Why the War Came as a

Surprise
(September 1920)
From Political Science Quarterly, Vol.35 No.3, September 1920, pp.337-359.
Transcribed & mared !p b" #inde $%&alla'(an )or t(e Marxists Internet
Archive.
T(ans to *aniel +aido.
T,# -ar )ell !pon !s in t(e s!mmer o) 191. as a terrible s!rprise.
,ardl" an"bod" (ad belie/ed in its comin'. 0 (and)!l o) dismal
paci)ists in t(e di))erent co!ntries, pointin' to t(e 'ro-t( o)
armaments, (ad !ttered t(eir /aticinations. 1ittle nots o) ardent
militarists -it( t(eir b!siness companions, bent !pon increased
preparedness, taled con)identl" o) t(e ine/itable da", )or'ettin' to
reconcile t(eir prediction -it( t(e pre/enti/e /irt!es -(ic( t(e"
attrib!ted to -arlie preparations. 2!t )e- e/en o) t(ese e3tremists o)
eit(er 'ro!p serio!sl" belie/ed t(at -ar -as imminent. T(ere -ere, no
do!bt, a )e- in +erman" and else-(ere -(o in t(e latter da"s belie/ed
in -ar beca!se t(e" (ad contri/ed it and resol/ed !pon it. 2!t )or o!r
immediate p!rposes t(ese ma" stand o!t o) t(e acco!nt.
4t is t(is 'eneral s!rprise and t(e i'norance to -(ic( it testi)ies t(at
demand e3planation. ,o- came it abo!t t(at people o) e/er" 'rade o)
no-led'e and intelli'ence -ere so !tterl" blind to t(e real state o) t(e
-orld in t(e sprin' o) 191.5 T(e !nt(inin' (a/e c(osen to compare
t(e e/ent -it( some catastrop(e o) nat!re or to dramati6e it as a
desperate crime o) t(e r!lers o) a sin'le nation. 2!t t(o!'( t(ere is an
element o) tr!t( in bot( o) t(ese e3planations, neit(er a))ords
reasonable satis)action. For to mae s!c( a catastrop(e or s!c( a crime
seem possible, t(e -(ole -orld and t(e people in it m!st (a/e been
'reatl" di))erent )rom -(at -e t(o!'(t t(em. 7et t(ere -as not one o)
t(e concrete iss!es -(ic( carried t(e seeds o) stri)e, not one o) t(e
deep-seated di/er'encies o) polic", nor one o) t(e )ierce s!spicions,
(ates, ambitions and c!pidities in -(ic( dan'er mi'(t l!r, t(at -as
not e3posed to inn!merable -atc()!l e"es. T(ere -as no lac o)
no-led'e o) t(e dan'er areas or o) t(e dan'ers -(ic( t(e" (eld. 2!t in
spite o) all t(is no-led'e t(e 'eneral sense o) sec!rit" -as not
serio!sl" s(aen. 4t -as as in t(e da"s o) Noa( b!t -it(o!t t(e prete3t
t(e people t(en (ad )or not listenin' to t(e -arnin's o) a senile croaer.
