify the result.
To nd the area under a curve between two x-values, rst graph the curve by entering
its equation as Y1 in the Y= menu.
Consider y = in worked example 18. Press Y= and type in (2ln(X))X at Y1.
Then press .
To nd the area bounded by this curve and the
x-axis between x = 1 and x = 3, press [CALC]
and select 7: f(x) dx. Type in 1 for the lower value
(press ) and 3 for the upper value (press
). Compare this result to that obtained in
worked example 18.
THINK WRITE
Express the area as a denite integral. Area =
Antidifferentiate by letting u = log
e
x to
apply the derivative method.
Let u = log
e
x.
Find .
or dx = x du
Express the terminals in terms of u.
When x = 1, u = log
e
1
= 0
When x = 3, u = log
e
3
Area =
=
=
= (log
e
3)
2
State the area.
The area is (log
e
3)
2
or approximately
1.207 square units.
2
2 log
e
x
x
----------------- dx
1
3
3
4
du
dx
------
du
dx
------
1
x
--- =
5
6
2u
x
------ x du
0
log
e3
7
2u du
0
log
e
3
8 u
2
[ ]
0
log
e
3
9 log
e
3 ( )
2
[ ] 0
2
[ ]
10
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the numeric integral at the
GRAPH screen
2log
e
x
x
------------------
GRAPH
2nd
ENTER
ENTER
The shaded area shown in the gure in worked example 19
could also have been calculated relative to the x-axis by sub-
tracting the area between the curve and the x-axis from the
area of the rectangle as shown in the gure at right. That is:
Area =
Using symmetry properties
In some problems involving area calculations, use of symmetry properties can simplify
the procedure.
Examine the gure at right.
a Express the rule as a function of y.
b Find the area of the shaded section.
THINK WRITE
a Write down the rule.
a y =
Square both sides of the equation.
y
2
= x 1
Add 1 to both sides to make x the subject.
or x = y
2
+ 1
b Express the area between the curve and
the y-axis in integral notation.
b Area =
=
= 4
State the area. The area is 4 square units.
y
x 0
1
2
y = x 1
1 x 1
2
3
1 y
2
1 + ( ) dy
0
2
2 [
1
3
--- y
3
y + ]
0
2
3
[
8
3
--- 2 + ] [0 0] +
2
3
---
4
2
3
---
19
WORKEDExample
y
x
0
1 5
2
y = x 1
5 2 ( ) x 1 dx
1
5
Find the area inside the ellipse in the gure at right.

THINK WRITE
Write the equation. (The ellipse is
symmetrical about the x-axis and y-axis
and so nding the shaded area in the
gure allows for the total enclosed area
to be determined.)
= 1
Express the relation as a function of x
for the top half of the ellipse.
= 1 x
2
y
2
= 4(1 x
2
)
y = is the rule for the top half
of the ellipse.
(y = is the bottom half.)
y
x
y
2
4
0
1 1
2
2
x
2
+ = 1
1
x
2
y
2
4
----- +
2
y
2
4
-----
2 1 x
2
2 1 x
2

20
WORKEDExample
Continued over page
Areas between curves
When nding the areas between two curves that intersect, it
is necessary to determine where the point of intersection
occurs. In the gure at right, two functions, f and g, inter-
sect at the point P with x-ordinate c.
The area contained within the envelope of the two func-
tions bounded by x = a and x = b is given by:
.
THINK WRITE
Write the integral that gives the area in
the rst quadrant (a quarter of the total
area).
Area in the rst quadrant =
Express the total area as four times this
integral.
Total area of ellipse =
=
To antidifferentiate, let x = sin .
Let x = sin .
Find . = cos
or dx = cos d
Express the terminals in terms of .
When x = 0, sin = 0
= 0
When x = 1, sin = 1
=
Rewrite the integral in terms of .
Area = cos d
Simplify the integrand using identities. =
=
=
=
=
=
= 2
State the area.
The exact area is 2 square units.
3
2 1 x
2
dx
0
1
4
4 2 1 x
2
dx
0
1
8 1 x
2
dx
0
1
5
6
dx
d
------
dx
d
------
7
8
2
---
9
8 1 sin
2

0
2
---
10 8 cos
2
d
0
2
---
8
1
2
---
0
2
---
1 cos 2 + ( ) d
4 1 cos 2 + ( ) d
0
2
---
11
4[
1
2
--- sin 2] +
0
2
---
12
4

2
---
1
2
--- sin + 0
1
2
---
sin 0 + [ ]
4

2
--- 0 +

13
y
P
x 0
b c a
f (x)
g (x)
Area = +
Similarly, areas between curves can also be found rela-
tive to the y-axis.
Area =
Note that on the interval [a, b], g(y) f (y) and hence the
integrand is g(y) f (y) and not f (y) g(y).
When an area between a curve and the x-axis (or between curves) gives an
integrand which cannot be antidifferentiated, it may be possible to express the
area relative to the y-axis, creating an integrand which can be antidifferentiated.
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ] dx
a
c
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
c
b
y
x 0
a
b
x = f (y)
x = g (y)
g y ( ) f y ( ) [ ] dy
a
b
Find the area bounded by the curves y = x

2
2 and y = 2x + 1.
THINK WRITE
Check on a graphics calculator to see if
the curves intersect. If they do, solve
x
2
2 = 2x + 1 to nd the x-ordinate of
the point or points of intersection for
the two curves.
x
2
2 = 2x + 1
x
2
2x 3 = 0
(x 3)(x + 1) = 0
x = 3 and x = 1
The curves intersect at x = 3 and x = 1.
Express the area as an integral.
(Use , as without a graph we cannot
always be sure which function is above
the other. Here is a valuable use for the
graphics calculator.)
Area =
=
=
=
=
= 10
State the solution.
The area bounded by the two curves is
10 square units.
1
2
x
2
2 2x 1 + ( ) [ ] dx
1
3
3 x
2
2x 3 ( ) dx
1
3
4 [
1
3
---
x
3
x
2
3x]
1
3
5
[ 9 9 9 ( )
1
3
--- 1 3 + ( )]
9 1
2
3
---
10
2
3
---
2
3
---
6
2
3
---
21
WORKEDExample
Consider using the TI calculator for worked example 21.
1. To graph the two curves with equations y = x
2
2
and y = 2x + 1 enter Y1= X
2
2 and Y2= 2X + 1. Then
press . Use TRACE to locate the points of
intersection. Adjust the WINDOW settings if
necessary.
2. To show the area bounded by the two curves, press
, position the cursor to the left of the Y1 symbol
and press successively to obtain the shade
below style. Repeat for Y2 to obtain the shade
above style. Press . The required area is
shown unshaded.
3. To determine the value of the area bounded by the
curves on the required interval (in this case, between
x = 1 and x = 3), press , select 9 and
complete 9: fnInt(Y2Y1,X,1,3) and press .
Remember, to insert Y1, press and select
YVARS, 1:Function and 1:Y1 (or 2:Y2 to enter Y2).
Note that in this case we are subtracting Y1 from Y2
(seen by viewing the graph). However, if it is entered the opposite way, it only
produces the negative of the required answer.
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Showing and finding the area
bounded by two curves
GRAPH
Y=
ENTER
GRAPH
MATH
ENTER
VARS
1. The area between a curve f (x), the x-axis and lines x = a and x = b is given by:
Area = where F(x) is the antiderivative of f (x).
2. Area measures can also be evaluated by integration along the y-axis. The area
between a curve f (y), the y-axis and lines y = a and y = b is given by:
Area = where F(y) is the antiderivative of f (y).
3. If an area measure is to be evaluated over the interval [a, b] and the curve
crosses the x-axis at x = c between a and b, then the integral has to be
decomposed into two portions.
Area =
4. The area bounded by two curves f (x) and g(x) where f (x) g(x) and the lines
x = a and x = b is given by:
Area =
5. Where possible use a graphics calculator to draw the function or functions to
determine whether the integrals have to be decomposed into portions and to
check and verify the correct use of the modulus function.
f x ( ) dx
a
b
F b ( ) F a ( ) =
f y ( ) dy
a
b
F b ( ) F a ( ) =
f x ( ) dx
a
c
f x ( ) dx
c
b
+ F c ( ) F a ( ) F b ( ) F c ( ) + =
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
a
b
F b ( ) G b ( ) F a ( ) G a ( ) + =
remember
Applications of integration
For the following problems, give exact answers wherever possible; otherwise give answers
to an appropriate number of decimal places. (Use a graphics calculator to assist with, or
verify, any graphing required.)
1 For each of the following curves nd:
i the x-intercepts
ii the area between the curve, the x-axis and the given lines.
2 For each of the graphs below:
i express the relationship as a function of y (that is, make x the subject of the rule)
ii nd the magnitude of the shaded area between the curve and the y-axis.
a y = , x = 0 and x = 9
b y = x , x = 1 and x = 2
c y = , x = 2 and x = 5
d y = , x = 3 and x = 4
e y = , x = 1 and x =
f y = cos
2
x, x = 0 and
g y = 2x cos x
2
, and x = 0 h y = , x = 0 and x = 1
a b c
d e f
g
6F
WORKED
Example
18
M
a
th
c
a
d
Definite
integral
graph
x
1
x
2
-----
x x 1
3x 2
x
2
4
---------------
1
4 x
2
------------------ 3
x

2
--- =
x

3
--- =
e
x
2 e
x
+
--------------
WORKED
Example
19
y
x 0
2
y = x
y
x 0
4
1
1
y = (x 1)
2 y
x
0
1 1
y = Sin
1
x
y
x 0
2
1
y = log
e
x
y
x 0
1 1
y = Cos
1
x
y
x 0
y = x
3
8
y
x
0
y = Tan
1
x

3 Find the magnitude of the shaded areas on each graph below.
4
a The denite integral that correctly gives the area bounded by the curve y = 4x x
2
and the x-axis is:
b The area, in square units, is equal to:
5
a Which of the graphs below correctly shows the area bounded by the curve
y
2
= x + 1 and the y-axis?
b The denite integral which gives the area bounded by y
2
= x + 1 and the y-axis is:
a b c
d e f
A B C
D E
A 10 B 2 C 5 D 8 E 5
A B C
D E
A B C 2
D E
WORKED
Example
20
y
x 0
2
y = x
2
y
x 0
y
2
= x
2
y
x 0
1 1
y =
4 + x
2
1
4
1
y
x 0
1 e
2
y = log
e
x
y
x
0
3 3
1
1
+ y
2
= 1
9
x
2
y
x 0
y = sin
3
x
2

1
multiple choice
4x x
2
( ) dx
0
2
4x x
2
( ) dx
0
1
4x x
2
( ) dx
4
0
4x x
2
( ) dx
0
4
2x
2
1
3
--- x
3
( ) dx
2
0
2
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
multiple choice
y
x 0
2
y
2
= x + 1
y
x 0
1
1
y
2
= x + 1
y
x 0
2
y
2
= x + 1
y
x 0
y
2
= x + 1
y
x 0
y
2
= x + 1
1
1
1
y
2
1 ( ) dy
0
1
y
2
1 ( ) dy
1
0
y
2
1 ( ) dy
1
0
y
2
1 + ( ) dy
0
1
x 1 x d
0
1

c The value of the area, in square units, is equal to
6 Find the area bounded by the graph with equation y = (x 2)
2
(x + 1) and the x-axis.
7 Find the area bounded by the graph with equation y
2
= x + 4 and the y-axis.
8 a Show that the graphs of f (x) = x
2
4 and g(x) = 4 x
2
intersect at x = 2 and x = 2.
b Find the area bounded by the graphs of f (x) and g(x).
9 a On the same axis sketch the graphs of f (x) = sin x and g(x) = cos x over [0, ].
b Show algebraically that the graphs intersect at .
c Find the area bounded by the curves and the y-axis.
10 a On the same axis sketch the graphs of y = and y = x + 3.
b Find the value of x where the graphs intersect.
c Hence nd the area between the curves from x = 1 to x = 2.
11 Find the area bounded by the curves y = x
2
and y = 3x + 4.
12 Find the area enclosed by the curves y = x
2
and .
13 Find the area bounded by y = e
x
and y = e
x
and the line y = e.
14 Examine the gure at right.
a Find the area enclosed by f (x), g(x) and the y-axis.
b Find the shaded area.
15 Find the area of the ellipse with equation .
Hints:1. Use symmetry properties.
2. Antidifferentiate by using the substitution x = asin .
16 Find the area between the circle x
2
+ y
2
= 9 and ellipse .
Hint: Make use of symmetry properties.
17 a Sketch the curve y = e
x + 2
.
b Find the equation of the tangent at x = 2.
c Find the area between the curve, the tangent and the y-axis.
18 a Sketch the graph of .
b Find the area bounded by this curve and the x- and y-axes.
19 a Show algebraically that the line y = x does not meet the curve .
b Find the area enclosed by the curve, the lines y = x and , and the y-axis.
A B 2 C 1 D 5 E 2
2
3
---
2
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
WORKED
Example
21
M
a
th
c
a
d
Area
between
curves
x

4
--- =
9 x
y x =
y
x 0
1
2
1
2
g(x) = e
x 1

f (x) =
1 + x
2
2
1
e
x
2
a
2
-----
y
2
b
2
----- + 1 =
a
2
x
2
x
2
9
-----
y
2
4
----- + 1 =
y
1 x
x 1 +
------------ =
y
1
1 x
2
------------------ =
x
1
2
------- =
Volumes of solids of revolution
If part of a curve is rotated about the x-axis, or y-axis, a gure called a solid of revol-
ution is formed. For example, a solid of revolution is obtained if the shaded region in
gure 1 is rotated about the x-axis.
The solid generated (gure 2) is symmetrical about the x-axis and any vertical cross-
section is circular, with a radius equal to the value of y at that point. For example, the
radius at x = a is f (a).
Any thin vertical slice may be considered to be cylindrical, with radius y and height
x (gure 3).
The volume of the solid of revolution generated between x = a and x = b is found by
allowing the height of each cylinder, x, to be as small as possible and adding the vol-
umes of all of the cylinders formed between x = a and x = b. That is, the volume of a
typical strip is equal to y
2
x.
Therefore the volume of the solid contained from x = a to x = b is the sum of all the
innitesimal volumes:
V =
=
The value of y must be expressed in terms of x so that the integral can be evaluated.
From the gure above y = f (x) and thus the volume of revolution of a curve f (x) from
x = a to x = b is .
Similarly if a curve is rotated about the y-axis, the solid
of revolution shown in the gure at right is produced.
The volume of the solid of revolution is likewise
For regions between two curves that are rotated about the
x-axis:
y
x
0
y = f(x)
b a
y
x
0
y = f(x)
b a
y
x
0
y = f(x)
x
b a
y
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
y
2
x
x a =
x = b
x 0
lim
a
b
y
2
dx
V f x ( ) [ ]
2
dx
a
b
=
y
x
0
x = f (y)
a
b
V f y ( ) [ ]
2
dy
a
b
=
y
x 0
a b
y = f (x)
y = g (x)
V f x ( ) [ ]
2
g x ( ) [ ]
2
dx
a
b
=
Consider the volume of the solid of revolution formed in
Worked example 22.
1. The line with equation y = 2x is rotated about the x-axis
to form a cone. To graph the line, enter Y1 = 2X and press
. Press to locate particular coordinates.
2. To determine the volume of the cone, press , then
select 9: fnInt( and insert Y1
2
, X, 0, 2) and press
. To insert Y1, press and select YVARS,
1:Function and 1:Y1 (similarly any Y variable).
(Note that Y1
2
provides the integrand, X is the variable,
0 and 2 are the terminals of the integral.)
Can you verify the formula V = for this cone? What is the radius for this cone?
You can try to convert your volume answer to a fraction of . Press and [ ],
then . Select 1: Frac and press . This is also shown in the screen above.
a Sketch the graph of y = 2x and show the region bounded by the graph, the
x-axis and the line x = 2.
b Find the volume of the solid of revolution when the region is rotated about the
x-axis.
THINK WRITE
a Sketch the graph.
a
Shade the region required.
b State the integral that gives the
volume. (The volume generated is
bounded by x = 0 and x = 2.)
b V =
=
=
State the volume.
The exact volume generated is cubic units.
1
y
x 0
2
x = 2
y = 2x
2
1 2x ( )
2
dx
0
2
2 4x
2
dx
0
2
3
[
4
3
--- x
3
]
0
2
4
[
32
3
------ 0 ]
32
3
---------
5
32
3
---------
22
WORKEDExample
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the volume of a solid
of revolution
GRAPH TRACE
MATH
ENTER VARS
1
3
---r
3
2nd
MATH
L
ENTER
a Sketch the region bounded by the curve y = log
e
x, the x-axis, the y-axis and
the line y = 2.
b Calculate the volume of the solid generated if the region is rotated about the
y-axis.
THINK WRITE
a Sketch the graph. (Use a graphics
calculator if necessary.)
a
b Write the rule y = log
e
x. b y = log
e
x
Take the exponent of both sides to get y
as a function of x.
e
y
= e
log x
State the function.
e
y
= x
or x = e
y
Express the volume in integral notation
between y = 0 and y = 2.
So V =
=
=
State the volume.
The volume is exactly cubic units
(or approximately 84.19 cubic units).
1
y
x 0
2
1
y = log
e
x
2
1
2
3
4
e
y
( )
2
dy
0
2
5 e
2y
dy
0
2
6 [
1
2
--- e
2y
]
0
2
7
[
1
2
--- e
4
1
2
---
e
0
2
--- e
4
1 ( )
8
2
--- e
4
1 ( )
23
WORKEDExample
1. To nd the volume of revolution about the x-axis for the function f (x) from
x = a to x = b, evaluate the integral:
V =
2. To nd the volume of revolution about the y-axis for the function f (y) from
y = a to y = b, evaluate the integral:
V =
3. To nd the volume of revolution about the x-axis for the region between f (x)
and g(x) where f (x) g(x) from x = a to x = b, evaluate the integral:
V =
f x ( ) [ ]
2
dx
a
b
f y ( ) [ ]
2
dy
a
b
f x ( ) [ ]
2
g x ( ) [ ]
2
dx
a
b
remember
Volumes of solids
of revolution
Give exact answers where possible; otherwise use an appropriate number of decimal
places when giving approximate answers. (Use a graphics calculator to check any
graphing.)
1 a Sketch the graph of the region bounded by the x-axis, the curve y = 3x and the line
x = 2.
b Calculate the volume generated by rotating this region about the x-axis.
c Verify this result by using the standard volume formula for the solid generated.
2 The region bounded by the graph of and the x-axis is rotated about the
x-axis.
a Calculate the volume of the solid of revolution generated.
b Verify this answer using the standard volume formula.
3 a Sketch the region bounded by the curve , the y-axis and the lines y = 0
and y = 2.
b Calculate the volume generated when this region is rotated about the y-axis.
4 Find the volume generated when the area bounded by y = x
2
1 and the x-axis is
rotated about:
a the x-axis
b the y-axis.
5 For the regions bounded by the x-axis, the following curves, and the given lines:
i sketch a graph shading the region
ii nd the volume generated when the region is rotated about the x-axis.
6 For each region dened in question 5 (a to f only) nd the volume generated by
rotating it about the y-axis.
7
a The region bounded by the curves y = x
2
+ 2 and y = 4 x
2
is represented by the graph:
a y = x + 1; x = 0 and x = 2
b y = ; x = 1 and x = 4
c y = x
2
; x = 0 and x = 2 d y
2
= 2x + 1; x = 0 and x = 3
e x
2
+ y
2
= 4; x = 1 and x = 1 f y = ; x = 1 and x = 3
g y = cos x; and h y = e
x
+ 1; x = 2 and x = 1
A B
6G
WORKED
Example
22
M
a
th
c
a
d
Solid of
revolution x
y 16 x
2
=
WORKED
Example
23
M
a
th
c
a
d
Solid of
revolution y
y x 1 =
x
2
x
---
x