T(is )alse sense o) sec!rit" -as t(e prod!ct o) a (abit!al
mis/al!ation o) t(e contentio!s )orces and t(e c(ecs !pon t(em. T(e
)ormer -ere 'ra/el" !nderestimated, -(ile (ea/il" in)lated /al!e -as
'i/en to t(e latter. 2ot( errors are attrib!table to a sin'le ca!se, an
e3cessi/e appreciation o) men%s moral and rational attainments and o)
t(e part t(e" act!all" pla" in t(e '!idance o) indi/id!al and collecti/e
cond!ct. T(e doctrine o) t(e per)ectibilit" o) man implicit in e/er"
(i'(er reli'ion, co!pled -it( a )ait( in t(e po-er o) enli'(tened sel)-
interest to accomplis( s-i)t re)orms in t(e )abric o) (!man societ", la"
at t(e root o) all t(e liberal re/ol!tionar" mo/ements o) t(e (al) cent!r"
t(at )ollo-ed t(e Frenc( 8e/ol!tion. T(e -orld -as so constit!ted t(at
e/er"one, in stri/in' to preser/e (is o-n li)e and to promote (is o-n
(appiness, -as impelled alon' lines o) cond!ct t(at cond!ced to t(e
-el)are o) ot(ers. 2!t (e -as also a social bein' in )eelin' and -ill,
capable o) conscio!s e))ort )or t(e 'ood o) ot(ers and tain' pleas!re in
e/er" tas o) m!t!al aid. Sometimes t(e stress -as laid !pon
enli'(tened sel)is(ness, sometimes !pon t(e social emotions. 4n eit(er
case, (!man relations -ere belie/ed to be 'ro!nded in rationalit".
T(e 'reatest moral disco/er" o) t(e nineteent( cent!r", t(at man
belon'ed bod" and so!l to t(e nat!ral -orld, and t(at t(e -(ole o) (is
li)e and cond!ct -as s!b9ect to t(e rei'n o) la-,, (ad pro)o!nd
reactions !pon social t(o!'(t and polic", especiall" in t(e sp(eres o)
statecra)t and ind!str". T(o!'( t(e immediate p(ilosop(ic )r!it o) t(is
disco/er" -as determinism, t(is rational creed (ad not(in' in common
-it( t(e paral"6in' )atalism c(ar'ed a'ainst it b" ort(odo3 critics. $n
t(e contrar" it s!))ered at t(e (ands o) its c(ie) e3ponents )rom an
e3cessi/e )ait( in t(e po-er o) man to mo!ld (is destin", adaptin' and
creatin' instit!tions )or (is -(olesome needs and desires -it( an ease
and a celerit" t(at made li'(t o) t(e (!man (erita'e o) (abits and
attac(ments. 4t is impossible to )ollo- t(e /ario!s c!rrents o)
re)ormin' 6eal )rom +od-in, S(elle" and t(e "o!t()!l &olerid'e,
t(ro!'( t(e more de)inite proposals and e3periments o) 2ent(am,
$-en, :o(n St!art ;ill and t(eir p(ilosop(ic-radical, c(artist and
social )ollo-ers, -it(o!t bein' con)ronted b" a belie) in man%s po-er to
be t(e arbiter o) (is )ate <!ite sta''erin' in t(e meas!re o) its
con)idence. 2ent(am%s contempt )or (istor" -as indeed c(aracteristic
o) (is liberalism, -(ic( demanded a liberation as complete as possible
)rom all trammels o) t(e past. T(o!'( commonl" co!pled -it(
rep!diation o) e3istin' reli'io!s do'mas, t(is nineteent(-cent!r"
rationalism cond!cted itsel) -it( t(e )er/or o) reli'io!s 6eal.
T(e )ait( in reason rested !pon t-o ass!mptions. First, t(at reason
-as b" ri'(t and in )act t(e s!preme arbiter in (!man cond!ct= and
second, t(at a complete (armon" o) (!man relations -as disco/erable
and attainable b" 'ettin' reason to pre/ail in indi/id!al and national
a))airs. >+ettin' reason to pre/ail? meant openin' -ide t(e portals to
no-led'e and remo/in' t(e positi/e barriers o) la-, traditions,
pre9!dice and passion -(ic( bloced t(e pla" o) enli'(tened sel)-
interest. T(is )ait(, penetratin' alie t(e indi/id!alism o) 2ent(am and
t(e socialism o) $-en, ma" be re'arded as a practical m"sticism,
deri/in' its no!ris(ment partl" )rom t(e p(ilosop(" o) t(e 8e/ol!tion,
partl" )rom t(e mirac!lo!s tec(nolo'" o) t(e ne- mac(ine ind!str". 4)
applied reason can so immensel" and so rapidl" enlar'e t(e bo!nds o)
material prod!cti/it", cannot t(e same po-er bene)iciall" trans)orm
t(e entire str!ct!re o) (!man societ"5 0b!ndant -ealt(, e<!itabl"
distrib!ted amon' t(e prod!cers b" t(e operation o) ine/itable la-s,
-o!ld )orm t(e material basis o) a ne- moral -orld. 0 )ree, instr!cted
people -o!ld cooperate in a (!ndred -a"s )or t(eir m!t!al ad/anta'e.
T(o!'( one o) t(ese -a"s -o!ld be t(e state, political democrac" -as
not t(e c(ie) concern. For in t(e rational -orld t(e coerci/e arm o)
societ" -o!ld (a/e little scope. T(e )!nctions o) t(e state -ere to be
p!rel" de)ensi/e, directed to pre/ent t(e inter)erence o) one person
-it( anot(er -it(in t(e national limits and o) one nation -it( anot(er
in t(e -ider -orld o) states and 'o/ernments. T(e reasonable -ill o)
indi/id!al citi6ens -o!ld preser/e (armon" and promote social
pro'ress -it(in t(e se/eral nations and in t(e -ider sp(ere o)
(!manit", i) onl" )ree pla" -ere sec!red )or it. T(e state -as concei/ed
o) as an essentiall" arti)icial and repressi/e instr!ment -(ose operation
s(o!ld be ept at a minim!m. ,ence it came abo!t t(at t(e earl"
socialistic proposals commonl" 'a/e t(e state t(e 'o-b" and based
t(emsel/es !pon t(e p!rel" /ol!ntar" association o) indi/id!al citi6ens.
T(is limited conception o) t(e state imparted a certain !ns!bstantialit"
to t(e radical and c(artist a'itations )or an e3tended )ranc(ise and
ot(er instr!ments o) political democrac". T(ese a'itations -ere rat(er
t(e indices o) pop!lar discontents, rooted in t(e miserable social-
economic conditions o) t(e -orin' classes, t(an a )irm and nat!ral
e3pression o) t(e pop!lar -ill seein' incorporation in t(e state. T(at is
-(" t(ese a'itations -ere dissipated in t(e mid-nineteent( cent!r" b"
small political concessions )loated on t(e risin' tide o) a trade
prosperit" -(ic( 'a/e relie) and (ope to t(e or'ani6in' artisan classes
t(at represented t(e lo-er strata o) political conscio!sness.
T(ere -as in t(e mid-cent!r" no clear reco'nition an"-(ere, sa/e in
a )e- eccentric or disordered brains, o) t(e necessit" and )easibilit" o)
con/ertin' and enlar'in' t(e mac(iner" o) 'o/ernment into a means o)
so controllin' ind!str" and distrib!tin' its )r!its as to sec!re a
reasonable li/eli(ood )or all and to remed" t(e palpable in9!stices in
t(e apportionment o) t(is -orld%s 'oods. T(ere (ad been plent" o)
s(re-d and trenc(ant e3pos!res o) t(e ab!ses o) land o-ners(ip and o)
t(e )actor" s"stem -it( t(eir related e/ils o) !nemplo"ment, s-eatin'
-a'es, oppression o) c(ild li)e, !nsanitar" (o!sin', poor la-
de'radation and t(e lie. 2!t t(o!'( t(e state -as looed to )or
s!ppl"in' certain minor sa)e'!ards, t(e liberati/e tide -as still in t(e
ascendant, and t(e )ree pla" o) enli'(tened sel)-interest in competiti/e
ind!str" -as still t(e animatin' )ait( o) t(e )riends o) pop!lar pro'ress.