2
--- = x

2
--- =
multiple choice
y
x
0
2
2
y = x
2
+ 2
y = 4 x
2
(1, 3) (1, 3)
y
x
0
y = x
2
+ 2
y = 4 x
2
b The volume generated when the region is rotated about the x-axis is equal to:
c The volume generated when the region is rotated about the y-axis is equal to:
8 Find the volume generated when the region bounded by the curves y = x
2
and y = x
is rotated about:
9 Find the volume generated when the area bounded by the curve y = sec x, the line
and the x- and y-axes is rotated about the x-axis.
10 Find the volume generated by rotating the area bounded by y = e
2x
, the y-axis and the
line y = 2 about the x-axis.
11 The area bounded by the curve y = Tan
1
x, the x-axis and the line x = 1 is rotated
about the y-axis. Find the volume of the solid generated.
12 A model for a container is formed by rotating the area under the curve of
between x = 1 and x = 1 about the x-axis. Find the volume of the container.
C D
E
A B
C D
E
A B
C D
E
a the x-axis b the y-axis.
(2, 2) (2, 2)
y
x
0
y = x
2
+ 2
y = 4 x
2
y
x 0
4
y = x
2
+ 2
y = 4 x
2
y
x
y = x
2
+ 2 y = 4 x
2
(1, 3)
(1, 3)
0
2 2x
2
( )
2
dx
0
2
2 2y ( )
2
dy
1
1
2 2x
2
( )
2
dx
0
1
2 2x
2
( )
2
dx
1
1
6 2x
2
( )
2
dx
1
1
4 y ( ) dy
3
4
y 2 ( ) dy
2
3
+ y 2 ( ) dy
3
4
4 y ( ) dy
2
3
+
2 2y ( ) dy
2
4
2y 2 ( ) dy
2
4
2 2x
2
( ) dx
2
4
x

4
--- =
y 2
x
2
6
----- =
13 For the graph shown at right:
a nd the coordinate of A
b nd the volume generated when the shaded region is rotated
about the x-axis
c nd the volume generated when the shaded region is rotated
about the y-axis.
14 What is the volume generated by rotating the ellipse with equation about:
a the x-axis?
b the y-axis?
15 Find the volume generated when the region bounded by y = x
2
and is
rotated about:
a the x-axis
b the y-axis.
16 Find the volume generated by the rotation of the area bounded by the curves y = x
3
and y = x
2
about:
a the x-axis
b the y-axis.
17 A hemispherical bowl of radius 10 cm contains
water to a depth of 5 cm. What is the
volume of water in the bowl?
18 A solid sphere of radius 6 cm has
a cylindrical hole of radius 1 cm
bored through its centre. What
is the volume of the
remainder of the sphere?
19 Find the volume of a trun-
cated cone of height
10 cm, a base radius of
5 cm and a top radius of
2 cm.
20 a Find the equation of
the circle sketched
below.
b Find the volume of a
torus (doughnut-shaped
gure) generated by
rotating this circle about
the x-axis (give your answer
in cm
3
).
y
x
0
2 1
A
y =
1
4 x
2
x
2
4
-----
y
2
9
----- + 1 =
y 8x =
y
x
0
4
6
Approximate evaluation of denite
integrals and areas
When calculating denite integrals or areas that involve integrands which cannot be
antidifferentiated using techniques discussed in this chapter, approximation methods
can be used. We shall now look at two useful and simple approximation methods: the
midpoint rule and the trapezoidal rule.
The midpoint rule
The denite integral determines the shaded area
under the curve below.
It can be approximated by constructing a rectangle with height
equal to the value of y halfway between x = a and x = b.
Area of rectangle =
The estimate for the shaded area is improved by increasing
the number of intervals, that is the number of rectangles
between x = a and x = b. In the gure below, the region from
x = a and x = b is broken up into n rectangles.
The base width of each rectangle is x and the height of
each individual rectangle is obtained from the midpoint rule.
The area of each rectangle is given by the product of the
height and the common width x.
So
where: , the width of each rectangle
n = the number of intervals and hence rectangles used
x
0
= a
x
n
= b
y
x 0
b a
y = f (x)
f x ( ) dx
a
b
y
x 0
b a
y = f (x)
2
a+b
b a ( ) f
a b +
2
------------

y
x 0
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
n
y = f (n)
(a) (b)
f x ( ) dx x f
x
0
x
1
+
2
----------------

f
x
1
x
2
+
2
----------------

. . . f
x
n 1
x
n
+
2
-----------------------

+ + +
a
b

x
b a
n
------------ =
Estimate using the midpoint rule and 4 intervals.
THINK WRITE
State f (x).
f (x) = x
2
+ 2x
Calculate x.
x =
= 1
x
2
2x + ( ) dx
0
4
1
2 4 0
4
------------
24
WORKEDExample
The trapezoidal rule
The area under a curve can also be approximated using a
trapezium.
The area of the trapezium = .
By increasing the number of intervals between x = a and
x = b, that is, the number of trapezia, the estimate becomes
more accurate:
So

Notice here that the terms f (a) and f (b) occur only once and all other terms such as
f (x
1
) and f (x
2
) occur twice. Thus an approximation to the area is:
Approximate area =
where: n = the number of intervals used
a = x
0
b = x
n
THINK WRITE
Find x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
. x
0
= 0
x
1
= 1
x
2
= 2
x
3
= 3
x
4
= 4
Substitute these values into the
midpoint rule.
So
1[ f (0.5) + f (1.5) + f (2.5) + f (3.5)]
Evaluate the approximation. = 1(1.25 + 5.25 + 11.25 + 19.25)
= 37
State the solution. The approximate value of the denite integral is 37.
3
4
x
2
2x + ( ) dx
0
4
5
6
y
x 0
b a
y = f (x)
b a
2
------------ f a ( ) f b ( ) + [ ]
y
x 0
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
n
y = f (x)
(a) (b)
f x ( ) dx
a
b
b a
2
------------ f a ( ) f x
1
( ) + [ ] f x
1
( ) f x
2
( ) + [ ] f x
2
( ) f x
3
( ) + [ ] . . . f x
n 1
( ) f b ( ) + [ ] + + + + { }
x
2
------ f x
0
( ) 2 f x
1
( ) 2 f x
2
( ) . . . 2 f x
n 1
( ) f x
n
( ) + + + + + [ ]
x
b a
n
------------ =
Compare this answer with that in worked example 24. Which is closest to the exact
answer?
Estimate using the trapezoidal rule and four equal intervals.
THINK WRITE
State f (x).
f (x) = x
2
+ 2x
Calculate x.
x =
= 1
Find x
0
, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
. x
0
= 0
x
1
= 1
x
2
= 2
x
3
= 3
x
4
= 4
trapezoidal rule.
So
[f (0) + 2f (1) + 2f (2) + 2f (3) + f (4)]
Evaluate the approximation.
= [0 + 2(3) + 2(8) + 2(15) + 24]
= (76)
= 38
State the solution.
The value of the denite integral is approximately 38.
x
2
2x + ( ) dx
0
4
1
2
4 0
4
------------
3
4
x
2
2x + ( ) dx
0
4
1
2
---
5
1
2
---
1
2
---
6
25
WORKEDExample
Estimate the area under the graph of y = x log
e
x from x = 1 to x = 5 using two equal
intervals and:
a the midpoint rule b the trapezoidal rule.
THINK WRITE
a State f (x). a f (x) = x log
e
x
Calculate x.
x =
= 2
Find x
0
, x
1
, x
2
. x
0
= 1
x
1
= 3
x
2
= 5
Substitute the values into the
midpoint rule.
So the area =
2[ f(2) + f(4)]
Evaluate the estimate of the area.
= 2[2log
e
2 + 4log
e
4]
= 4log
e
2 + 8log
e
4
State the approximate area.
The approximate area is 13.863 square units.
1
2
5 1
2
------------
3
4
x log
e
x dx
1
5
5
6
26
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
b State f (x). b f (x) = xlog
e
x
Calculate x.
x =
= 2
Find x
0
, x
1
, x
2
. x
0
= 1
x
1
= 3
x
2
= 5
trapezoidal rule.
So the area =
[f (1) + 2f (3) + f (5)]
Evaluate the estimate for the area.
= 1[log
e
1 + 2(3log
e
3) + 5 log
e
5]
= 6 log
e
3 + 5 log
e
5
State the approximate area.
The approximate area is 14.639 square units.
1
2
5 1
2
------------
3
4
xlog
e
x dx
1
5
2
2
---
5
6
1. Some functions cannot be integrated using the
techniques covered in this chapter. Two approxi-
mation methods are discussed. The midpoint rule
involves subdividing the required area into a nite
number of rectangles. The trapezium rule involves
subdividing the area into a nite number of trapezia.
2. The midpoint rule:
where: x = , the width of each rectangle
n = the number of intervals used
x
0
= a
x
n
= b
3. The trapezoidal rule:
x =
a = x
0
b = x
n
y
x 0
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
n
y = f (n)
(a) (b)
f x ( ) dx x f
x
0
x
1
+
2
----------------

f
x
1
x
2
+
2
----------------

. . . f
x
n 1
x
n
+
2
-----------------------

+ + +
a
b
b a
n
------------
y
x 0
x
0
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
n
y = f (x)
(a) (b)
f x ( ) dx
x
2
------ [ f x
0
( ) 2 f x
1
( ) 2 f x
2
( ) . . . 2 f x
n 1
( ) f x
n
( )] + + + + +
a
b
b a
n
------------
remember
Approximate evaluation of
denite integrals and areas
1 Find approximations to the following denite integrals using the midpoint rule with
four equal intervals.
2 Repeat question 1 using the trapezoidal rule.
3 Use the midpoint rule with two equal intervals to estimate the following denite inte-
grals.
4 Repeat question 3 using the trapezoidal rule.
5
a Using the midpoint rule and two equal intervals, an estimate for is:
b Compared to the exact answer, the percentage error in answer a is closest to:
6
a Using the trapezoidal rule and four equal intervals, an estimate for
is:
b The percentage error relative to the exact answer is closest to:
7 Find the value of using the midpoint rule and:
a 4 equal intervals
b 8 equal intervals.
a b
c d
a b
c d
A 1.4 B 0.8 C 0.9412 D 0.7906 E 0.863
A 0.7 B 1.9 C 2.5 D 20 E 6.4
A
B
C D
E
A 61 B 21 C 11 D 5 E 1
6H
WORKED
Example
24
dx
x 2
-----------
3
5
sin x dx
0
log
e
x
2
dx
3
1
Tan
1
x dx
0
4
G
C
p
r
o
g
ram
Midpoint
rule
WORKED
Example
25
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Middle
boxes
WORKED
Example
26a
x 2 + ( ) dx
0
2
x
2
3 ( ) dx
1
4
x
3
x
2
2x + ( ) dx
1
2
16 x
2
( ) dx
0
4
G
C
p
r
o
g
ram
Trapezoidal
rule
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Trapezoidal
rule
WORKED
Example
26b
multiple choice
1
1 x
2
+
-------------- dx
0
1
multiple choice
cos x dx
2
---
2
---
1 2 +

2
---
1 2 + ( )
4
-------------------------
1 2 + ( )
8
-------------------------

4
---
e
x
dx
1
5

8 Find using the trapezoidal rule and:
a 4 equal intervals
9 Estimate the area under the curve y = log
e
x from x = 1 to x = 4 using the midpoint rule
and:
a 3 equal intervals
10 Estimate the area under the graph of y = Cos
1
x from x = 1 to x = 1 using the mid-
point rule and 4 equal intervals.
11 Calculate an estimate for the area under the graph of y = 2
x
between x = 0 and x = 2
using the trapezoidal rule and:
a 2 equal intervals
12 Using the trapezoidal rule with:
a 2 equal intervals
b 4 equal intervals
nd the approximate area under the graph of between x = 0 and x = .
Is there a connection between area
and volume of revolution?
The area under a curve can be found directly from integration. Likewise, the
volume of revolution can also be found from integration. In both cases it is
assumed that the curves have functions which can be readily integrated.
This investigation examines the relative size of the area produced by a curve
and the x-axis, and the volume of revolution produced. Curves will be restricted
to those of the type f (x) = ax
n
.
1 Consider the function f (x) = ax
n
, where a = , 1, 2 and 4 and n = 1. Find the
area enclosed by the curve, the x-axis and the line x = 1 for each of the four
values for a. In what manner is the area dependent on the gradient of the line a?
2 For each of the four curves, nd the volume of revolution. In what way is the
volume dependent on a?
3 Consider the function f (x) = ax
n
, where n = , 1, 2 and 4 and a = 1. Find the
area enclosed by the curve, the x-axis and the line x = 1 for each of the four
values for n. In what manner is the area dependent on the value of n?
4 For each of the four curves, nd the volume of revolution. In what way is the
volume dependent on the value of n?
5 Finally, compare the sizes of the areas found in parts 1 and 3 to the volumes
found in parts 2 and 4. In particular, investigate the ratio of the volume of
revolution V to the area A. In what way does the ratio depend on the values
of a and n for the general function f (x) = ax
n
? What happens to the ratio as
n when a = 1?
6 Write a brief report detailing your ndings being careful to illustrate your work
with graphs and with calculations.
1 x
2
+ dx
0
4
y sin x =
1
2
---
1
2
---
V
A
----
Common antiderivatives
The table below lists common antiderivatives.
Substitution where the derivative is present in the integrand
Linear substitution
The integral may be successfully antidifferentiated using
the substitution u = g(x), provided that g(x) is linear. The function f (x) must be written
in terms of y also.
Useful trigonometric identities
Trigonometric identities are used to integrate even and odd powered trigonometric
functions:
sin
2
ax = (1 cos 2ax)
cos
2
ax = (1 + cos 2ax)
sin ax cos ax = sin 2ax
f(x) F(x)
Ax
n
log
e
kx + c
e
kx
sin kx
cos kx
sec
2
kx
, x (a, a)
, x (a, a)
summary
ax
n 1 +
n 1 +
--------------- c +
1
x
---
e
kx
k
------- c +
cos kx
k
------------------ c +
sin kx
k
-------------- c +
tan kx
k
-------------- c +
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
Sin
1
x
a
--- c +
1
a
2
x
2
--------------------
Cos
1
x
a
--- c +
a
a
2
x
2
+
----------------- Tan
1
x
a
--- c +
f x ( ) f x ( ) [ ]
n
dx
f x ( ) [ ]
n 1 +
n 1 + ( )
------------------------- c + =
f x ( )
f x ( )
------------ dx
log
e
f x ( ) c + =
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
n
dx
n 0 ,
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
Antidifferentiation using partial fractions
Many rational expressions can be antidifferentiated by transforming the expressions
into partial fractions. Two common types are shown below.
Denite integrals
=
= F(b) F(a), where F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x).
The denite integral can be found only if the integrand f(x) exists for
all values of x in the interval [a, b]; that is, a x b.
Areas under curves
Area =
Area =
Area = +
Area = +
f x ( )
ax b + ( ) cx d + ( )
----------------------------------------
A
ax b +
---------------
B
cx d +
--------------- +
f x ( )
ax b + ( )
2
----------------------
A
ax b + ( )
2
----------------------
B
ax b +
--------------- +
f x ( ) dx
a
b
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
y
x 0
b a
y = f (x)
f x ( ) dx
a
b
y
x 0
b a
y = g (x)
g x ( ) dx
a
b
y
x 0
b c a
y = f (x)
f x ( ) dx
a
c
f x ( ) dx
c
b
y
x 0
a
b
c
x = f (y)
f y ( ) dy
a
c
f y ( ) dy
c
b

Areas between curves
Area = +
Area =
Volumes of solids of revolution
About x-axis: .
About y-axis:
Between two functions f (x) and g(x) where f (x) g(x):
Approximate evaluation of denite integrals and areas
Approximate measure of dx using the midpoint rule:
x =
x
0
= a
x
n
= b
Approximate measure of using the trapezoidal rule:
x =
x
0
= a
x
n
= b.
y
P
x 0
b c a
f (x)
g (x)
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ] dx
a
c
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
c
b
y
x 0
a
b
x = f (y)
x = g (y)
g y ( ) f y ( ) [ ] dy
a
b
V f x ( ) [ ]
2
dx
a
b
=
V f y ( ) [ ]
2
dy
a
b
=
V f x ( ) [ ]
2
g x ( ) [ ]
2
dx
a
b
=
f x ( )
a
b
f x ( ) dx x f
x
0
x
1
+
2
----------------

f
x
1
x
2
+
2
----------------

. . . f
x
n 1
x
n
+
2
-----------------------

+ + +
a
b
b a
n
------------
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b

x
2
------[ f x
0
( ) 2 f x
1
( ) 2 f x
2
( ) . . . 2 f x
n 1
( ) f x
n
( )] + + + + +
b a
n
------------
Multiple choice
1 The expression is equal to:
2 An antiderivative of is:
4 The antiderivative of x(x + 2)
10
is:
5 is equal to:
6 Using an appropriate substitution, is equal to:
A B C D E
A B C D E
A B C D E
A x
11
+ c B (x + 2)
11
+ c C
D E x(x + 2)
11
+ c
A B
C
D
E
A B C
D E
CHAPTER
review
6A
x 1 ( ) x
2
2x ( )
5
dx
u
5
du
1
2
---
u
5
du
2 u
5
du
5u
4
du
u
4
du
6A
sin x
cos
3
x
-------------
1
cos
4
x
-------------
1
cos
2
x
-------------
1
sin
2
x
------------
1
2 cos
2
x
-----------------
1
4 cos
2
x
-----------------
6A
6 sec
2
3x tan
4
3x dx
2 u
4
du
u
4
du
1
2
---
u
4
du
u
2
du
2 u
2
du
6B
x 2 + ( )
11
11x 2 ( )
132
--------------------------------------------- c +
x 2 + ( )
11
12x 11 ( )
132
------------------------------------------------ c +
x 2 x dx
6B
2
5
--- 2 x ( )
5
2
---
2 2 x ( )
3
2
---
c +
5
2
--- 2 x ( )
5
2
---
3 2 x ( )
3
2
---
c +
x
2
2 x ( )
3
2
---
c +
1
5
--- 2 x ( )
5
2
---
2 2 x ( )
3
2
---
c + +
2
15
------ 2 x ( )
3
2
---
3x 4 + ( ) c +
6B
e
2x
e
x
1 dx
u
3
2
---
u
1
2
---
+

du
2u
3
2
---
u
1
2
---
+

du
u
5
2
---
2u
3
2
---
u
1
2
---
+ +

du
u
5
2
---
2u
3
2
---
+

du
u
5
2
---
u
1
2
---
+

du

7 Using an appropriate substitution, is equal to:
8 If f (x) = 4sin
2
x and , then f (x) is equal to:
9 Using the appropriate substitution, is equal to:
11 Given that , an antiderivative of is:
13 The integral can be evaluated over the largest domain of:
A B C
D E
A B 2x 1 + sin 2x C 2x + cos 2x
D 2x cos 2x E 2x sin 2x
A B C
D E
A x + sec
2
x + c B 2x + sec
2
x + c
C tan x + c
D x + tan x + c E xtan x + c
A B C log
e
(x
2
9x + 20)
D E
A B
C D
E log
e
(x + 1)
2
+ c
A (9, 9) B [3, 3] C (3, 0)
D R E (3, 3)
6C
cos
3
x sin
2
x dx
u
4
u
2
( ) du
u
2
cos x dx
u
5
u
3
( ) du
u
3
u
5
( ) du
u
2
u
4
( ) dx
6C
f