T(is t"pical middle-class sentimental rationalism lon' s!cceeded in
di/ertin' pop!lar sel)-'o/ernment )rom all t(o!'(ts or plans o)
economic democrac". T(o!'( ;a66ini, as earl" as t(e late t(irties, (ad
made (is brilliant e3pos!re o) t(e )!tilit" o) a political re/ol!tion -(ic(
le)t t(e e"s o) ind!strial master-(ood in t(e (ands o) a ne- capitalistic
oli'arc(", neit(er t(e mind nor t(e circ!mstances o) an" 'reat people
-ere ripe )or its reception. T(e nationalistic spirit, '!ided b" bo!r'eois
leaders and ambitions, -as a dominant )actor in t(e continental
re/ol!tions o) t(e mid-cent!r", and t(e economic comm!nism -(ic(
)lared !p )or a brie) period in t(e lar'e Frenc( cities -as in realit" little
more t(an an ill-prepared b"-prod!ct o) a cooperati/e spirit -(ic(
)o!nd more immediatel" pro)itable e3pression in trade-!nion and ot(er
non-political sp(eres o) acti/it". T(e earl" socialism, alie o) $-en and
o) t(e &(ristian Socialists o) t(e ne3t 'eneration, m!st properl" ran as
a /ariant o) t(is bo!r'eois rationalism, inspired -it( a lar'er meas!re
o) social comp!nction and -it( a more conscio!s reliance !pon t(e
)orces o) (!man comrades(ip. T(e deep sentimentalism in -(ic( men
lie @in'sle" and ;a!rice steeped t(eir teac(in' s(o!ld not (ide t(is
essential tr!t(. So lon' as t(e )irm )ait( in a nat!ral (armon" o)
interests, personal and national, operatin' eit(er t(ro!'( competition
or t(e pri/ate cooperation o) indi/id!als, contin!ed to be t(e pre/ailin'
creed o) social re)ormers, t(ere -as little (ope o) e))ecti/e or'anic
re)orm. For neit(er t(e (arder rationalism o) t(e ;anc(ester Sc(ool
nor t(e so)ter o) t(e earl" socialism -as capable o) "ieldin' a n!tritio!s
and stim!latin' 'ospel to t(e people. 4ts essential de)ects -ere t-o. T(e
)irst -as t(is open and persistent clea/a'e bet-een political and
ind!strial ad/ancement, ser/in' to en)eeble t(e democratic mo/ement
b" remo/in' )rom its scope t(e most /ital and appealin' iss!es. T(e
second -as t(e nai/el" middle-class c(aracter o) t(e politics and
economics. 4n national and still more in local politics t(e ne- -ell-to-
do b!siness classes -it( t(eir pro)essional retin!e -ere obtr!si/el"
dominant in all iss!es -(ic( to!c(ed eit(er t(eir pocets or t(eir class
pride. T(eir dominance -as not serio!sl" impaired b" t(e se/eral
e3tensions o) t(e )ranc(ise s!cceedin' t(e 8e)orm 0ct o) 1A32, -(ic(
)irst p!t t(em in t(e saddle. T(eir s!perior -ealt(, control o/er
emplo"ment, dominant personalit", presti'e and or'ani6in' po-er ept
in t(eir (ands t(e le/ers o) politics and enabled t(em -it( no 'reat
di))ic!lt" to in)l!ence and manip!late t(e -idenin' -orin'-class
electorate. T(e" contin!ed to !se t(is po-er so as to enco!ra'e t(e
belie) t(at s!bstantial e<!alit" o) opport!nit" e3isted and t(at personal
c(aracter -as e/er"-(ere an ass!red road to s!ccess and prosperit",
-(ile t(e" prolon'ed t(e career o) liberalism b" concentratin' t(e part"
str!''le on n!mero!s separate little liberati/e missions, cond!cted
slo-l" and piecemeal, t(!s sta/in' o)) t(e bi''er or'anic re)orms t(at
-ere emer'in' in t(e ne- radicalism o) t(e later (al)-cent!r".
4t -as not a conscio!s statecra)t, b!t t(e instincti/e sel)-de)ence o)
t(e bo!r'eois politician. 0 )ree scope )or pri/ate competiti/e enterprise
alie in domestic, ind!strial and )orei'n trade, -it( s!c( personal
liberties and opport!nities o) ed!cation, mo/ement, c(oice o) trade,
t(ri)t and com)ort )or t(e -orers as -o!ld eep t(em ind!strio!s and
contented -it( t(eir lot and -it( t(e economic and political leaders(ip
o) t(e emplo"in' middle classes B s!c( -as t(e pre/ailin' t(o!'(t o)
t(e men -(o boasted t(emsel/es t(e bacbone o) t(e co!ntr". 4t -as
not necessar" or desirable to mae it into a t(eor" or a s"stem. For t(at
process -as rat(er a (indrance t(an an aid to practice. T(o!'( able
e3ponents o) t(e t(eor" presented t(emsel/es, t(e r!lin' bo!r'eoisie
assimilated onl" )ra'ments o) t(e teac(in'. From t(eir a!t(oritati/e
economists t(e" too a )e- con/enient do'mas, s!c( as t(e la- o) rent
and t(e -a'e )!nd, )or -eapons in t(eir enco!nters -it( land o-ners,
trade !nions and meddlin' p(ilant(ropists. T(eir political p(ilosop(ers
and la-"ers )!rnis(ed a little r(etoric abo!t )reedom o) contract,
personal ri'(ts and t(e limits o) le'islati/e and administrati/e
'o/ernment, -it( -(ic( t(e" eed o!t a con)ined b!t ser/iceable polic"
)or t(eir dealin's -it( t(e state. T(e lar'er comple3it" o) t(e
p(ilosop(ic radicalism ne/er entered t(e brains or (earts o) t(ese (ard
practical men -(o ne- -(at t(e" -anted and meant to 'et it. #/en
t(e simpler 'ospel o) &obden, -it( its 'lo- o) moral )er/or, (ad too
m!c( t(eor" in it to pro/e acceptable to more t(an a little (and)!l. ,is
lamentations o/er t(e desertion o) (is principles o) cosmopolitanism b"
t(e ma9orit" o) t(ose -(o (eard (im 'ladl" -(en (e led t(em to c(eap
)ood and prospero!s e3port trade, are an instr!cti/e testimon" to t(e
disinclination o) t(e ne- dominant class )or an" co(erent social
t(inin'. T(e )ate o) t(e socialistic doctrines t(at later in t(e cent!r"
displaced t(e mid-Victorian indi/id!alism -as /er" similar. Neit(er t(e
proletarian brand -(ic( +erman re/ol!tionists (ad man!)act!red )rom
t(e materials e3ported )rom t(is co!ntr" and ree3ported a 'eneration
later, nor t(e s!perior academic brand compo!nded o) 8o!ssea!,
,e'el and T.,. +reen, -(ic(, mi3ed -it( :e/onian economics,
no!ris(ed t(e "o!n' lions o) Fabianism, )o!nd an" -ide or deep
acceptance amon' an" class o) o!r people. T(is, o) co!rse, does not
impl" t(at t(e" -ere ne'li'ible as impellin' or directi/e )orces in t(e
political and economic mo/ements o) t(e a'e. For t(o!'( ideolo'ists
/astl" o/errate t(e 'eneral in)l!ence o) t(eir ideas and isms in
mo!ldin' (!man a))airs, t(e c!m!lati/e /al!e o) t(e partic!lar
t(o!'(ts and sentiments and e/en )orm!las -(ic( t(e" s!''est to
politicians, b!siness men and practical re)ormers, (as been
considerable e/en in #n'land, t(e co!ntr" least s!sceptible to t(e direct
and conscio!s '!idance o) ideas. C(at practical men tae )rom
t(eorists in 2ritain is pointers alon' roads t(at circ!mstances (a/e
alread" opened !p )or possible ad/ance. :!st as t(e t(eori6in' o) 0dam
Smit( and 8icardo, -orin' t(ro!'( t(e a'itation o) t(e anti-corn la-
lea'!ers, dro/e Deel and (is politicians into a piecemeal )ree trade, so
t(e ne- t(inin' on t(e positi/e )!nctions o) 'o/ernment led t(e
m!nicipal re)ormers o) t(e ei'(ties and nineties to tacle -it( more
con)idence t(eir 'as-and--ater-socialism and still later (elped to
remo/e some obstinate barriers to t(e de/elopment o) national ser/ices
)or (ealt(, ed!cation and ins!rance.