4
---

2
--- =
4 cos
2
x

2
--- 2 +
6C
sin
5
x dx
u
2
u
4
( ) du
u
4
2u
2
( ) du
2u
2
1 u
4
( ) du
u
4
1 ( ) du
u
4
u
2
1 + ( ) du
2 tan
2
x + ( ) dx
6C
6D
1
x
2
9x 20 +
-----------------------------
1
x 5
-----------
1
x 4
----------- x 5 > , =
1
x
2
9x 20 +
-----------------------------
log
e
x 5
x 4
-----------

log
e
x 4
x 5
-----------

log
e
x 5 ( )
1
x 4 ( )
2
-------------------
1
x 5 ( )
2
-------------------
1
x 4 ( )
2
-------------------
6D
2x 3 +
x 1 + ( )
2
------------------- dx
2
x 1 +
------------ c +
2
x 1 + ( )
2
------------------- 3 log
e
x 1 + ( ) c + +
log
e
x 1 + ( )
1
x 1 +
------------ c + + 2 log
e
x 1 + ( )
1
x 1 +
------------ c +
6E
1
9 x
2
------------------ dx
a
b

14 The value of is:
16 The integral representing the shaded area of this curve is equal to:
A
B
C
D
E
17 The area between the curve y = sin x and the line y = x from x = 0 to x = 1 (see diagram) is
approximately equal to:
A 0.04 square units
B 1.04 square units
C 0.54 square units
D 0.84 square units
E 0.34 square units
18 The shaded area (in square units) on the graph below is equal to:
A log
e
2 B log
e
2 C 3 log
e
2
D log
e
4 E unable to be calculated.
A cos
B sin (
2
)
C 0 D 1 E 2
A B 16 C D E 8
6E
x
2
x
3
1 +
-------------- dx
1
1
1
3
---
6E
2x cos x
2
dx
0
y
x
0
y = x
2
1
6E
2 x
2
1 ( ) dx
0
1
x
2
1 ( ) dx
1
1
2 x
2
1 ( ) dx
1
0
1 x
2
( ) dx
0
1
x
2
1 ( ) dx
0
2
6F
y
x 0
1
1
y = x
y = sin x
6F
y
x 0
4
y = (x 2)
2
16
3
------
32
3
------
8
3
---
Questions 19 and 20 refer to the shaded area in the gure below.
19 The volume generated when the region is rotated about the x-axis is equal to:
20 The volume generated when the region is rotated about the y-axis is equal to:
21 The approximate value of dx using the trapezoidal rule and 3 equal intervals is:
22 The approximate value of the area under the curve y = x
2
+ 1 from x = 1 to x = 1 (using the
midpoint rule with four equal intervals) is:
Short answer
1 Find the antiderivative of:
2 Find the indenite integral .
3 Find:
A B
C D
E
A B
C D
E
A (6e + 3e
2
+ 2e
3
+ e
4
) B (4e + 4e
2
+ 2e
3
+ e
4
)
C (6e + 6e
2
+ 4e
3
+ e
4
) D (2e + 2e
2
+ e
3
+ e
4
)
E (12e + 12e
2
+ 8e
3
+ 3e
4
)
A 2.625 square units B 1.3125 square units C 2.5 square units
D 2.75 square units E 1.95 square units
a (cos x) e
sinx
b
a b
y
x
0
y = 2 x
2
(1, 1)
y = x
6G
4 2x
2
x
4
x + ( ) dx
0
1
4 x
4
x + ( ) dx
0
1
4 3x
2
x
4
+ ( ) dx
0
1
4 4x
2
x
4
x + + ( ) dx
0
1
2 x
2
x ( ) dx
0
2
6G
2 y ( ) dy
0
2
2 y ( ) dy
1
2
y
2
dy
0
1
+
y
2
dy
0
2
y
2
dy
1
2
2 y ( ) dy
0
1
+
2 y y
2
( ) dy
0
2
6H
e
x
x
-----
1
4
1
12
------
1
8
---
1
12
------
1
4
---
1
2
---
1
24
------
6H
6A
log
e
x ( )
2
x
--------------------
6B
x
x 1 +
---------------- dx
6C
cos
2
2x dx
sin
2
x
4
--- cos
2
x
4
--- dx

4 Find an antiderivative of f (x) where f (x) = .
5 Find f (x) if f (x) = sin 2x cos x and f () = 1.
6 If f (x) = and f (0) = 3, nd f (x).
(Hint: Use the substitution x = sin to antidifferentiate.)
7 Evaluate:
8 a Sketch a graph which shows the region enclosed by the curve y = log
e
x, the
line y = 2 and the x- and y-axes.
b Find the area of this region.
9 What is the area bounded by the curve y = x
2
+ 2 and the line y = 5x 4?
10 Find the volume generated when the area under the graph of y = e
x
, between x = 1 and
x = 0, is rotated about the x-axis.
11 Find the volume of water in a hemispherical bowl of radius 8 cm if the depth is 3 cm.
12 a Find an approximate value of using four equal intervals and:
i the midpoint rule
ii the trapezoidal rule.
b Which result is closest to the exact answer?
Analysis
1 a Find the area of the shaded region on the graph at right.
b What is the volume generated when this region is rotated about the x-axis?
c If the region is rotated about the y-axis, nd the approximate volume of the solid
generated using the midpoint rule and four equal intervals. (Give your answer correct to
4 decimal places.)
a b
6D
x
2
2x 12
x
2
7x 8
-----------------------------
6E
6E
2 1 x
2
6E
1
4 x
2
+
-------------- dx
0
2
x
2 x
---------------- dx
2
1
6E
6F
6G
6G
6H
2x
2
dx
0
4
y
x
0
y = tan x
1

2 The side view of the right side of a wine glass vessel
can be modelled by two curves which join at x = e:
y = 2log
e
x, 0 < x e (red curve)
y = x
2
2ex + e
2
+ c, e x 5 (blue curve)
(All measurements are in centimetres.)
a Show that the value of c is 2 and nd the height
of the vessel correct to 2 decimal places.
The vessel is formed when the region between the
curves and the y-axis is rotated about the y-axis.
b Find the volume of wine in the glass when the
depth is 2 cm.
c What is the maximum volume of wine that the glass
can hold (using maximum height to the nearest mm)?
3 A below-ground skating ramp
is to be modelled by the curve
.
This is shown above, where the line
y = 4.086 represents
ground level. (All
measurements
are in metres.)
(Give all
answers correct to
2 decimal places.)
a Find the
maximum depth
of the ramp.
b Find the area under
the curve.
c Find the volume
generated if this area is
rotated about the x-axis.
d If the ramp is 20 metres
long, what is the volume of
dirt which must be removed?
y
x 0
1 e 5
y
2
36 x
2
--------------------- 5.98 x 5.98 , =

y
x 0
6 6
Ground Level 4.086
test
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
yourself
test
yourself
6
VCE
coverage
Area of study
In this
chapter
9A Revision of
antidifferentiation
9B Integration of e
x
, sin x and
cos x
9C Integration by recognition
9D Approximating areas
enclosed by functions
9E The fundamental theorem of
integral calculus
9F Signed areas
9G Further areas
9H Areas between two curves
9I Further applications of
integration

9

Integration
344


Revision of antidifferentiation

As we have seen, the process of differentiation enables us to nd the gradient of a func-
tion. The reverse process, antidifferentiation (or integration), will nd the function for a
particular gradient.
Integration has wider applications including calculation of areas, volumes, energy,
probability and many more quantities in science and business.
Note that

f

(

x

) means differentiate

f

(

x

) with respect to

x

; that is, .
So

f

(

x

) is the antiderivative of

f

(

x

), denoted as

f

(

x

)

=

where means

antidifferentiate

, or

integrate

, or

nd an indenite integral

and d

x

indi-
cates that the integration of the function is with respect to

x

.
Since , where

a

and

c

are constants
then
Since
then

Note

: The addition of the constant,

c

, is required when nding general antiderivatives.
However, if we have to nd an antiderivative, the

c

is to be allocated an actual
number and for convenience the number chosen is zero. That is, an antiderivative
means let

c

=

0, or do not add on the

c

.
For example, the antiderivative of is . An antideriva-
tive of is .

Properties of integrals

Since is a linear operator, so too is its inverse, . Therefore,
That is, each term can be integrated separately, and
That is, a constant factor of the function can be taken to the front of the integral.
d
dx
------
d
dx
------ f x ( ) f x ( ) =
f x ( ) dx
d
dx
------ ax c + ( ) a =
a dx
ax c + =
d
dx
------
ax
n 1 +
n 1 +
---------------

ax
n
=
ax
n
dx
ax
n 1 +
n 1 +
---------------- c n 1 , + =
3x
2
4x 5 + + x
3
2x
2
5x c + + +
3x
2
4x 5 + + x
3
2x
2
5x + +
d
dx
------
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
f x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
=
k f x ( ) dx
k f x ( ) dx
=
C h a p t e r 9 I n t e g r a t i o n 345
Antidifferentiate each of the following, giving answers with positive indices.
a 2x
7
b 4x
3
c
THINK WRITE
a Integrate by rule; that is, add 1 to the
index and divide by the new index.
a
Simplify.
b Integrate by rule. b
Simplify.
= 2x
2
+ c
Express the answer with a positive index. =
c When a square root is involved, replace
it with a fractional index.
c =
Bring the x to the numerator and
change the sign of the index.
= 3
Integrate by rule. =
Simplify.
=
Write the answer in the form it was given.
=
3
x
-------
1 2x
7
dx
2x
8
8
-------- c + =
2
x
8
4
----- c + =
1 4x
3
dx
4x
2
2
---------- c + =
2
3
2
x
2
-----
1
3
x
-------dx
3
x
1
2
---
----- dx
2 x
1
2
---
dx
3
3x
1
2
---
1
2
---
-------- c +
4
6x
1
2
---
c +
5 6 x c +
1
WORKEDExample
Find the following indenite integral.
THINK WRITE
Expand the expression.
Collect like terms.
Integrate each term separately.
Simplify each term.
x 1 ( ) 3x 5 + ( ) dx
1
x 1 ( ) 3x 5 + ( ) dx
3x
2
3x 5x 5 + ( ) dx
=
2
3x
2
2x 5 + ( ) dx
=
3
3x
3
3
--------
2x
2
2
-------- 5x c + + =
4 x
3
x
2
5x c + + =
2
WORKEDExample
Integration of (ax + b)
n
By applying the chain rule for differentiation:
so
or
or
Integration of
Since
then , where x > 0
or .
d
dx
------ ax b + ( )
n 1 +
a n 1 + ( ) ax b + ( )
n
=
a n 1 + ( ) ax b + ( )
n
dx
ax b + ( )
n 1 +
c + =
a n 1 + ( ) ax b + ( )
n
dx
ax b + ( )
n 1 +
c + =
ax b + ( )
n
dx
ax b + ( )
n 1 +
a n 1 + ( )
----------------------------- c + =
Antidifferentiate 4(5x 2)
3
by rule.
THINK WRITE
Express as an integral and take 4 out as a
factor.
Apply the rule where a = 5 and n = 3.
Simplify the antiderivative by cancelling the
fraction.
= (5x 2)
4
+ c
1 4 5x 2 ( )
3
dx
4 5x 2 ( )
3
dx
=
2
4 5x 2 ( )
4
5 4 ( )
------------------------- c + =
3
1
5
---
3
WORKEDExample
1
x
---
d
dx
------ log
e
x
1
x
--- =
1
x
--- dx
log
e
x c + =
x
1
dx
log
e
x c + =
Antidifferentiate .
THINK WRITE
Take out as a factor.
Integrate by rule.
4
7x
------
1
4
7
---
4
7x
------ dx
4
7
---
1
x
---

dx
=
4
7
---
1
x
--- dx
=
2
4
7
---log
e
x c + =
4
WORKEDExample
Integration of (ax + b)
1
By applying the chain rule for differentiation:
= ,
where a and b are constants
and =
=
So =
or =
Note that the a in the fraction is the derivative of the linear function ax + b.
d
dx
------ log
e
ax b + ( )
a
ax b +
---------------
1
a
---
d
dx
------ log
e
ax b + ( )
a
ax b +
---------------
1
a
---
1
ax b +
---------------
1
ax b +
--------------- dx
1
a
--- log
e
ax b + ( ) c +
ax b + ( )
1
dx
1
a
--- log
e
ax b + ( ) c +
1
a
---
1
ax
2
bx c + +
----------------------------- dx
1
2ax b +
------------------ log
e
ax
2
bx c + + ( ) c
1
+ =
Antidifferentiate .
THINK WRITE
Express as an integral and take 5 out as a
factor.
Integrate by rule where a = 2.
5
2x 3 +
---------------
1
5
2x 3 +
--------------- dx
5
1
2x 3 +
--------------- dx
=
2
5
2
--- log
e
2x 3 + ( ) c + =
5
WORKEDExample
Find .
THINK WRITE
Express as separate fractions. =
Simplify each fraction. =
Integrate each term separately by rule. =
Simplify leaving the answer with
positive indices.
=
=
6x 5 +
x
2
--------------- dx
1
6x 5 +
x
2
--------------- dx
6x
x
2
------
5
x
2
----- +

dx
2
6x
1
5x
2
+ ( ) dx
3 6 log
e
x
5x
1
1
---------- c + +
4 6 log
e
x 5x
1
c +
6 log
e
x
5
x
--- c +
6
WORKEDExample
Find the equation of the curve g(x) given that g(x) = 3 and the curve passes through (1, 2).
THINK WRITE
Write the rule for g(x). g(x) =
Rewrite g(x) in index form. g(x) =
Express g(x) in integral notation. g(x) =
Antidifferentiate to obtain a general rule for g(x). =
Simplify. =
g(x) =
Substitute coordinates of the given point into g(x). As g(1) = 2, = 2
Find the constant of antidifferentiation, c. 2 + 2 + c = 2
so c = 2
State the rule for g(x) in the form that it is given. g(x) =
=
x 2 +
1
3 x 2 +
2
3x
1
2
---
2 +
3
3x
1
2
---
2 + ( ) dx
4 3x
3
2
---
3
2
--- 2x c + +
5
3x
3
2
---
1
--------
2
3
--- 2x c + +
2x
3
2
---
2x c + +
6 2 1 ( )
3
2
---
2 1 ( ) c + +
7
8 2x
3
2
---
2x 2 +
2 x
3
2x 2 +
7
WORKEDExample
If a curve has a stationary point (2, 3), and a gradient of 2x k, where k is a constant, nd:
a the value of k b y when x = 1.
THINK WRITE
a The gradient is so write the rule for the gradient. a
Let (as stationary points occur when the
derivative is zero) and substitute the value of x into
this equation.
For stationary points,
, so 2x k = 0
2(2) k = 0 as x = 2
Solve for k. 4 k = 0 so k = 4
b Rewrite the rule for the gradient function, using the
value of k found in a above.
b
Integrate to obtain the general rule for y.
Substitute the coordinates of the given point on the
curve to nd the value of c.
Since curve passes through (2, 3),
3 = 2
2
4(2) + c
3 = 4 8 + c
c = 7
State the rule for y.
So y = x
2
4x + 7
Substitute the given value of x and calculate y. When x = 1,
y = (1)
2
4(1) + 7
= 4
1
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ 2x k =
2
dy
dx
------ 0 =
dy
dx
------ 0 =
3
1
dy
dx
------ 2x 4 =
2 y 2x 4 ( ) dx
=
x
2
4x c + =
3
4
5
8
WORKEDExample
Revision of antidifferentiation
1 Antidifferentiate each of the following, giving answers with positive indices.
2 Find the following indenite integrals.
a x
b x
4
c x
7
d 3x
5
e 5x
2
f 2x
4
g 6x
4
h
i j
k
l
m
n
o
p q r
s t
a b
c d
e f
g h
i
1.
2.
3.
4. , n 1
5.
6.
7. , n 1
8. , where x > 0 or
9. or =
10. Write the answer in the same form as the question unless otherwise stated.
d
dx
------ f x ( ) f x ( ) =
f x ( ) f x ( ) dx
=
a dx
ax c + =
ax
n
dx
ax
n 1 +
n 1 +
--------------- c + =
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
f x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
=
k f x ( ) dx
k f x ( ) dx
=
ax b + ( )
n
dx
ax b + ( )
n 1 +
a n 1 + ( )
----------------------------- c + =
1
x
--- dx
log
e
x c + = x
1
dx
log
e
x c + =
1
ax b +
--------------- dx
1
a
--- log
e
ax b + ( ) c + = ax b + ( )
1
dx
1
a
--- log
e
ax b + ( ) c +
remember
9A
M
a
th
c
a
d
Antidifferentiation
WORKED
Example
1
2 x
x
4
5
-----
x
3
2
-----
x
4
3
-------
x
x
2
3
---
4x
3
4
---
x
3
7
---
5
x
3
-----
9
x
2
-----
10
x
6
---------
8
x
-------
6
x x ( )
---------------
M
a
th
c
a
d
Integrator
WORKED
Example
2 2x 5 + ( ) dx
3x
2
4x 10 + ( ) dx
10x
4
6x
3
2 + + ( ) dx
4x
5
x
3
6x
2
2x + + ( ) dx
x
3
12 x
2
+ ( ) dx
x 3 + ( ) x 7 ( ) dx
5 x
2
2x 1 + ( ) dx
x
2
4 + ( ) x 7 ( ) dx
x x 1 ( ) x 4 + ( ) dx
3
is equal to:
4
is equal to:
5 Antidifferentiate each of the following by rule.
6
is equal to:
7 Antidifferentiate the following.
A B
C D
E
A B
C D
E
a (x + 3)
2
b (x 5)
3
c 2(2x + 1)
4
d 2(3x 4)
5
e (6x + 5)
4
f 3(4x 1)
2
g (4 x)
3
h (7 x)
4
i 4(8 3x)
4
j 3(8 9x)
10
k (2x + 3)
2
l (6x + 5)
3
m 6(4x 7)
4
n (3x 8)
6
o (6 5x)
3
p 10(7 5x)
4
A B
C D
E
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n o
p q r
multiple choice
x
2
x 2 + + ( ) dx
x
2
dx x 2 + +
x
2
dx x dx 2 dx
x
2
x + ( ) dx 2 +
x
2
x 2 + ( ) dx
+
x
2
x 2 dx
+ +
multiple choice
x x 3 + ( ) dx
x dx x 3 + ( ) dx

x x 3 + ( ) dx
x 1 + ( ) x dx
x dx x 3 + ( ) dx
x
2
3x + ( ) dx
WORKED
Example
3
multiple choice
3 x 2 + ( )
4
dx
3 x 2 + ( )
4
dx
+ 3 dx x 2 + ( )
4
dx
3 x 2 + ( )
4
dx
3 dx x 2 + ( )
4
dx
x 2 + ( )
4
3 dx
WORKED
Example
4
3
x
--- dx
8
x
--- dx
6
5x
------ dx
7
3x
------ dx
4
7x
------ dx
1
x 3 +
------------ dx
3
x 3 +
------------ dx
WORKED
Example
5
2
x 4 +
------------ dx
6
x 5 +
------------ dx
4
3x 2 +
--------------- dx
8
5x 6 +
--------------- dx
3
2x 5
--------------- dx
5
3 2x +
--------------- dx
2
6 7x +
--------------- dx
1
5 x
----------- dx
3
6 11x
------------------ dx
2
4 3x
--------------- dx
8
5 2x
--------------- dx
8
is equal to:
9 Find .
10 For the following mixed sets, nd:
11 Find the equation of the curve f (x) given that:
a f (x) = 4x + 1 and the curve passes through (0, 2)
b f (x) = 5 2x and the curve passes through (1, 1)
c f (x) = x
2
+ 3 and the curve passes through (1, 4)
d f (x) = x + and f (4) = 10
e f (x) = and f(8) = 100
f f (x) = and f (1) = 5
g f (x) = (x + 4)
3
and the curve passes through (2, 5)
h f (x) = 8(1 2x)
5
and f(1) = 3
i f (x) = (x + 5)
1
and the curve passes through (4, 2)
j f (x) = and f(3) = 7
12 If a curve has a stationary point (1, 5), and a gradient of 8x + k, where k is a constant,
nd:
13 A curve g(x) has , where k is a constant, and a stationary point
(1, 2). Find:
A B
C D
E
a b c
d e f
g h i
j
k
l
m
n
a the value of k b y when x = 2.
a the value of k b g(x) c g(4).
multiple choice
6
x 5 +
------------ dx
6
1
x 5 +
------------ dx
6dx
1
x 5 +
------------ dx

6dx
1
x 5 +
------------ dx
6dx
x 5 + ( ) dx
---------------------------
6
x 5 + ( ) dx
---------------------------
WORKED
Example
6
2x 7 + ( )
x
-------------------- dx
x
4
2x
1
x
--- + +

3x 1 + ( )
5
dx
3x
2
2x 1 +
x
2
------------------------------ dx
3
2x 1 +
--------------- dx
5
6 10x
------------------ dx
4 2x 5 ( )
5
dx
3 4x 1 + ( )
3
dx
x 4 + ( )
2
2x
------------------- dx
x 5 ( ) x 3 + ( )
x
3
---------------------------------- dx
x
2
3 x
----------- +

dx
5x
3
2
---
2x 3x
1
3
---
+ ( ) dx
x
2
x
4
+
x
---------------- dx
x
2
2x 1 +
x
-------------------------- dx
10 x 2x
4
+
x
3
----------------------------- dx
WORKED
Example
7
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
9.1
x
x
1
3
---
3x
2
50 +
1
x
------- 2x
8
7 2x
---------------
WORKED
Example
8
g x ( )
kx x +
x
2
------------------- =
Integration of e
x
, sin x and cos x
Integration of the exponential function e
x
Since
then
and , where k is a constant
or
Therefore,
d
dx
------ e
x
( ) e
x
=
e
x
x e
x
c + = d
d
dx
------ e
kx
( ) ke
kx
=
d
dx
------
1
k
--- e
kx

1
k
--- ke
kx
=
e
kx
=
e
kx
dx
1
k
---e
kx
c. + =
Antidifferentiate each of the following.
a 3e
4x
b c (e
x
1)
2
THINK WRITE
a Integrate by rule where k = 4. a
Simplify.
b Rewrite the function to be integrated
so that the coefcient of the e term is
clear.
b =
Integrate by rule where k = 5.
=
Simplify the antiderivative.
=
=
c Expand the function to be integrated. c =
Integrate each term by the rule. =
e
5x
4
----------
1 3e
4x
dx
3e
4x
4
---------- c + =
2
3
4
--- e
4x
c + =
1
e
5x
4
---------dx
1
4
--- e
5x
dx
2
1
4
--- e
5x
5
------------ c +
3
1
4
--- e
5x
1
5
------ c +
1
20
------ e
5x
c +
1 e
x
1 ( )
2
dx
e
2x
2e
x
1 + ( ) dx
2
1
2
--- e
2x
2e
x
x c + +
9
WORKEDExample
Integration of trigonometric functions
Since (sin ax) = a cos ax and (cos ax) = a sin ax
it follows that
sin ax dx = cos ax + c
cos ax dx = sin ax + c
d
dx
------
d
dx
------

1
a
---

1
a
---
Antidifferentiate the following.
a sin 6x b 8 cos 4x c 3 sin
THINK WRITE
a Integrate by rule. a
b Integrate by rule. b
Simplify the result. = 2 sin 4x + c
c Integrate by rule. c =
Simplify the result. =
x
2
---

sin 6x dx
1
6
--- cos 6x c + =
1
8 cos 4x dx
8
4
--- sin 4x c + =
2
1
3 sin
x
2
---

x d
3
1
2
---
------ cos
x
2
---

2
6 cos
x
2
---

c +
10
WORKEDExample
Find
THINK WRITE
Integrate each term separately.
Simplify each term where appropriate.
2e
4x
5 sin 2x 4x + ( ) dx.
1
2e
4x
5 sin 2x 4x + ( ) dx
2
4
--- e
4x
5
2
------ cos 2x
4
2
--- x
2
c + + =
2
1
2
--- e
4x
5
2
--- cos 2x 2x
2
c + + + =
11
WORKEDExample
1. e
x
dx = e
x
+ c and e
kx
dx = e
kx
+ c
2. sin ax dx = cos ax + c and cos ax dx = sin ax + c

1
k
---
1
a
---
1
a
---
remember
Integration of e
x
, sin x and cos x
1 Antidifferentiate each of the following.
2 Find an antiderivative of (1 + e
x
)
2
.
3 Find an antiderivative of (e
x
1)
3
.
4 Find an antiderivative of x
3
3x
2
+ 6e
3x
.
5
If f (x) = e
2x
+ k and f(x) has a stationary point (0, 2), where k is a constant, then:
a k is equal to:
b f(1) is equal to:
6 Antidifferentiate the following.
a e
2x
b e
4x
c e
x
d e
3x
e 5e
5x
f 7e
4x
g h i 3e
6x
j 8e
2x
k l
m n o e
x
+ e
x
p
A e B e
2
C 1 D 1 E e
A e
2
1
B e
2
+ C e
2
+
D e
4
E 1
a sin 3x b sin 4x c cos 7x
d e sin (2x) f cos (3x)
g h 8 cos 4x i 6 sin 3x
j 2 cos (x) k sin l cos
m 3 sin n 2 sin o 4 cos
p 6 cos q 4 sin r 6 cos
s 2 sin t 3 cos u 5 sin x
v 3 cos w 2 cos x sin
9B
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Integrator
WORKED
Example
9
e
6x
2
-------
2e
3x
3
----------
e
x
3
---
0.1e
x
4
---
3e
x
2
---
3e
x
3
------
e
x
e
x
2
------------------
multiple choice
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
WORKED
Example
10
cos 2x
3
----------------
4 sin 6x
3
-------------------
x
3
---
x
2
---
x
4
---

x
5
---
x
4
---
x
2
---

2x
3
------
3x
4
------
5x
2
------
7x
4
------
x
2
------
x
3
------
4x
------

7 Find:
8 Find the antiderivative of e
4x
+ sin 2x + x
3
.
9 Find an antiderivative of 3x
2
2 cos 2x + 6e
3x
.
11 In each of the following nd f(x) if:
a f (x) = cos x and f = 5
b f (x) = 4 sin 2x and f(0) = 1
c f (x) = 3 cos and f() =
d f (x) = cos sin and f(2) = 2.
12 If , where k is a constant, and y has a stationary point (3, 4), nd:
a the value of k
b the equation of the curve
c y when x = 6.
13 A curve has a gradient function f (x) = 4 cos 2x + ke
x
, where k is a constant, and a
stationary point (0, 1). Find:
a the value of k
b the equation of the curve f(x)
c f correct to 2 decimal places.
a b
c d
e f
g h
a
b x
2
+ 4 cos 2x e
x
c sin d
e 3 sin f
WORKED
Example
11
sin x cos x + ( ) dx
sin 2x cos x ( ) dx
cos 4x sin 2x + ( ) dx
sin
x
2
--- cos 2x

dx
4 cos 4x
1
3
--- sin 2x ( ) dx
5x 2 sin x + ( ) dx
3 sin
x
2
------ 2 cos
x
3
------ +

dx
3e
6x
4 sin 8x 7 + ( ) dx
x
3
1
2x 3 +
--------------- e
2x
+
x
3
--- e
x
2
---
3x 1 ( )
4
+
1
3x 2
--------------- e
4x
cos
x
5
--- + +
x
2
--- 2 cos
x
3
--- e
x
5
------
x 2x 2 sin
x
3
------ 5 + +
M
a
th
c
a
d
Antidifferentiation
2
---

x
4
--- 9 2
x
4
---
x
2
---
dy
dx
------ sin
x
6
------ k + =
6
---

Integration by recognition
As we have seen, if
then , where g(x) = f (x).
This result can be used to determine integrals of functions, which are too difcult to
antidifferentiate, via differentiation of a related function.
Note that the shorter form of the chain rule below can be used to differentiate.
If then
d
dx
------ [f(x)] g x ( ) =
g x ( ) dx
f x ( ) c + =
a Find the derivative of the function y = (5x + 1)
3
.
b Use this result to deduce the antiderivative of 3(5x + 1)
2
.
THINK WRITE
a Write the function and recognise that the
chain rule can be used.
a y = (5x + 1)
3
Let u equal the function inside the brackets. Let u = 5x + 1
Find .
Express y in terms of u. y = u
3
Find .
Write the chain rule.
Replace u with the expression inside the
brackets and simplify where applicable.
= 15(5x + 1)
2
b Since , express the
relationship in integral notation.
b
Remove a factor from so that it
resembles the integral required.
Divide both sides by the factor in order
to obtain the integral required.
, where
Therefore, the antiderivative of
is
1
2
3
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 5 =
4
5
dy
du
------
dy
du
------ 3u
2
=
6
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------
du
dx
------ =
7
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ 3u
2
5 =
8
1
dy
dx
------ dx
y c
1
+ = 15 5x 1 + ( )
2
dx
5x 1 + ( )
3
c
1
+ =
2
dy
dx
------ 5 3 5x 1 + ( )
2
dx
5x 1 + ( )
3
c
1
+ =
3 3 5x 1 + ( )
2
dx
1
5
--- 5x 1 + ( )
3
c + =
c
c
1
5
----- =
3 5x 1 + ( )
2
1
5
--- 5x 1 + ( )
3
c. +
12
WORKEDExample
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
n
= f x ( ) ng x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
n 1
=
Note that the shorter form of the chain rule below can be used to differentiate.
If then
a Differentiate . b Hence, antidifferentiate 6x
2
.
THINK WRITE
a Write the equation and apply the
chain rule to differentiate y.
a y =
Let u equal the index of e. Let u = x
3
Find .
Express y in terms of u. y = e
u
Find .
Find using the chain rule
and replace u.
, applying the chain rule
b Express in integral notation.
b
Multiply both sides by a constant
to obtain the integral required.
2
, where c = 2c
1
.
Therefore, the antiderivative of is .
e
x
3
e
x
3
1 e
x
3
2
3
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 3x
2
=
4
5
dy
du
------
dy
du
------ e
u
=
6
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------ 3x
2
e
u
=
3x
2
e
x
3
=
1
dy
dx
------
3x
2
e
x
3
dx
e
x
3
c
1
+ =
2 3x
2
e
x
3
dx
2e
x
3
2c
1
+ =
6x
2
e
x
3
dx
2e
x
3
c + =
6x
2
e
x
3
2e
x
3
c +
13
WORKEDExample
y e
f x ( )
=
dy
dx
------ f x ( )e
f x ( )
=
a Find the derivative of sin (2x + 1) and use this result to deduce the antiderivative of
8 cos (2x + 1).
b Differentiate log
e
(5x
2
2) and hence antidifferentiate .
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a Let f(x) equal the rule. a f(x) = sin (2x + 1)
Differentiate using f (x) = g(x) cos [g(x)]
where f(x) = sin [g(x)].
f (x) = 2 cos (2x + 1)
Express f(x) using integral notation.
Multiply both sides by whatever is necessary
for it to resemble the integral required.
Write the integral in the form in which
the question is asked.
x
5x
2
2
------------------
1
2
3
2 cos 2x 1 + ( ) dx
sin 2x 1 + ( ) c
1
+ =
4 4 2 cos 2x 1 + ( ) dx
4 sin 2x 1 + ( ) c + =
5
8 cos 2x 1 + ( ) dx
4 sin 2x 1 + ( ) c + =
14
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
b Let f(x) equal the rule. b f(x) = log
e
(5x
2
2)
Differentiate using
where f(x) = log
e
[g(x)].
Express f(x) using integral notation.
Take out a factor so that f (x) resembles
the integral required.
Divide both sides by the factor to
obtain the required integral.
is
1
2
f x ( )
g x ( )
g x ( )
------------ = f x ( )
10x
5x
2
2
----------------- =
3
10x
5x
2
2
----------------- dx
log
e
5x
2
2 ( ) c
1
+ =
4 10
x
5x
2
2
----------------- dx
log
e
5x
2
2 ( ) c
1
+ =
5
x
5x
2
2
----------------- dx
1
10
------ log
e
5x
2
2 ( ) c + =
x
5x
2
2
-----------------
1
10
------ log
e
5x
2
2 ( ) c +
Differentiate x cos x and hence nd an antiderivative of x sin x.
THINK WRITE
Write the rule. Let y = x cos x
Apply the product rule to differentiate
x cos x.
= x (sin x) + (cos x)(1)
= x sin x + cos x
= cos x x sin x
Express the result in integral notation.
(Do not add c, as an antiderivative is
required.)

Express the integral as two separate
integrals.
()
Simplify by integrating. (Do not add c.)
Make the expression to be integrated
the subject of the equation.
Simplify.
Therefore, an antiderivative of x sin x is
sin x x cos x.
1
2
dy
dx
------
3 cos x x sin x ( )dx
x cos x =
4 cos x dx
x sin x dx
x cos x =
5
sin x x sin x dx
x cos x =
6 x sin x dx
x cos x sin x =
7
x sin x dx
sin x x cos x =
15
WORKEDExample
The Mathcad le shown below may be used to check derivatives.
a Show that . b Hence, nd .
THINK WRITE
a Use algebraic long division to divide the
numerator into the denominator.
a So
b Write the expression using integral
notation.
Express as two separate integrals.
b =
=
Antidifferentiate each part. = 5x 4 log
e
(x + 1) + c
5x 1 +
x 1 +
--------------- 5
4
x 1 +
------------ =
5x 1 +
x 1 +
--------------- dx
x + 1
)
5x + 1
5
(5x + 5)
4
5x 1 +
x 1 +
--------------- 5
4
x 1 +
------------ =
1
2
5x 1 +
x 1 +
--------------- dx
5
4
x 1 +
------------

5 dx
4
x 1 +
------------ dx
3
16
WORKEDExample
M
a
th
c
a
d
Differentiator
1. To differentiate using the chain rule, use one of the following rules.
(a) If f(x) = [g(x)]
n
then f (x) = ng(x)[g(x)]
n 1
(b) If y = e
f(x)
,
(c)
(d) f (x) = g(x) cos [g(x)] where f(x) = sin [g(x)]
f (x) = g(x) sin [g(x)] where f(x) = cos [g(x)]
(e) where f (x) = log
e
[g(x)].
2. To antidifferentiate use where g(x) = f (x).
dy
dx
------ f x ( )e
f x ( )
=
dy
dx
------
dy
du
------ =
du
dx
------
f x ( )
g x ( )
g x ( )
------------ =
g x ( ) dx
f x ( ) c + =
remember
Integration by recognition
1 For each of the following nd the derivative of the function in i and use this result to
deduce the antiderivative of the function in ii.
2
The derivative of (x + 7)
4
is 4(x + 7)
3
.
a Therefore, the antiderivative of 4(x + 7)
3
is:
b The antiderivative of (x + 7)
3
is:
3
If the derivative of (2x 3)
6
is 12(2x 3)
5
, then is:
4 For each of the following differentiate i and hence antidifferentiate ii.
5 For each of the following nd the derivative of the function in i and use this result to
deduce the antiderivative of the function in ii.
a i (3x 2)
8
ii 12(3x 2)
7
b i (x
2
+ 1)
5
ii 5x(x
2
+ 1)
4
c i
ii
d i
ii
e i (x
2
+ 3x 7)
4
ii (2x + 3)(x
2
+ 3x 7)
3
f i ii
A (x + 7)
4
+ c B (x + 7)
4
+ c C 4(x + 7)
4
+ c
D 3(x + 7)
4
+ c
E 12(x + 7)
4
+ c
A (x + 7)
4
+ c B (x + 7)
4
+ c C 4(x + 7)
4
+ c
D 3(x + 7)
4
+ c
E 12(x + 7)
4
+ c
A 2(2x 3)
6
+ c B 4(2x 3)
6
+ c C (2x 3)
6
+ c
D 6(2x 3)
6
+ c E (2x 3)
6
+ c
a i e
4x 5
ii 2e
4x 5
b i e
6 5x
ii 10e
6 5x
c i
ii
d i
ii
a i sin (x 5) ii cos (x 5)
b i sin (3x + 2) ii 6 cos (3x + 2)
c i cos (4x 7) ii sin (4x 7)
d i cos (6x 3) ii 3 sin (6x 3)
e i sin (2 5x) ii 10 cos (2 5x)
f i cos (3 4x) ii 2 sin (3 4x)
g i log
e
(5x + 2) ii
h i log
e
(x
2
+ 3) ii
i i log
e
(x
2
4x) ii
9C
WORKED
Example
12
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Differentiator
2x 5
1
2x 5
-------------------
4x 3 +
2
4x 3 +
-------------------
1
x
2
1
--------------
4x
x
2
1 ( )
2
---------------------
multiple choice
1
4
---
1
4
---
multiple choice
6 2x 3 ( )
5
dx
1
2
---
WORKED
Example
13
e
x
2
x e
x
2
e
x x
2
1 2x ( )e
x x
2
WORKED
Example
14
20
5x 2 +
---------------
12x
x
2
3 +
--------------
x 2
x
2
4x
-----------------
6 Differentiate i and hence nd an antiderivative of ii.
7 For each of the following differentiate i and use this result to antidifferentiate ii.
8 a Show that = 3 + . b Hence, nd .
9 a Show that = 5 . b Hence, nd .
12 If y = log
e
(cos x):
a nd b hence nd .
13 Differentiate and hence nd an antiderivative of .
14 Differentiate log
e
(3x
2
4) and hence nd an antiderivative of .
15 Differentiate sin (ax + b) and hence nd an antiderivative of cos (ax + b). (Here, a and
b are constants.)
16 Differentiate cos (ax + b) and hence nd an antiderivative of sin (ax + b). (Here, a and
b are constants.)
17 Differentiate e
ax + b
and hence nd an antiderivative of e
ax + b
. (Here, a and b are
constants.)
a i x cos x + 2 sin x ii x sin x
b i ii
c i e
x
sin x ii 3e
x
(sin x + cos x)
d i x sin x ii x cos x
e i x e
x
ii x e
x
a i (2x 3x
2
)
6
ii 6x
5
(1 3x)(2 3x)
5
b i
ii
a sin (3x + 1) b cos (1 4x)
c e
x + 3
d sin e 3 cos f cos x e
sin x
WORKED
Example
15
sin x
x
-----------
2 x cos x sin x ( )
x
2
-------------------------------------------
x
3
2x +
3x
2
2 +
x
3
2x +
----------------------
WORKED
Example
16
3x 2
x 1
---------------
1
x 1
-----------
3x 2
x 1
--------------- dx
5x 8 +
x 2 +
---------------
2
x 2 +
------------
5x 8 +
x 2 +
--------------- dx
8x 7
2x 3
---------------
5
2x 3
---------------
8x 7
2x 3
--------------- dx
6x 5
3 2x
---------------
4
3 2x
---------------
6x 5
3 2x
--------------- dx
dy
dx
------ tan x dx
cos x
sin x
------------
1
sin
2
x
------------
x
3x
2
4
-----------------
W
o
r
k
S
H
E
ET
9.1
2
x
3
------ +

x
2
------ 5 +

Approximating areas enclosed by
functions
There are several ways of nding an approximation to the area between a graph and the
x-axis. We will look at three methods:
1. the lower rectangle method
2. the upper rectangle method
3. the trapezoidal method.
The lower rectangle method
Consider the area between the curve f(x) shown at right,
the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 5.
If the area is approximated by lower rectangles of
width 1 unit then the top of each rectangle is below the
graph but touches the curve at one point. (In this case
the left-hand corner of the rectangle touches the graph.)
So, the height of rectangle R
1
is f(1) units
and the area of R
1
= 1 f(1) square units (area of a rectangle = height width).
Similarly, the area of R
2
= 1 f(2) square units,
the area of R
3
the area of R
4
= 1 f(4) square units.
Therefore, the approximate area under the graph between the curve f(x), the x-axis
and the lines x = 1 to x = 5 is 1[f(1) + f(2) + f(3) + f(4)] square units, (the sum of the
area of the four rectangles).
If the same area was approximated using rectangle widths of 0.5 there would be 8
rectangles and the sum of their areas would be:
0.5[f(1) + f(1.5) + f(2) + f(2.5) + f(3) + f(3.5) + f(4) + f(4.5)] square units.
From the diagram it can be seen that the lower rectangle approximation is less than
the actual area.
x
0
1 2 3 4 5
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
y
f(x)
Find an approximation for the area between the curve f(x)
shown and the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 3 using lower rectangles
of width 0.5 units. f(x) = 0.2x
2
+ 3
THINK WRITE
Write the number of
rectangles and their width.
There are 4 rectangles of
width 0.5 units.
Find the height of each
rectangle (left) by substituting
the appropriate x-value into
the f(x) equation.
h
1
= f(1) = 0.2(1)
2
+ 3 = 3.2
h
2
= f(1.5) = 0.2(1.5)
2
+ 3 = 3.45
h
3
= f(2) = 0.2(2)
2
+ 3 = 3.8
h
4
= f(2.5) = 0.2(2.5)
2
+ 3 = 4.25
Area equals the width
multiplied by the sum of the
heights.
Area = width (sum of heights of 4 rectangles)
= 0.5(3.2 + 3.45 + 3.8 + 4.25)
= 0.5(14.7)
Calculate this area. = 7.35
State the solution. The approximate area is 7.35 square units.
1
2
3
4
5
17
WORKEDExample
x 0
1 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3
y f(x)
3
The upper rectangle method
Consider the area between the curve f(x) shown at right,
the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 5.
If the area is approximated by upper rectangles of
width 1 unit then the top of each rectangle is above the
graph and touches the curve at one point. (In this case the
top right-hand corner of the rectangle touches the graph.)
So, the height of R
1
is f(2) units
and the area of R
1
is 1 f(2) square units.
Similarly, the area of R
2
the area of R
3
= 1 f(4) square units
the area of R
4
= 1 f(5) square units.
Therefore, the approximate area between the curve f(x), the x-axis and the lines x = 1
to x = 5 is (R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4
) = 1[f(2) + f(3) + f(4) + f(5)] square units.
If the same area was approximated with upper rectangle widths of 0.5 units, the sum
of their areas would equal:
0.5[f(1.5) + f(2) + f(2.5) + f(3) + f(3.5) + f(4) + f(4.5) + f(5)] square units.
From the diagram it can be seen that the upper rectangle approximation is greater
than the actual area.
Lower rectangle approximation actual area upper rectangle approximation
It can be seen that the lower rectangle approximation (7.35 units) is less
than the upper rectangle approximation (8.15 units).
If the area is divided into narrower strips, the estimate of the area
would be closer to the true value. Use one of the Mathcad les to inves-
tigate the effect of a greater number of strips in a given interval.
x
0
1 2 3 4 5
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
y
f(x)
Find an approximation for the area in the diagram in worked example 17 using upper
rectangles of width 0.5 units. f(x) = 0.2x
2
+ 3
THINK WRITE
Find the number of rectangles and the
height of each one (from left to right).
There are 4 rectangles:
h
1
= f(1.5) = 0.2(1.5)
2
+ 3 = 3.45
h
2
= f(2) = 0.2(2)
2
+ 3 = 3.8
h
3
= f(2.5) = 0.2(2.5)
2
+ 3 = 4.25
h
4
= f(3) = 0.2(3)
2
+ 3 = 4.8
Area is the width of the interval
multiplied by the sum of the heights.
Area = 0.5(3.45 + 3.8 + 4.25 + 4.8)
Calculate the area. = 0.5(16.3)
= 8.15
State the solution. The approximate area is 8.15 square units.
1
2
3
4
18
WORKEDExample
M
a
th
c
a
d
Right
boxes
M
a
th
c
a
d
Left
boxes
The trapezoidal method
Recall that the area of a trapezium = (a + b).
The trapezoidal method involves a series of straight line
approximations to the curve which generates strips in
the shape of trapeziums.
Consider the area under the graph of f(x) between the x-axis and the lines x = 1 to x = 5.
For each trapezium the width, or height, h = 1 unit.
For T
1
, a = f(1) and b = f(2)
For T
2
, a = f(2) and b = f(3)
For T
3
, a = f(3) and b = f(4)
For T
4
, a = f(4) and b = f(5)
The area of T
1
= [f(1) + f(2)]
The area of T
2
= [f(2) + f(3)] and so on.
The total area of the trapeziums is:
[f(1) + f(2) + f(2) + f(3) + f(3) + f(4) + f(4) + f(5)]
= [f(1) + 2f(2) + 2f(3) + 2f(4) + f(5)] square units.
The rst and last terms are counted only once but all others are counted twice.
Note that the lower rectangle approximation found in worked example 17 was 7.35
units and the upper rectangle approximation found in worked example 18 was 8.15
units. The average of these two approximations is or 7.75 units which is
the same as the trapezoidal approximation for the area.
a
h
b
h
2
---
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
x
f(x)
0
2 4 5
y
1 3
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
1
2
---
Find an approximation for the area enclosed by the graph of f(x) = 0.2x
2
+ 3, the x-axis and
the lines x = 1 to x = 3 using interval widths of 0.5 units and using the trapezoidal method.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
Sketch the graph of f(x).
Draw trapeziums of width
0.5 unit from x = 1 to x = 4.
Evaluate the height of each
vertical side of the
trapeziums by substituting
the appropriate x-value into
f(x).
f(1) = 0.2(1)
2
+ 3 = 3.2
f(1.5) = 0.2(1.5)
2
+ 3 = 3.45
f(2) = 0.2(2)
2
+ 3 = 3.8
f(2.5) = 0.2(2.5)
2
+ 3 = 4.25
f(3) = 0.2(3)
2
+ 3 = 4.8
Calculate the area by using
the formula for the area of
a trapezium where h is the
width of the interval.
Total area of trapeziums
= (3.2 + 2 3.45 + 2 3.8 + 2 4.25 + 4.8)
= 0.25 31
= 7.75
Therefore, the area under the curve is approximately
7.75 units.
1
2
x
0
2 4
y
3
2 1 3
3
4
0.5
2
-------
19
WORKEDExample
7.35 8.15 +
2
---------------------------
Note that this average is between the area of the upper rectangles and the area of the
lower rectangles and is closer to the actual area.
With width intervals of 1 unit calculate an approximation for the area between the graph
of f(x) = x
2
+ 2 and the x-axis from x = 2 to x = 3 using:
a lower rectangles b upper rectangles c averaging of the lower and upper rectangle areas.
THINK WRITE
Sketch the graph of f(x) over a
domain which exceeds the
width of the required area.
Draw the lower and upper
rectangles.
a Calculate the height of the lower
rectangles by substituting the
appropriate values of x into the
equation for f(x). Note the two
rectangles to the right and left of
the origin have the same height
and are equal in area.
a Lower rectangle heights:
f(1) = (1)
2
+ 2 = 3
f(0) = 0
2
+ 2 = 2
f(0) = 2
f(1) = 1
2
+ 2 = 3
f(2) = 2
2
+ 2 = 6
Find the area by multiplying
the width by the sum of the
heights.
Area = 1(3 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 6)
= 16
Using lower rectangles, the approximate area is 16
square units.
b Calculate the height of the
upper rectangles by
substituting the appropriate
values of x into the equation
for f(x).
b Upper rectangle heights:
f(2) = (2)
2
+ 2 = 6
f(1) = 3 (from above)
f(1) = 3
f(2) = 6
f(3) = 3
2
+ 2 = 11
Find the area by multiplying
the width by the sum of the
heights.
Area = 1(6 + 3 + 3 + 6 + 11)
= 29
Using upper rectangles, the approximate area is 29
square units.
c Find the average by adding the
area of the upper rectangles and
lower rectangles and dividing by
2.
c Average of the areas =
= 22.5
The approximate area is 22.5 square units when
averaging the upper and lower rectangle areas and
using widths of 1 unit.
1
2
x
0
y
2 2 1 1 3
2
= Lower rectangles
= Upper rectangles
y = x
2
+ 2
1
2
1
2
16 29 +
2
------------------
20
WORKEDExample
Approximating areas enclosed
by functions
1 Find an approximation for the area between the curve f(x) at
right and the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 5 using a lower
rectangle of width 2 units.
2 Find an approximation for the area between the curves below
and the x-axis, from x = 1 to x = 5, by calculating the area of
the shaded rectangles.
3
Consider the graph of y = x
2
from x = 0 to x = 4 at right.
a The width of each rectangle is:
b The height of the right-hand rectangle is:
c The area between the curve y = x
2
and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 4 can be
approximated by the area of the lower rectangles as:
a b
A 1 unit B 2 units C 3 units
D 4 units E varying
A 9 units B 4 units C 16 units
D 12 units E 1 unit
A 20 sq. units B 14 sq. units C 18 sq. units D 15 sq. units E 30 sq. units
1. An approximation to the area between a curve and the x-axis can be found by
dividing the area into a series of rectangles or trapeziums which are all the
same width. The approximation is found by nding the sum of all the areas of
the rectangles or trapeziums.
2. Lower rectangle approximation actual area upper rectangle approximation
3. Trapezoidal approximation =
lower rectangle approximation + upper rectangle approximation
2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
remember
9D
WORKED
Example
17
x
0
1 5
y
2
3
(1, 2)
(3, 3)
3
f(x)
x 0
1 5
y
f(x)
2
4
(1, 2)
(5, 4)
x
0
1 5
4
7
(4, 19)
3
f(x)
4 2
12
19
3
(3, 12)
(2, 7)
(1, 4)
y
multiple choice
x
0
y
1 2
y = x
2
3 4
4 a Find an approximation for the area in the dia-
gram at right using upper rectangles of width 1
unit.
b A better approximation for the area under this
curve can be found by averaging the upper and
lower rectangle areas. State this approximate
value.
5 Find an approximation for the area enclosed by the
graph of f(x) = x
2
, the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and
x = 3 with interval widths of 1 unit using the trapezoidal
method.
6 Find the approximate area between the curves below and the x-axis, over the interval
indicated, by calculating the area of the shaded trapeziums.
a
7 Find an approximation for the area between the curves below and the x-axis, from
x = 1 to x = 5, by calculating the area of the shaded rectangles.
a
M
a
th
c
a
d
Trapezoidal
rule
GC p
r
o
g
r
a
m
Left and right
box estimations
of area
M
a
th
c
a
d
Right
boxes
M
a
th
c
a
d
Left
boxes
WORKED
Example
18
x
0
y
1 2
y = x
2
3 4
WORKED
Example
19
GC p
r
o
g
r
a
m
Trapezoidal
rule
0
y
1
y = x
2
2 3
x
x
0
2 4
y
f(x)
3
5
(2, 3)
(4, 5)
x
0
2 4
y
6
f(x)
3
2
5
(2, 2)
(4, 3)
(6, 5)
b
x
0
1 5
y
6
(1, 8)
8
f(x) x
0
1 3
y
7
(1, 8)
8
f(x)
5
(3, 8)
x
0
1 2
y
7
(4, 7)
(3, 10)
8
f(x)
3
(2, 11)
10
11
4 5
b c
d
x
0
y
3
5
1
(3, 3)
f(x)
3 5
(5, 5)
0
y
4
6
9
10
1 2
(1, 4)
f(x)
3 4 5
(3, 9)
(4, 10)
(2, 6)
x
e f g
x
0
y
2
4
1
(1, 4) f(x)
3 5
(3, 2)
x
0
y
7
1 2
(1, 7)
(2, 5)
(4, 7)
f(x)
3 4 5
4
5
8 With width intervals of 1 unit calculate an approximation
for the area between the graph of f(x) = x
2
+ 4 and the
x-axis from x = 1 to x = 4 using:
a lower rectangles
b upper rectangles
c averaging of the lower and upper rectangle areas.
9 Find the approximate area between the curves below and
the x-axis, over the interval indicated, by calculating the
area of the shaded rectangles. Give exact answers.
10 Find an approximation for the area between the graphs below, the x-axis, and the lines
x = 1 and x = 5, using interval widths as shown in the diagrams below. Give exact answers.
a b c d
a b c
d e
WORKED
Example
20
x
0
1 2
y
y = x
2
+ 4
3 4
x
0
1 2
y
x = 1 to x = 4
y = x
2
+ 3x + 8
3 4
x 0
1 2
y
x = 1 to x = 2
y = e
x
1
0
1 2
y
3 4 5
y = log
e
x
x = 1 to x = 5
x
2 3
0
y
1 4 5 6
y = (x 4)
2
x = 2 to x = 6
x
y
x
0
2 3 4 5 6
x = 2 to x = 6
y = x
3
6x
2
x
0
y
3 2.5 2 1.5 1
f(x) = x
2
4x
x = 3 to x = 1
x
0
y
1 2 3 4 5
x = 1 to x = 5
f(x) = x
3
3x
2
+ 8x
1
3
f g
x 0
y
14
13
15
1 2
f(x)
3 4
10
(2, 14)
(3, 15)
(4, 13)
(1, 10)
x
0
1 2
y
3 4 5
y = x
2
+ 6x 5
1
x 0
y
1 2 3
y = x
3 1
2
0
1
x
y
1
y = 10 x
2
2
1
2
0
y
1
y = e
x
2 3
x
e
11 Calculate an approximation for the area between the graph of y = x(4 x), the x-axis
and the lines x = 1 and x = 4, using interval widths of 1 unit and:
a lower rectangles
b upper rectangles
c averaging the lower and upper rectangle areas.
12 Calculate an approximation for the area under the graph of y = x
2
4x + 5 to the
x-axis between x = 0 and x = 3, using interval widths of 0.5 units and:
a lower rectangles
b upper rectangles
c averaging the lower and upper rectangle areas.
13 Find an approximation for the area under the graph of y = 2
x
between x = 0 and x = 3,
using interval widths of 1 unit, by averaging the lower and upper rectangle areas.
14 Find an approximation for the area between the graph of f ( x) = ( x 1)
3
and the
x-axis, between x = 1 and x = 4, using the trapezoidal rule and:
a interval widths of 1 unit
b interval widths of 0.5 units.
Give answers correct to 1 decimal place.
15 Calculate an approximation for the area under the graph of between x = 0.5
and x = 2.5, using the trapezoidal rule and:
a interval widths of 1 unit
b interval widths of 0.5 units
c interval widths of 0.25 units.
Give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
16 Calculate an approximation for the area under the graph of y = 2 log
e
(x 1) between
x = 2 and x = 6 using the trapezoidal rule and interval widths of 1 unit.
y
1
x
--- =
17 At the back of a rectangular block of land, 100
metres long, is a park and a river. The distance to the
river from the top of the rectangular block is shown
in the table below.
Calculate an approximation for the area of parkland
between the rectangular block and the river by:
a using the area of the upper rectangles.
b using the trapezoidal rule (use intervals of width
20 metres).
Distance across
rectangular block
in metres
0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance of river
from the block in
metres
0 30 20 40 60 50
0 100
20 40 60 80
metres
R
iv
e
r Park
Block of land
18 Calculate an approximate area under the graph of f(x) = sin x, between x = 0 and
x = , using the trapezoidal rule and interval widths of units. Give your answer
correct to 2 decimal places.
20 Answer the following statements concerning approximate areas under graphs as True
or False.
a An approximation for the area can be found quickly if very small interval widths
are used.
b The smaller the interval width used, the more accurate the approximation for the
area.
c The upper rectangle method is always more accurate than the lower rectangle
method.
d Averaging the upper rectangle area and the lower rectangle area is more accurate
than using the upper or lower approximations on their own.
6
---
19 The graph below shows the velocity of
a cyclist (in metres per second) at time
t seconds after commencing a race.
a What does the shaded area rep-
resent?
b Find the approximate distance
travelled by the cyclist in the rst
30 seconds using the trapezoidal
rule and interval widths of 5 sec-
onds.
t
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)
0
10 20 30 40
V
Time (s)
(5, 5)
(15, 12) (20, 13)
(25, 14)
(30, 15)
(10, 10)
The fundamental theorem of integral
calculus
Consider the region under the curve f(x) between x = a and x = b, where f(x) 0 and is
continuous for all x [a, b].
Let F(x) be the function that is the measure of the area under the curve between a
and x.
F(x + h) is the area under the curve between a and x + h
and F(x + h) F(x) is the area of the strip indicated on the graph.
The area of the strip is between the areas of the upper and lower rectangles;
that is,
or , h 0 (dividing by h).
As h 0, f(x + h) f(x)
or
that is, F(x) = f(x) (differentiation from rst principles).
Therefore, F(x) =
that is, F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x)
or = F(x) + c
but when x = a,
= F(a) + c
= 0 (as the area dened is zero at x = a)
or c = F(a).
Therefore, = F(x) F(a)
and when x = b, = F(b) F(a).
That is, the area under the graph of f(x) between x = a and x = b is F(b) F(a).
x
b
0
a x x +h
y
y = f(x)
F(x)
F(x + h) F(x)
f x ( )h F x h + ( ) F x ( ) f x h + ( )h < <
f x ( )
F x h + ( ) F x ( )
h
-------------------------------------- f x h + ( ) < <
F x h + ( ) F x ( )
h
----------------------------------------
h 0
lim f x ( ) =
f x ( ) dx
f x ( ) dx
f x ( ) dx
f x ( ) dx
f x ( ) dx
This is the fundamental theorem of integral calculus and it enables areas under
graphs to be calculated exactly. It can be stated as:
Area =
= [do not add c as F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x)]
= F(b) F(a)
a and b are called the terminals of this denite integral.
is called the denite integral because it can be expressed in terms of its
terminals a and b, which are usually real numbers. In this case the denite integral
evaluates as a real number and not a function.
The function being integrated, f(x), is called the integrand.
Properties of denite integrals
Denite integrals have the following ve properties.
1.
2. , a < c < b
3.
4.
5.
Denite integrals
1. Evaluate
2. Evaluate a b
c Compare answers a and b.
3. a b Compare the answer to the answer to 2a.
4. Evaluate a b
5. Evaluate a b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
2x dx
1
1
2x dx
1
4
2x dx 2x dx
2
4
+
1
2
2 x dx
1
4
2x x
2
+ [ ] dx
0
3
2x dx
x
2
dx
0
3
+
0
3
2x dx
1
3
2x dx
3
1
f x ( ) dx
a
a
0 =
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
c
b
+
a
c
=
kf x ( ) dx
a
b
k f x ( ) dx
a
b
=
f x ( ) g x ( ) + [ ] dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
a
b
+
a
b
=
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
b
a
=
Evaluate the following denite integrals.
a
b
THINK WRITE
a Antidifferentiate each term of the
integrand and write in the form
.
a
=
Substitute values of a and b into
F(b) F(a).
=
Evaluate the integral. = 42 0
= 42
b Express the integrand in simplest
index form.
b =
=
Express the integral with a
positive index number.
=
F(b) F(a).
=
Evaluate the integral. =
=
3x
2
4x 1 + ( ) dx
0
3
4
2x 1 + ( )
3
----------------------- dx
1
2
1
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
3x
2
4x 1 + ( ) dx
0
3
x
3
2x
2
x + [ ]
0
3
2
3
3
2 3 ( )
2
3 + [ ] 0
3
2 0 ( )
2
0 + [ ]
3
1
4
2x 1 + ( )
3
---------------------- dx
1
2
4 2x 1 + ( )
3
dx
1
2
2
4 2x 1 + ( )
2
[ ]
1
2
2 2
--------------------------------------
2x 1 + ( )
2
[ ]
1
2
3
1
2x 1 + ( )
2
----------------------
1
2
4
1
5
2
-----
1
1 ( )
2
-------------
5
1
25
------ 1 +
24
25
------
21
WORKEDExample
It is possible to nd the numerical value for the denite integral using the graphics
calculator. Using the TI83, follow these steps to evaluate
1. Ensure radian MODE is selected.
2. Enter the function sin(X/6) as Y1 in the Y= menu.
3. Press [QUIT].
4. Press and select 9:fnInt(
5. Complete the expression as shown at right.
(Y1 is found under /Y-VARS/1:Function.
The answer is 2.196 15 which is the answer correct to 5 decimal places. This is the
same as 3 + 3 found in worked example 22.
Find the exact value of each of the following denite integrals.
a b
THINK WRITE
a Antidifferentiate the integrand,
writing it in the form .
a =
F(b) F(a).
=
=
=
=
b Antidifferentiate the integrand,
using .
b
F(a) F(b).
=
Evaluate. =
= 0
sin
x
6
--- dx
e
3x
e
3x
( ) dx
1
1
1
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
sin
x
6
--- dx
6 cos
x
6
---
2
2
6 cos
2
6
------ 6 cos

6
---
6 cos

3
--- 6 cos

6
---
3
6
1
2
---

6
3
2
-------

3 [ ] 3 3 [ ]
3 3 3 +
1
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
e
3x
e
3x
( ) dx
1
1
1
3
--- e
3x
1
3
--- e
3x
+ [ ]
1
1
=
2
1
3
--- e
3
1
3
--- e
3
+ [ ]
1
3
--- e
3
1
3
--- e
3
+ [ ]
3
1
3
--- e
3
1
3
--- e
3
1
3
--- e
3
1
3
--- e
3
+
22
WORKEDExample
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding definite integrals
sin
x
6
---

dx.
2nd
MATH
VARS
3
If , nd k.
THINK WRITE
Antidifferentiate the integrand, using .
=
So = 36
Substitute the values of a and b into F(a) F(b).
[4k
2
] [4(0)
2
] = 36
Simplify the integral.
4k
2
0 = 36
4k
2
= 36
k
2
= 9
k =
Solve the equation. k = 3 or 3
8x dx
0
k
36 =
1
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
8x dx
0
k
4x
2
[ ]
0
k
4x
2
[ ]
0
k
2
3
9
4
23
WORKEDExample
1. The fundamental theorem of calculus is =
= F(b) F(a).
where F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x).
2. The expression is called the denite integral where a and b are the
terminals and represent the upper and lower values of x.
3. Properties of denite integrals
(a)
(b) , a < c < b
(c)
(d)
(e)
f
a
b
x ( ) dx
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
a
0 =
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
c
b
+
a
c
=
kf x ( ) dx
a
b
k f x ( ) dx
a
b
=
f x ( ) g x ( ) + [ ] dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
a
b
+
a
b
=
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
b
a
=
remember
The fundamental theorem of
integral calculus
1 Evaluate the following denite integrals.
2 Find the exact value of each of the following denite integrals.
3 If , nd the value of .
a b c
d e f
g h i
j k l
m n o
p q r
s t
a b dx c
d e f
g
h
i
j k l
m n
o
p q r
9E
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Integrator
S
k
i
l
l
S
H
E
ET
9.2
WORKED
Example
21
x
2
dx
0
1
x
3
dx
0
3
(x
2
2x) dx
3
4
1
x
2
----- dx
2
6
x
3
3x
2
2x + ( ) dx
0
2
(3x
1
2
---
2x
2
) dx +
1
4
(6 2x x
2
) + dx
1
1
x
3
x 4 + ( ) dx
4
2
3 x dx
4
9
4x
2
2x 6 + ( ) dx
1
2
2 x 4 + ( )
4
dx
0
3
3 5x 2 ( )
4
dx
1
2
4 2 3x ( )
3
dx
2
0
5
2x 7 ( )
3
---------------------- dx
0
3
2x
3
2
---
3x
1
( ) dx
1
4
2x
3
5x
2
+
x
----------------------- dx
1
3
3
5x
------ dx
1
5
4
3x 4 ( )
5
---------------------- dx
0
2
1
2x 5
------------------- dx
3
7
6
8 3x
------------------- dx
2
0
WORKED
Example
22
e
4x
dx
0
2
e
x
3
---
2
0
4e
2x
dx
1
1
3e
6x
5x + ( ) dx
1
2
5
x
--- e
x
2
---
+

dx
1
4
e
2x
e
2x
( ) dx
3
1
sin x dx
0
2
---
3 sin 4x dx
2
---
5 sin
x
4
--- dx
0
2 sin
x
3
--- dx
cos 2x dx

0
8 cos 4x dx

2
------
2
---
3 cos
x
6
--- dx
7 cos
x
2
--- dx
2
0
4 cos 3x dx

2
---
2 sin
x
4
--- +

dx
0
x
2
3 6 sin 3x + ( ) dx
1
3
1
x
--- 3 cos
x
2
--- +

dx
1
f x ( ) dx
1
5
6 = 3f x ( ) dx
1
5
4
Given that ,
a is equal to:
b is equal to:
5 Evaluate the following.
6 If , nd k.
7 If , nd k.
8 If , nd k.
9 If , nd the value of a.
10 If , nd the value of k given that 0 < k < .
A 16 B 10 C 11
D 19 E 22
A 6 B 5 C 5
D 6 E 0
a
b
c
d
e f
g h
multiple choice
f x ( ) dx
1
5
6 =
f x ( ) 1 + [ ] dx
1
5
f x ( ) dx
5
1
t
2
4t ( ) dt
0
3
2 cos 3t dt
0
2
---
3
p 3 ( )
3
2
---
------------------- dp
4
7
sin
x
5
---

dx
5
10
e
x
4
---
cos 2x ( ) dx
0
8
4m 3
---------------- dm
1
2
3
t t
-------- dt
1
4
3 sin 2x e
3x
( ) dx
1
1
WORKED
Example
23
2x 3 + ( ) dx
0
k
4 =
3x
2
dx
0
k
8 =
2
x
--- dx
1
k
log
e
9 =
e
x
2
---
dx
0
a
4 =
cos 2x dx
k
3
4
------- =

2
---
Signed areas
When calculating areas between the graph of a function f(x) and the x-axis using the de-
nite integral , the area is signed; that is, it is positive or negative. If f(x) > 0,
the region is above the x-axis; if f(x) < 0 it is below the axis. We shall now examine these
two situations and look at how we calculate the area of regions that include both.
Region above axis
If f(x) > 0, that is, the region is above the x-axis, then
, so the value of the denite integral is positive.
For example, if f(x) > 0, then the area = .
Region below axis
If f(x) < 0, that is, the region is below the x-axis, then
, so the value of the denite integral is negative.
For example, if f(x) < 0, then the area = , as the
region is below the x-axis or area = (reversing the
terminals changes the sign).
Therefore, for areas below the x-axis, the sign of the denite integral must be made
negative, or the terminals reversed, to ensure that the area has a positive value. (Areas
cannot be negative.)
Combining regions
For regions which are combinations of areas above and
below the x-axis, each area has to be calculated by separate
integrals one for each area above and one for each area
below the x-axis.
For example, from the diagram,
Area = A
1
+ A
2
However, , because the areas are signed.
To overcome this difculty we nd the correct area as:
Area = (= A
1
A
2
= A
1
+ A
2
)
or =
f x ( ) dx
a
b
x
b
0
a
y
y = f(x)
f x ( ) dx 0 >
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
x
y
b
0
a
y = f(x)
f x ( ) dx 0 <
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
b
a
x
b
0
a c
y
y = f(x)
A
2
A
1
f x ( ) dx
a
b
A
1
A
2
=
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
a
c
c
b
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
a
c
+
c
b
Note: When calculating the area between a curve and the x-axis it is essential that the
x-intercepts are determined and a graph of the curve is sketched over the interval
required. The term |x| means make the value of x positive even if it is negative.
a Express the shaded area as a denite integral.
b Evaluate the denite integral to nd the shaded area, giving
your answer as an exact value.
THINK WRITE
a Express the area in denite integral
notation where a = 1 and b = 4.
a Area =
b Antidifferentiate the integrand. b Area =
Evaluate. = [log
e
4] [log
e
1]
= log
e
4 0
= log
e
4
State the solution as an exact answer. The area is log
e
4.
0
1 4
x
y
y =
1
x
1
x
--- dx
1
4
1
log
e
x [ ]
1
4
2
3
24
WORKEDExample
Calculate the shaded area.
THINK WRITE
Express the area in denite integral notation,
with a negative sign in front of the integral
as the region is below the x-axis.
Area =
Antidifferentiate the integrand. =
Evaluate.
=
=
=
=
=
= 7
State the solution. The area is 7 square units.
1
x
2
4x ( ) dx
1
3
2
1
3
--- x
3
2x
2
[ ]
1
3
3
1
3
--- 3 ( )
3
2 3 ( )
2
[ ]
1
3
--- 1 ( )
3
2 1 ( )
2
[ ] { }
9 18 [ ]
1
3
--- 2 [ ] { }
9 1
2
3
--- ( ) [ ]
9 1
2
3
--- + [ ]
7
1
3
--- ( )
1
3
---
4
1
3
---
25
WORKEDExample
x 0
1 4 3
y
y = x
2
4x
To evaluate using
a graphics calculator, use the fnInt command found
under 9:fnInt( for each part.
a Express the shaded area as a denite integral.
b Calculate the area.
THINK WRITE
a Express the area above the x-axis as an
integral and the area below the x-axis as
an integral. For the area below the
x-axis, take the negative of the integral
from 0 to 2.
a Area =
b Antidifferentiate the integrands. b =
Evaluate. = {[ (0)
4
2(0)
2
] [ (2)
4
2(2)
2
]}
{[ (2)
4
2(2)
2
] [ (0)
4
2(0)
2
]}
Simplify. = [0 (4 8)] [(4 8) 0]
= 4 (4)
= 8
x
3
4x ( ) dx x
3
4x ( ) dx
0
2
2
0
1
1
4
--- x
4
2x
2
[ ]
2
0 1
4
--- x
4
2x
2
[ ]
0
2
2
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
3
4
26
WORKEDExample
x 0
2 2
y
y = x
3
4x
x
3
4x ( ) dx x
3
4x ( ) dx
0
2
2
0
MATH
a Sketch the graph of y = e
x
2 showing all intercepts and using exact values for all key
features.
b Find the area between the curve and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 2.
THINK WRITE
a Find the x-intercept by letting y = 0
and solving for x.
Take log
e
of both sides.
a When y = 0, e
x
2 = 0
e
x
= 2
log
e
e
x
= log
e
2
x = log
e
2 (or approximately 0.69)
so the x-intercept is log
e
2.
1
27
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Find the y-intercept by letting
x = 0.
When x = 0, y = e
0
2
= 1 2
= 1
so the y-intercept is 1.
Note the vertical translation and
hence sketch the graph showing
the appropriate horizontal
asymptote and intercept.
b Express the area above the x-axis as an
integral and the area below the x-axis as
an integral. Subtract the area below the
x-axis from the area above the x-axis.
b Area =
Antidifferentiate the integrands. =
Evaluate.
(Remember: e
log
e
a
= a)
= [e
2
2(2)] [e
log 2
2 log
e
2]
{[e
log
e
2
2(log
e
2)] [e
0
2(0)]}
= [e
2
4] [2 2 log
e
2] {[2 2 log
e
2]
[1 0]}
Simplify. = e
2
4 2 + 2 log
e
2 2 + 2 log
e
2 + 1
= e
2
7 + 4 log
e
2
State the solution.
The area is (e
2
7 + 4 log
e
2) or approximately
3.162 square units.
2
3
x
0
2
2
1
2 log
e
2
y
y = e
x
2
y = 2
4
1
e
x
2 ( ) dx
e
2 log
2
e
x
2 ( ) dx
0
e
2 log
2 e
x
2x [ ]
log
e
2
2
e
x
2x [ ]
0
log
e
2
3
4
5
1. If f(x) > 0, area = .
2. If f(x) < 0, area = , as the region is below the x-axis or
= , (reversing the terminals changes the sign).
3. If the required area lies above and below the x-axis:
(a) nd the intercepts and sketch the graph
(b) calculate the integrals and subtract the area below
the x-axis from the area above the x-axis.
4. Area = (= A
1
A
2
= A
1
+ A
2
)
or =
5.
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
b
a
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
a
c
c
b
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
a
c
+
c
b
e
log
e
a
a =
remember
x
b
0
a c
y
y = f(x)
A
2
A
1
Signed areas
1 Find the area of the triangle at right.
a geometrically
b using integration
2 Find the area of the triangle at right.
a geometrically
b using integration
3 Express the following shaded areas as denite integrals.
a
e
i
4 Evaluate each of the denite integrals in question 3 to nd the shaded area. Give your
answer as an exact value.
5 For each of the following, sketch a graph to illustrate the region for which the denite
integral gives the area.
a b c
d e f
g
h
9F
x 0
4
y
y = x
x
0
3
3
y
y = 3 x
WORKED
Example
24a
0
3 1
x
y = 2x
y
4
4
y = 4 x
0 x
y
x
0
1 2
y
y = x
2
3 1
y = 3x
2
x
0
y b c d
f g h
x
0
3 1
y
y = x
3
9x
2
+ 20x
x
0
2
y = x
3
4x
2
4x
y
x 0
1 1
1
y
y = e
x
x
0
4 1
y
y = e
2x
j
x
0
2
y
y = 2 sin 2x
0
1
x
y
3
y = cos

3
x
WORKED
Example
24b
M
a
t
h
c
a
d
Definite
integrals
4x dx
0
3
6 x ( ) dx
1
2
x
2
dx
1
3
4 x
2
( ) dx
1
1
x
1
4
dx 2e
x
dx
3
0
log
e
x
2
--- dx
2
4
3 sin 2x dx
0
2
---
6 Calculate each of the shaded areas below.
7
a The area between the graph, the x-axis and the lines
x = 2 and x = 1 is equal to:
b The area between the graph, the x-axis and the lines x = 2 and x = 3 is equal to:
8 Express the following shaded areas as denite integrals which give the correct area.
A B C
D E
A B C
D E
WORKED
Example
25
b c d a
x
0
y
y = x 2
2
2
x
0
y
y = 4 2x
2
1
x 0
y
y = x
2
4
2
x 0
y
y = 1 x
2

2 1
f g h e
x
0
y
y = x
3

2
x 0
y
y = x
3
+ 2x
2
x 2
1 1
x 0
y
y = e
x
1 1
x
0
y
y = e
2x
1
2 1
j i
x 0
y
y = sin x
2
2
3
y = 2 cos
2
x
x 0
y
2
multiple choice
x 0
y
y = f(x)
3 2
f x ( ) dx
1
2
f x ( ) dx
2
1
f x ( ) dx
1
0
f x ( ) dx
2
1
f x ( ) dx
2
1
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
0
2
+
0
3
f x ( ) dx
2
3
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
1
3
+
2
1
f x ( ) dx
3
2
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
0
3
2
0
WORKED
Example
26a
x 0
y
g(x)
3 1 3
x 0
y
h(x)
2 1 3
x 0
y
f(x)
5 2
b
x 0
y
f(x)
5 2 4
e
x 0
y
g(x)
3 2 2 3
d
a c
9
Examine the graph.
a The area between the curve and the x-axis from x = 2 and x = 1 is equal to:
b The area between the curve and the x-axis from x = 1 and x = 3 is equal to:
c The area between the curve and the x-axis from x = 2 and x = 3 is equal to:
10 Sketch the graph of the curve y = x
2
4, showing all intercepts and using exact values
for all key features. Find the area between the curve and the x-axis:
a from x = 0 to x = 2
b from x = 2 to x = 4
c from x = 0 to x = 4.
11 Sketch the graph of the curve y = x
3
+ x
2
2x, showing all intercepts. Find the area
between the curve and the x-axis between the lines:
a x = 2 and x = 0
b x = 0 and x = 1
c x = 2 and x = 1.
12 Sketch the graph of the curve y = 1 + 3 cos 2x over [0, ]. Find the exact area between
the curve and the x-axis from:
a x = 0 to x =
b x = to x = .
13 Sketch the graph of f(x) = and nd the area between the curve and the x-axis
and the lines x = 2 and x = 3. Give both an exact answer and an approximation to 3
decimal places.
14 Find the exact area between the curve , the x-axis and the lines x = and x = 2.
15 Find the exact area bounded by the curve g(x) = e
x
+ 2, the x-axis and the lines
x = 1 and x = 3.
A 17 sq. units B 15 sq. units C 17 sq. units
D 15 sq. units E 10 sq. units
multiple choice
x 0
y
y = x
3
2x
2
5x + 6
2 1 3
1
12
------
3
4
---
1
12
------
3
4
---
2
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
2
3
---
5
12
------
3
4
---
5
12
------
1
12
------
WORKED
Example
27
4
---
3
4
------
x 1
y
1
x
--- =
1
2
---
W
o
r
k
S
H
E
ET
9.2
Further areas
Areas bound by a curve and the x-axis
For graphs with two or more x-intercepts, there is an
enclosed region (or regions) between the graph and the x-axis.
The area bound by the graph of f(x) and the x-axis is:
(negative because the area is below the x-axis).
The area bound by the graph of g(x) and the x-axis is:
That is, if the graph has two x-intercepts then one integrand
is required.
If the graph has three x-intercepts then two integrands are required, and so on.
Note: Wherever possible it is good practice to use sketch graphs to assist in any
problems involving the calculation of areas under curves.
x
0
y
y = f(x)
a b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
x 0
y
y = g(x)
a c b
g x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
a
c
c
b
a Sketch the graph of the function g(x) = (3 x)(2 + x).

b Find the area bound by the x-axis and the graph of the function.
THINK WRITE
a Determine the type of graph by
looking at the number of brackets
and the sign of the x-terms.
a g(x) = (3 x)(2 + x) is an inverted parabola.
Solve g(x) = 0 to nd the
x-intercepts.
For x-intercepts, g(x) = 0
(3 x)(2 + x) = 0
x = 3 and x = 2.
The x-intercepts are 2 and 3.
Sketch the graph.
b Shade the region bound by g(x)
and the x-axis.
b
Express the area as an integral. Area =
Evaluate. =
= [6(3) + (3)
2
(3)
3
]
[6(2) + (2)
2
(2)
3
]
= (18 + 9) (12 + 2 + )
= 13 (7 )
= 13 + 7
= 20
State the solution.
The area bound by g(x) and the x-axis is 20
square units.
1
2
3
1
2
6 x x
2
+ ( ) dx
2
3
3
6x
1
2
--- x
2
1
3
--- x
3
+ [ ]
2
3
1
2
---
1
3
---
1
2
---
1
3
---
9
2
---
8
3
---
1
2
---
1
3
---
1
2
---
1
3
---
5
6
---
4
5
6
---
28
WORKEDExample
x 0
y
y = g(x)
2
3
The area bound by the graph and the x-axis can be
drawn and evaluated using the graphics calculator.
1. Enter the function as Y
1
in the Y= menu.
2. Press and set Xmin to 4.7 and Xmax
to 4.7. These values ensure the cursor reaches
exact integers when tracing.
3. Press 7: f(x)dx.
4. Press to the left x-intercept (2), press , and press to the right
x-intercept (3) and press .
Note: This method can be used even if the area required is between non-intercepts.
Finding areas without sketch graphs
When nding areas under curves which involve functions whose graphs are not easily
sketched, the area can be calculated providing the x-intercepts can be determined.
Note: The symbol |f(x)| is known as the absolute value of f(x) which means that we
must make the f(x) function or value positive whenever it is negative. For example,
|5| = 5
|3| = 3
| | =
As areas cannot be negative, taking the absolute value of the integrands involved in a
problem will ensure that all areas are made positive. For example,
The shaded area at right =
or =
Graphics Calculator
Graphics Calculator
tip!
tip!
Finding the area bound by a graph
and the x-axis
WINDOW
2nd [CALC]
M
ENTER
M
ENTER
2
3
---
2
3
---
x 0
y
y = f(x)
a
c b
f x ( ) dx
c
b
f x ( ) dx
a
c
+
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
a
c
+
c
b
a Find the x-intercepts of y = sin 2x over the domain [0, 2].

b Calculate the area between the curve, the x-axis and x = 0 and x = .
THINK WRITE
a To nd the x-intercepts, let y = 0. a For x-intercepts, y = 0
Solve for x over the given domain. sin 2x = 0
2x = 0, , 2, 3, 4, etc.
b Pick the x-intercepts that are between
the given end points of the area.
b x = is the only x-intercept between 0 and .
State the regions for which it is
necessary to calculate the area.
Area =
1
2
x 0

2
---
3
2
------ 2 , , , , =
1

2
---
2 sin 2x dx
0
2
---
sin 2x dx
2
---
+
29
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
Evaluate the absolute value of the
integral for each region.
=
=
+
=
=
Add the result to give the total area. = 1 + 1
= 2
3
1
2
--- cos 2x [ ]
0
2
---
1
2
--- cos 2x [ ]
2
---
+
1
2
--- cos
1
2
--- cos 0 ( ) [ ]
1
2
--- cos 2
1
2
--- cos ( ) [ ]
1
2
---
1
2
--- ( ) [ ]
1
2
---
1
2
--- ( ) [ ] +
1 1 +
4
5
a Differentiate log
e
(x
2
1).
b Hence, nd an antiderivative of .
c Find the area between the graph of , the x-axis, x = 2 and x = 3, giving your
answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a Let y equal the expression to be
differentiated.
a Let y = log
e
(x
2
1)
Express u as a function of x in order to
apply the chain rule for differentiation.
(Let u equal the function inside the
brackets.)
Let u = x
2
1
Find .
Write y in terms of u. y = log
e
u
Find .
Find using the chain rule. So =
=
x
x
2
1
--------------
x
x
2
1
--------------
1
2
3
du
dx
------
du
dx
------ 2x =
4
5
dy
du
------
dy
du
------
1
u
--- =
6
dy
dx
------
dy
dx
------
1
u
--- 2x
2x
x
2
1
--------------
30
WORKEDExample
THINK WRITE
b Since , express the
relationship in integral notation.
b
Remove a factor from so that it
resembles the integral required.
Divide both sides by the factor in
order to obtain the required integral.
An antiderivative of is log (x
2
1).
c Find the x-intercepts.
(For = 0, the numerator = 0.)
c For x-intercepts, = 0
x = 0
If the x-intercepts are not between
the terminals of the area, nd the
area by evaluating the integrand.
Area =
=
=
=
=
=
State the solution. The area is or approximately 0.49
square units.
1
dy
dx
------ dx
y c + =
2x
x
2
1
-------------- dx
log
e
x
2
1 ( ) c + =
2
dy
dx
------ 2
x
x
2
1
-------------- dx
log
e
x
2
1 ( ) c + =
3
x
x
2
1
-------------- dx
1
2
--- log x
2
1 ( ) c + =
x
x
2
1
--------------
1
2
---
1
x
x
2
1
--------------
x
x
2
1
--------------
2
x
x
2
1
-------------- dx
2
3
1
2
--- log
e
x
2
1 ( ) [ ]
2
3
1
2
--- log
e
3
2
1 ( ) [ ]
1
2
--- log
e
2
2
1 ( ) [ ]
1
2
--- log
e
8
1
2
--- log
e
3
1
2
--- log
e
8
3
---
1
2
--- log
e
8
3
---
3
1
2
--- log
e
8
3
---
1. For graphs with two or more intercepts, there is an enclosed region (or regions)
between the graph and the x-axis.
2. The number of regions is one less than the number of intercepts.
3. Where possible, sketch graphs to make it easier to calculate the areas under
curves, or use a graphics calculator.
4. As areas cant be negative, take the absolute values of the integrals.
5. When graphs are not easily drawn, areas can be calculated by nding the
x-intercepts and determining whether they are within the bounds of the
required area.
remember
Further areas
In the following exercise give all answers correct to 2 decimal places where appro-
priate, unless otherwise stated.
1 i Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.
ii Find the area bound by the x-axis and the graph of each function.
Use a graphics calculator to assist.
2 Find the area bound by the x-axis and the graph of each of the following functions.
3
The area bound by the curve with equation y = x
2
6x + 8 and the x-axis is equal to:
4
The area between the curve at right, the x-axis and the lines
x = 3 and x = 4 is equal to:
5
The area between the curve y = x
2
x 6, the x-axis and the lines x = 2 and x = 4 is
equal to:
a f(x) = x
2
3x b g(x) = (2 x)(4 + x)
a h(x) = (x + 3)(5 x) b h(x) = x
2
+ 5x 6
c g(x) = 8 x
2
d g(x) = x
3
4x
2
e f(x) = x(x 2)(x 3) f f(x) = x
3
4x
2
4x + 16
g g(x) = x
3
+ 3x
2
x 3 h h(x) = (x 1)(x + 2)(x + 5)
A B
C D
E
A 2 sq. units B sq. units C 5 sq. units
9G
WORKED
Example
28
M
a
th
c
a
d
Definite
integrals
multiple choice
1
3
---
2
3
---
1
3
---
multiple choice
x 0
y
y = f(x)
4 2 3
f x ( ) dx
3
4
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
2
4
+
3
2
f x ( ) dx
4
3
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
3
2
2
4
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
2
4
3
2
multiple choice
5
6
---
2
3
---
3
4
---
1
2
---
6 For each of the following:
i sketch the graph of the curve over an appropriate domain, clearly labelling any
x-intercepts in the interval required (use a graphics calculator to assist).
ii nd the area between the curve, the x-axis and the lines indicated below.
7 For each of the following functions:
i nd the x-intercepts over the given domain
ii calculate the area between the curve, the x-axis and the given lines.
Use sketch graphs to assist your workings.
a y = x 4x
1
, x 0, x = 1 and x = 3
b y = sin x cos x, x [0, ], x = 0 and x =
c y = e
x
e, x = 0 and x = 3
d y = x , x 0, x = and x = 2
e y = , x = 2 and x = 2
f y = x
4
3x
2
4, x = 1 and x = 4
g y = (x 2)
4
, x = 1 and x = 3
8 Find the exact area of the region enclosed by the x-axis, y = e
3x
and the lines x = 1 and
x = 2.
9 Find the exact area of the region enclosed by the x-axis, y = cos x and the lines x =
and x = . (Use a sketch graph to assist your calculation.)
10 Find the area bound by y = (x 1)
3
, the x-axis and the y-axis.
11 a Sketch the graph of showing all asymptotes and intercepts.
b Find the area under the curve between x = 1 and x = 1.
12 a Give the equation of the asymptotes for the function f(x) = (x + 2)
3
.
b Find the area between the curve, the x-axis, x = 1 and x = 1.
a y = 3 3x
2
, x = 0 and x = 2
b y = , x = 1 and x = 3
c y = , x = 1 and x = 2
d y = x
3
4x, x = 2 and x = 1
e y = e
2x
, x = 2 and x = 0 f y = e
x
, x = 0 and x = 2
g y = 2 sin x, x = and x = h y = cos , x = and x = 2
i y = sin 3x, x = and x =
j y = , x 0, x = 0 and x = 4
2
x
---
1
x
2
-----
6
---

3
---
x
2
---

2
---
2
---

6
---
x x
WORKED
Example
29
1
x
2
-----
1
2
---
e
x
2
---
3
---
5
6
------
y
1
x 3 ( )
2
------------------- =
13 Find the area bound by the curve y = 3 e
2x
, the x-axis, x = 2 and x = 0.
(Find the x-intercepts rst.)
14 Find the area bound by the curve y = 4 sin 2x, the x-axis, x = and x = .
(Check the x-intercepts rst.)
15 a Differentiate x log
e
x. (x > 0)
b Hence, nd an antiderivative of log
e
x.
c Find the area bound by the graph of log
e
x, the x-axis, x = 1 and x = 4 giving exact
answers.
16 a Differentiate log
e
(x
2
+ 2).
b Hence, nd an antiderivative of .
c Find the area between , the x-axis, x = 1 and x = 1.
17 a Find the area between the graph of y = x
2
, the x-axis, x = 0 and x = 2.
b Use this result to calculate the area between the graph, the y-axis and the line
y = 4.
18 Find the exact area of the shaded region on the graph y = e
2x
below.
19 Find the shaded area below.
2
---
WORKED
Example
30
x
x
2
2 +
--------------
x
x
2
2 +
--------------
x
0
y
y = x
2
2
(2, 4)
x
0
y
y = e
2x
2
x 0
y
y = 2 sin x
2

2
Areas between two curves
We shall now consider the area between two functions, f(x) and g(x), over an interval
[a, b]. Our approach depends on whether the curves intersect or do not intersect over
this interval.
If the two curves f(x) and g(x) do not intersect over the
interval [a, b]
Here, we may look at three circumstances: when the region is above the x-axis, when it
is below the x-axis, and when it crosses the x-axis.
Region above x-axis
The red shaded area =
= .
Note: The lower function is subtracted from the higher function to ensure a positive answer.
Region below x-axis
Again, the lower function is subtracted from the higher
function to ensure a positive answer.
Red shaded area = , as f(x) is above g(x)
over the interval [a, b].
Region crosses x-axis
Shaded area =
x 0
y
g(x)
f(x)
a b
f x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
a
b
a
b
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
a
b
x
0
y
g(x)
f(x)
a b
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
a
b
x
y
0
a b
f(x)
g(x)
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
a
b
a State the denite integral which describes the shaded area on the
graph at right.
b Find the area.
THINK WRITE
a State the two functions f(x) and g(x). a f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x
Subtract the equation of the lower
function from the equation of the upper
function and simplify.
f(x) g(x) = 2x + 1 x
= x + 1
Write as a denite integral between
the given values of x.
Area =
Area =
1
2
3 f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
0
2
x 1 + ( ) dx
0
2
31
WORKEDExample
0 x
y
y = x
y = 2x + 1
2
THINK WRITE
b Antidifferentiate. b Area =
Evaluate the integral. Area =
Area = (2 + 2) (0)
Area = 4
1
1
2
--- x
2
x + [ ]
0
2
2
1
2
--- 2 ( )
2
2 + [ ]
1
2
--- 0 ( )
2
0 + [ ]
3
a Find the values of x where the functions y = x and y = x
2
2 intersect.
b Sketch the graphs on the same axes. (Check using a graphics
calculator.)
c Hence, nd the area bound by the curves.
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
a State the two functions. a y = x and y = x
2
2
Find where the curves
intersect.
For points of intersection:
x = x
2
2
Solve for x. x
2
x 2 = 0
(x 2)(x + 1) = 0
x = 2 or x = 1
b Find the key points of each
function and sketch.
b For y = x,
when x = 0, y = 0
when x = 2, y = 2
when x = 1, y = 1
Line passes through
(0, 0), (2, 2) and (1, 1)
For y = x
2
2,
when x = 0, y = 2
Hence y-intercept is 2.
Parabola also passes through
(2, 2) and (1, 1).
c Dene f(x) and g(x). c Let f(x) = x and g(x) = x
2
2
Write the area as a denite
integral between the values
of x at the points of
intersection.
Area
= dx
=
=
1
2
3
1
2
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ]
1
2
x x
2
2 ( ) [ ] dx
1
2
x x
2
2 + ( ) dx
1
2
32
WORKEDExample
x
0
(2, 2)
(1, 1)
y
y = x
y = x
2
2
If the two curves intersect over the interval [a, b]
Where c
1
and c
2
are the values of x where f(x) and g(x) inter-
sect over the interval [a, b], the area is found by considering
the intervals [a, c
1
], [c
1
, c
2
] and [c
2
, b] separately. For each
interval care must be taken to make sure the integrand is the
higher function. Subtract the lower function.
So the shaded area equals:
+ +
Therefore, when nding areas between two curves over an interval, it must be deter-
mined whether the curves intersect within that interval. If they do, the area is broken
into sub-intervals as shown above.
As with areas under curves, sketch graphs should be used to assist in nding areas
between curves.
If sketch graphs are not used, the absolute value of each integral, for each sub-
interval, should be taken to ensure the correct value is obtained.
THINK WRITE
Antidifferentiate. =
= (2 + 4) ( + 2)
= (3 ) (1 )
= 3 + 1
= 4
3
1
2
--- x
2
1
3
--- x
3
2x + [ ]
1
2
4
1
2
--- 2 ( )
2
1
3
--- 2 ( )
3
2 2 ( ) + [ ]
1
2
--- 1 ( )
2
1
3
--- 1 ( )
3
2 1 ( ) + [ ]
8
3
---
1
2
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
6
---
1
3
---
1
6
---
1
2
---
5
1
2
---
x 0
y
a b c
1
c
2
f(x)
g(x)
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ] dx
a
c
1
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
c
1
c
2
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ] dx
c
2
b
a Find the values of x where the graph of the functions f(x) = and g(x) = x intersect.
b Sketch the graphs on the same axes (check using a graphics calculator) and shade the
region between the two curves and x = 1 and x = 3.
c Find the area between f(x) and g(x) from x = 1 to x = 3.
THINK WRITE
a State the two functions. a f(x) = , g(x) = x
Let f(x) = g(x) to nd the values
of x where the graphs intersect.
For points of intersection, x =
4
x
---
1
4
x
---
2
4
x
---
33
WORKEDExample
Note: If worked example 33 was calculated without a graph, the area would be found
by evaluating:
+ or +
as without a graph it would not be known which function was above the other for either
interval.
To nd the area between two curves using a graphics calculator:
1. Find the area between the upper curve and the x-axis, and record or store the answer.
2. Find the area between the lower curve and the x-axis, and record or store the answer.
3. Subtract the two answers, giving a positive value for the area.
THINK WRITE
Solve for x.
x
2
= 4
x
2
4 = 0
(x 2)(x + 2) = 0
x = 2 and x = 2
b Sketch f(x) and g(x) on the same
axes and shade the region
between the two curves from
x = 1 to x = 3.
b
c State the area as the sum of
two integrals for the two sub-
intervals.
c Area =
Antidifferentiate. =
Evaluate the two integrals.
=
+
=
+
=
Add the two values. = 4 log
e
+ 1
State the area.
The area is 4 log
e
+ 1 or approximately 2.151
square units.
3
g(x) = x
x
0
y
1 2 3
4
x
f(x) =
1
4
x
--- x

dx x
4
x
---

dx
2
3
+
1
2
2
4 log
e
x
1
2
--- x
2
[ ]
1
2 1
2
--- x
2
4 log
e
x [ ]
2
3
+
3
4 log
e
2
1
2
--- 2 ( )
2
[ ] 4 log
e
1
1
2
--- 1 ( )
2
[ ]
1
2
--- 3 ( )
2
4 log
e
3 [ ]
1
2
--- 2 ( )
2
4 log
e
2 [ ] { }
4 log
e
2 2 [ ] 4 log
e
1
1
2
--- [ ]
9
2
--- 4 log
e
3 [ ] 2 4 log
e
2 [ ] { }
4 log
e
2 2 0
1
2
---
9
2
--- 4log
e
3 2 4log
e
2 + + +
4
4
3
---
5
4
3
---
4
x
--- x

dx
1
2
4
x
--- x

dx
2
3
x
4
x
---

dx
1
2
x
4
x
---

dx
2
3
Areas between two curves
1 State the denite integral which will nd the shaded areas on each graph below.
2 Find each of the areas in question 1.
3
Which one of the following does not equal the shaded area?
A B
C D
E
1. If two curves f(x) and g(x) do not intersect over the interval [a, b] and
f(x) > g(x) then the area enclosed by the two curves and the lines x = a and
x = b is found by using the formula:
2. If two curves f(x) and g(x) intersect over the interval [a, b] it is necessary to
nd the points of intersection and hence nd the area of each section because
sometimes f(x) > g(x) and sometimes g(x) > f( x).
3. If sketch graphs are not used to determine which is the upper curve, then it is
necessary to take the absolute value or positive value of each integral.
f x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
a
b
a
b
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
a
b
=
remember
9H
WORKED
Example
31a
x 0
y
y = x
2

y = x
1
a b c d
x
0
y
y = 2x
1 2
y = x + 1
x
0
y
y = 3x
y = 4 x
2

1
x
0
y
y = 8 x
2

y = x
2

2 2
e f g h
0
x
y
y = x
3

y = 3x
3
x
0
y
y = e
x

y = 9 x
2

1 1
x
0
y
y = e
x

y = x
1 2
x
0
y
y = 4
y = x
2
5
1 1
WORKED
Example
31b
multiple choice
x 0
y
g(x)
f(x)
5 1
g x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
1
5
1
5
g x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
5
1
+
1
5
f x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
1
5
1
5
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ] dx
1
5
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
5
1
4
The area bound by the curves f(x), g(x) and the lines
x = 3 and x = 1 at right is equal to:
5
The shaded area at right is equal to:
A
B
6 In each of the following:
i nd the values of x where the functions intersect
ii sketch the graphs on the same axes (check using a graphics calculator)
iii hence, nd the area bound by the curves.
7 i Find the values of x where the functions intersect.
ii Sketch the graphs on the same axes. (Check using a graphics calculator.)
iii Find the area between f(x) and g(x) giving an exact answer.
8 Find the area between the pairs of curves below, over the given interval. (Use a graph
and graphics calculator to assist if necessary.)
a y = x
3
, y = x
2
, x [1, 1] b y = sin x, y = cos x, x [0, ]
c y = (x 1)
2
, y = (x + 1)
2
, x [1, 1] d y = x
3
5x, y = 6 2x
2
, x [0, 3]
e y = , y = 4x, x [ , 1] f y = e
x
, y = e
x
, x [0, 1]
g y = 2 cos x, y = x , x [0, ] h y = e
x
, y = e
x
, x [2, 1]
Use sketch graphs and a graphics calculator to assist in solving the following problems.
9 Find the area between the curve y = e
x
and the lines y = x, x = 1 and x = 3.
10 Find the area between the curve y = x
2
and the lines y = + 3, x = 1 and x = 3.
A B
C D
E
C dx D
E
a y = 4x and y = x
2
b y = 2x and y = 3 x
2
c y = x
2
1 and y = 1 x
2
d y = x
2
4 and y = 4 x
2
e y = (x + 1)
2
and y = 1 x
2
f y = and y = x
2
a y = x
3
and y = x b y = 3x
2
and y = x
3
+ 2x
multiple choice
x
0
y
1 3
4
f(x)
g(x)
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
1
3
f x ( ) g x ( ) + [ ] dx
3
1
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ] dx
3
1
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
3
1
f x ( ) g x ( ) + [ ] dx
1
3
multiple choice
x 0
y
g(x)
f(x)
3 4
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
0
4
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ] dx f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
3
4
+
0
3
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ]
0
4
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
0
3
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ]
3
4
+
0
3
WORKED
Example
32
x
WORKED
Example
33
M
a
th
c
a
d
Area
between
two
curves
1
x
---
1
4
---
2
---

2
---
x
2
---
11 Calculate the area between the curves y = sin 2x and y = cos x from x = 0 to x = .
12 Calculate the area between the curves y = sin 2x and y = sin 2x from x = 0 to x = .
13 Find the exact area bound by the curves y = e
x
and y = 3 2e
x
.
14 The graph at right shows the cross-section of a bricked
archway. (All measurements are in metres.)
a Find the x-intercepts of f(x).
b Find the x-intercepts of g(x).
c Find the cross-sectional area of the brickwork.
15 The diagram at right shows the
outline of a window frame. If all
measurements are in metres,
what is the area of glass which
ts into the frame?
16 The diagram at right shows the side view of a concrete
bridge. (All measurements are in metres.) Find:
a the x-intercepts of the curve
b the length of the bridge
c the area of the side of the bridge
d the volume of concrete used to build the bridge if the bridge is 9 metres wide.
17 The cross-section of a road tunnel entrance is shown at
right. (All measurements are in metres.) The shaded area is
to be concreted. Find:
a the exact area, above the entrance, which is to be con-
creted
b the exact volume of concrete required to build this
tunnel if it is 200 metres long.
18 A section of a river can be modelled by the equation y = 40 sin , where x [0, 120]
and x is in metres. On the same model a proposed section of road obeys
the rule y = . The area bound by the road and the river is to have
one tree planted per 12 square metres. How many trees will be planted?
2
---
3

4
---
x 0
y
g(x) = 3 x
2

1
3
f(x) = 4 x
2
1
4
0
x
y
1
2
y = 2 2x
2
y = 2x
2
1
2
1
x
0
y
y = 4
x
2
100
5
x 0
y
f(x) = 5 sin
30
x
x
120
---------
x
5
---
Further applications of integration
Further applications of
integration
1 If f (x) = (2 x)
2
and the y-intercept of f(x) is , nd the rule for f(x).
2 If and the y-intercept is 2, nd the exact value of y when x = .
3 The rate of deection from a hori-
zontal position of a 3-metre diving
board when an 80-kg person is x
metres from its xed end is given by
, where
y is the deection in metres.
a What is the deection when x = 0?
b Determine the equation which measures the deection.
c Hence, nd the maximum deection.
4 On any day the cost per item for a machine producing n items is given by
, where n [0, 200] and C is the cost in dollars.
a Use the rate to nd the cost of producing the 100th item.
b Express C as a function of n.
c What is the total cost of producing the rst 100 items?
d Find the average cost of production for: i the rst 100 items ii the second 100 items.
5 The rate of change of position (velocity) of a racing car travelling down a straight stretch
of road is given by , where x is measured in metres and t in seconds.
a Find the velocity when: i t = 0 ii t = 4.
b Determine: i when the maximum velocity occurs ii the maximum velocity.
c Sketch the graph of against t for 0 t 16.
d Find the area under the graph between t = 0 and t = 10.
e What does this area represent?
9I
4
3
---
dy
dx
------ 1 4 cos 2x =

12
------
0
x
y
Deflection
Board
(Metres)
(Metres)
dy
dx
------ 0.03 x 1 + ( )
2
0.03 + =
dC
dn
------- 40 2e
0.01n
=
dx
dt
------ t 16 t ( ) =
dx
dt
------
6 The rate at which water is pumped out of a dam, in L/min, t minutes after the pump is
started is .
a How much water is pumped out in the 40th minute?
b Find the volume of water pumped out at any time, t, after the pump is started.
c How much water is pumped out after 40 minutes?
d Find the average rate at which water is pumped in the rst hour.
e How long would it take to ll a tank holding 1600 litres?
7 The rate of ow of water into a hot water system during a 12-hour period on a certain day is
thought to be , where V is in litres and t is the number of hours after 8 am.
a Sketch the graph of against t.
b Find the length of time for which the rate is above 10.5 L/h.
c Find the volume of water that has owed into the system between:
i 8 am and 2 pm ii 3 pm and 8 pm.
8 The roof of a stadium has the shape given by the function
f: [25, 25] R, f(x) = 20 0.024x
2
.
The stadium is 75 metres long and its cross-section is
shown at right.
a Find the volume of the stadium.
b The stadium is to have several airconditioners strategically placed around it. Each
airconditioner can service a volume of 11250 m
3
. How many airconditioners are required?
9 The cross-section of a channel is parabolic. It is 3 metres wide at the top and 2 metres
deep. Find the depth of water, to the nearest cm, when the channel is half full.
10 For any point P on the curve y = x
3
, prove that the area under the curve is one quarter
of the area of the rectangle.
11 The arch of a concrete bridge has the shape of
a parabola. It is 6 metres high and 8 metres long.
a Find the rule for the function corre-
sponding to the arch of the bridge.
b Find the area of the shaded region.
c If the bridge is 10 metres wide, nd
the volume of concrete in the bridge.
dV
dt
------- 5 cos
t
40
------ + =
dV
dt
------- 10 cos
t
2
----- + =
dV
dt
-------
x
0
y
(metres)
(metres)
25 25
5
20
x 0
y
y = x
3
P
x
0
y
(metres)
(metres)
4 5
6
4
7
12 In the gure at right f(x) and g(x) intersect at O and B.
a Show that the coordinate of B is (log
e
2, 1).
b Find the exact area of the region bound by f(x)
and g(x).
c Show that the sum of the areas under f(x) and g(x),
from x = 0 to x = log
e
2, is equal to the area of the
rectangle OABC.
13 The population of kangaroos on an island is increasing at a rate given by
P(t) = 12 log
e
(t + 1), where t is the number of years since 1 January 1955.
a Find the rate of growth when t = 0, t = 5 and t = 40.
b Sketch the graph of P(t).
c Determine the inverse function P
1
(t).
d Use the inverse function to assist in nding the area under the graph of P(t)
between t = 0 and t = 40.
e What does this area represent?
Concrete chute
Concrete is poured from a mixer down a chute which
has a cross-sectional shape as shown.
The curved bottom has the shape given by the function
f:[10, 10] R, f(x) = 0.12x
2
12.
a Find the area of the cross-section.
Concrete can ow down the chute at 1.6 m/s.
b What volume of concrete can be poured in one
minute?
c How long does it take to empty a mixer holding 12 m
3
of concrete?
x O
y
f(x) = e
x
1
g(x) = 2e
x
+ 2
B
C
A
x 0
y
(cm)
(cm)
10 10
12
5
Antidifferentiation rules
The relationships between f(x) and are:
f(x)
a ax + c
ax
n
(ax + b)
n
log
e
x + c
log (ax + b) + c
e
x
e
x
+ c
e
kx
sin ax cos ax + c
cos ax sin ax + c

, where g(x) = f (x) dx is the indenite integral
Denite integrals
The fundamental theorem of integral calculus:
= = F(b) F(a) where F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x).
is the denite integral
, a < c < b
summary
f
x ( ) dx
f
x ( ) dx
ax
n 1 +
n 1 +
--------------- c +
ax b + ( )
n 1 +
a n 1 + ( )
----------------------------- c +
1
x
---
1
ax b +
---------------
1
a
---
1
k
---e
kx
c +
1
a
---
1
a
---
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
f x ( ) dx g
x ( ) dx
= kf x ( ) dx
k f x ( ) dx
=
g x ( )dx
f x ( ) c + = f x ( ) dx
f x ( ) dx
a
b
F x ( ) [ ]
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
c
b
+
a
c
=
kf x ( ) dx
a
b
k f x ( ) dx
a
b
=
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx g x ( ) dx
a
b
a
b
=
f x ( ) dx
a
b
f x ( ) dx
b
a
=
Approximating areas under curves
An approximation to the area between a curve and the x-axis can be found by
dividing the area into a series of rectangles or trapeziums which are all the same
width. The approximation is found by nding the sum of all the areas of the
rectangles or trapeziums.
Lower rectangle approximation actual area upper rectangle approximation
Trapezoidal approximation =
Trapezoidal rule is

where h is the interval width.
Area under curves
Area = , if f(x) > 0 for x [a, b]
Area = , if f(x) < 0 for x [a, b]
Area =
= , if f(x) > 0 for x [c, b]
and f(x) < 0 for x [a, c]
Area between curves
Area = , if f(x) > g(x) for x [a, b]
Area = ,
if g(x) > f (x) for x [a, c]
and f (x) > g(x) for x [c, b]
lower rectangle approximation + upper rectangle approximation
2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
f x ( ) dx
h
2
--- f a ( ) 2f a h + ( ) 2f a 2h + ( ) 2f b h ( ) f b ( ) + + + + + [ ]
a
b
f x ( ) dx
a
b
x
b
0
a
y
y = f(x)
f x ( ) dx
a
b
x
y
b
0
a
y = f(x)
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
a
c
c
b
x
b
0
a c
y
y = f(x)
A
2
A
1
f x ( ) dx f x ( ) dx
a
c
+
c
b
f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
a
b
x 0
y
g(x)
f(x)
a b
g x ( ) f x ( ) [ ] dx f x ( ) g x ( ) [ ] dx
c
b
+
a
c
x
0
y
g(x)
f(x)
b c a
Multiple choice
1 The antiderivative of is:
2 The indenite integral is equal to:
3 An antiderivative of 2(3x + 4)
4
is:
4 The antiderivative of 6e
3x
is:
5 The indenite integral is equal to:
6 An antiderivative of x
3
+ sin 4x + e
4x
is:
7 If f(x) has a stationary point at (0, 3) and f (x) = e
x
+ k, where k is a constant, then f(x) is:
8 If the derivative of (x x
2
)
8
is 8(1 2x)(x x
2
)
7
then an antiderivative of 24(1 2x)(x x
2
)
7
is:
A x
4
log
e
(1 x) + c B x
4
+ log
e
(1 x) + c C 16x
4
log
e
(1 x) + c
D 16x
4
+ log
e
(1 x) + c E
A 25(5x 4)
5
+ c B 5(5x 4)
5
+ c C (5x 4)
5
+ c
D (5x 4)
5
+ c E (5x 4)
5
+ c
A (3x + 4)
3
B (3x + 4)
3
+ 5 C (3x + 4)
3
D (3x + 4)
5
E 8(3x + 4)
3
A 2e
3x
+ c B 3e
3x
+ c C 18e
3x
+ c
D 2e
3x + 1
+ c
E e
3x
+ c
A sin + cos 3x + c B sin + 3 cos 3x + c C 3 sin + cos 3x + c
D 3 sin + cos 3x + c E 3 sin cos 3x + c
A 4(x
4
cos 4x + e
4x
) B x
4
+ cos 4x + e
4x
C x
4
4 cos 4x + e
4x
D (x
4
cos x + e
4x
) E (x
4
cos 4x + e
4x
)
A e
x
2x + 2 B e
x
x + 2 C e
x
x + 2
D e
x
+ x + 2 E e
x
+ 2x + 1
A 2(x x
2
)
8
B 3(x x
2
)
8
C (x x
2
)
8
D (x x
2
)
8
E 8(x x
2
)
8
CHAPTER
review
9A
4x
3
1
1 x
-----------
x
4
1
1 x ( )
2
------------------- c +
9A
5x 4 ( )
4
dx
1
5
---
1
25
------
9A
2
3
---
2
3
---
2
9
---
2
9
---
9B
1
2
---
9B
cos
x
3
--- 3 sin 3x

dx
x
3
---
1
3
---
x
3
---
x
3
---
x
3
---
x
3
---
9B
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
1
4
---
9B
9C 1
2
---
1
3
---
9 If the derivative of e
x
3
+ 3x
is 3(x
2
+ 1)e
x
3
+ 3x
, then the antiderivative of (x
2
+ 1)e
x
3
+ 3x
is:
10 If the derivative of log
e
(5 x
2
) is then the antiderivative of is:
11 The approximation for the area under the graph at right from x = 2
to x = 4, using the lower rectangles is:
12 The area under the graph at right from x = 5 to x = 1 can be
approximated by the area of the upper rectangles and is equal to:
13 Using the trapezoidal rule the area under the curve at right from
x = 1 to x = 4 is approximately equal to:
15 The exact value of the denite integral is:
16 The exact value of is:
17 The shaded area on the graph at right is equal to:
A 3e
x
3
+ 3x
+ c B C e
3x
2
+ 3
+ c
D e
x
3
+ 3x
+ c E undened
A log
e
(5 x
2
) + c B 2 log
e
(5 x
2
) + c C log
e
(5 x
2
) + c
D 2 log
e
(5 x
2
) + c E undened
A 2 B 8 C 2 D 20 E 16
A 3e
4
e
4
B 2e
4
e
4
C e
4
2e
4
D e
4
+ e
4
E e
4
e
4
A 3 B 3 C D E
9C
1
3 x
2
1 + ( )
---------------------- c +
1
3
---
9C
2x
5 x
2
--------------
x
5 x
2
--------------
1
2
---
1
2
---
9D
0
x
y
(2, 3)
(2.5, 4)
(3, 6)
(3.5, 9)
2 4 3
9D
x
0
y
(2, 4)
(3, 5)
(4, 6)
(5, 8)
5 1
1
2
---
9D
0
x
y
(1, 4)
(2, 5)
(3, 7)
(4, 10)
4 3 2 1
9E
3 x x ( ) dx
0
4
1
2
---
9E
4e
2x
2e
2x
( ) dx
2
2
9E
2 cos
x
3
---

dx
0
3 3 3 3 3 2
9F
x
y = (x 2)
3
0
y
2 4
18 The shaded area on the graph at right is:
19 The area bound by the curve on the graph at right and the x-axis is
equal to:
Questions 20 to 22 apply to the curve with equation f(x) = e
x
1.
20 The graph of f(x) is best represented by:
21 The area bound by the graph of f(x), the x-axis and the line x = 2 is equal to:
22 The area bound by the graph of f (x), the y-axis and the line
y = e
2
1 is equal to:
Use the graph at right to answer questions 23 and 24.
23 The two graphs intersect where x is equal to:
24 The area bound by the two graphs is equal to:
Short answer
1 Find the equation of the curve f(x) if it passes through (1, 3) and f(x) = .
2 A particular curve has , where k is a constant, and it has a stationary point
(2, 1). Find:
a the value of k
b the equation of the curve
c the value of y when x = 6.
A B C D E
A e
2
1 B e
2
2 C e
2
+ 1 D e
2
+ 2 E e
2
3
A e
2
5 B e
2
3 C e
2
+ 2 D e
2
+ 1 E 5 e
2
A 1 and 3 B 1 and 3 C 1 and 2 D 1 and 2 E 1 and 3
9F
x
y = 1 3x
2
0
y
2 2
1
9G
x
y = x(x + 2)(x 3)
0
y
5
12
------
1
12
------
5
12
------
5
12
------
7
12
------
x
f(x)
0
y
2
x
f(x)
0
y
f(x)
0
1
x
y
x
f(x)
0 1
y
x
f(x)
0 1
1
y
9G
9G
x
y = x
2
y = 2x + 3
0
y
9H
9H
2
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
1
3
---
2
3
---
9A
3x
3
2x
2
x
-----------------------
9B
dy
dx
------ cos
x
4
------ k + =
3 If y = sin (x
2
+ 2x), nd and hence antidifferentiate (x + 1) cos (x
2
+ 2x).
4 Apply the trapezoidal method to nd the area between y = e
2x 1
and the x-axis, from x = 0
to x = 4, using intervals of width 1 unit. (Give an exact answer.)
5 Calculate an approximation for the area under the curve y = log
e
x from x = 2 to x = 4, using
interval widths of 0.5 units.
6 Evaluate each of the following denite integrals.
7 Given that , nd two possible values for k.
8 a Sketch the graph of the function f(x) = .
b Find the exact area between the graph of f(x), the x-axis and the lines x = 3 and x = 6.
9 Find the area bound by the curve g(x) = (4 x)(6 + x) and the x-axis.
10 Calculate the area between the curve y = 2 cos x and the lines y = x, x = 0 and x = .
Analysis
1 From past records it has been found that the cost rate of maintaining a certain car is
, where C is the accumulated cost in dollars and t is the time in years
since the car was rst used. Find:
a the initial maintenance cost,
b C as a function of t
c the total maintenance cost during the rst 5 years of use of the car
d the total maintenance cost from 3 to 5 years
e the maintenance cost for the second year.
2 Over a 24-hour period on a particular autumn day, starting at 12 am, the rate of change of the
temperature for Melbourne was approximately , where T is the
temperature in C and t is the number of hours since midnight when the temperature was
10C. Find:
a the temperature at any time, t
b whether the temperature reaches 17C at any time during the day
c the maximum temperature and the time at which it occurs
d the minimum temperature and the time at which it occurs
e the temperature at
i 2 am
ii 3 pm
f the time when the temperature rst reaches 14.33C.
a b
9C
dy
dx
------
9D
9D
9E
9
2x 3 + ( )
4
---------------------- dx
1
0
cos 2x dx
3
---
2
3
------
9E
4x 5 ( ) dx
0
k
2 =
9F
1
x 2
-----------
9G
9H
2
---
dC
dt
------- 75t
2
50t 800 + + =
dT
dt
-------
5
12
------ cos
t
12
------ =
3 The diagram at right shows part of the curve with equation .
Find:
a the coordinate of point A
b the equation of the normal to the curve at point A
c the coordinate of point B
d the coordinate of point C
e the area bound by the curve and the lines AB and BC.
4 a Find the derivative of x log
e
x.
b Hence, nd an antiderivative of log
e
x.
The cross-section of a platform is shown at right. (All
measurements are in metres.)
c Find the height of the platform.
d Find the cross-sectional area of the platform.
e Find the volume of concrete required to build this platform if it is 20 metres long.
y e
x
2
---
=
x
2
A
C
B
0
y
y = e
2
x
normal
x
e
1
1
e
2
f(x) = log
e
x
0
y
test
C
H
A
P
T
E
R
yourself
test
yourself
9

Calculus Made Ridiculusly Easy

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VCE

Chap 05 SM Page 203 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:22 AM

Cancel out cos x.

Antidifferentiate with respect to u. = u

Chap 06 SM Page 224 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 232 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

For each of the following integrals, state:

Chap 06 SM Page 245 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 246 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 248 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Find the area inside the ellipse in the gure at right.

Find the area bounded by the curves y = x

Chap 06 SM Page 255 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 256 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 268 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 271 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 273 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 274 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 276 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

Chap 06 SM Page 277 Thursday, October 12, 2000 10:59 AM

--------------------- 5.98 x 5.98 , =

a Sketch the graph of the function g(x) = (3 x)(2 + x).

a Find the x-intercepts of y = sin 2x over the domain [0, 2].

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