0lt(o!'( t(ere is a nat!ral tendenc" 9!st no- to o/erstress e/er"
antit(esis bet-een o!r -a"s and t(ose o) +erman", it cannot be denied
t(at a -ide di))erence (as e3isted in t(e operati/e )orce o) t(eories and
s"stems in t(e t-o co!ntries. T(e disposition and t(e (abit o) -orin'
)rom t(o!'(t-o!t p!rposes t(ro!'( plans to concrete arran'ements is
9!stl" cited as t(e pec!liar <!alit" o) Dr!ssian social cra)t, )rom t(e time
at least o) Stein and ,!mboldt on-ard. Nor is it b" an" means con)ined
to (i'( politics. T(e contrast -it( o!r -a"s is e/en more striin' in t(e
s!bsidiar" realms o) ed!cation, transport, credit, to-n plannin',
ins!rance and ind!strial str!ct!re. &ompare t(e de/elopment o) o!r
so-called rail-a" s"stem, o!r banin', t(e !nre'!lated spread o) o!r
'reat cities or t(e emer'ence o) o!r b!siness combines -it( t(ose o)
+erman". $!r -a" (as been t(at o) 'ropin' empiricism, not merel" not
belie/in' in t(eories and preconcerted plans b!t e/en disbelie/in' in
t(em. T(ere ma" at )irst si'(t seem to be an inconsistenc" bet-een t(is
/ie- o) o!r national -a" o) 'oin' on and t(e rationalistic error -(ic(
-e )o!nd at t(e root o) o!r )ail!re to !nderstand t(e state o) t(e -orld
in 191.. T(e contradiction, (o-e/er, is onl" apparent, )or at t(e root o)
o!r re)!sal to t(in t(in's o!t in ad/ance, to arran'e conscio!sl" t(e
)orces ade<!ate to attain a clearl" concei/ed end, is a sort o) (al) belie)
and (al) )eelin' t(at it doesn%t pa" to t(in t(in's o!t. $!r practice o)
taclin' di))ic!lties -(en t(e" come, impro/isin' -a"s o) o/ercomin'
t(em, and in 'eneral o) m!ddlin' t(ro!'(, -e reall" (old to be a so!nd
polic". Nor is t(is 9!d'ment or sentiment s(eer mental inertia or mere
inabilit" to t(in strai'(t or )ar. 4t dri/es do-n to t(at rationalism
-(ic( 4 (a/e identi)ied -it( practical m"sticism in a con/iction o) t(e
e3istence o) some order in (!man a))airs alon' t(e tide o) -(ic( -e
ma" reasonabl" allo- o!rsel/es to )loat -it( con)idence t(at some(o-
-e s(all reac( t(e (a/en -(ere -e -o!ld be. Ce are opport!nists on
principle. T(at principle implies belie) in a 'enerall" )a/orable dri)t or
tendenc", or e/en a Dro/idence !pon -(ic( -e ma" rel" to see !s
t(ro!'( and -(ic( dispenses -it( t(e obli'ation to practice m!c(
)oret(o!'(t. 4n 0merica t(is is called t(e doctrine o) mani)est destin".
2!t -e )eel t(at e/en to mae a conscio!s doctrine o) it inter)eres -it(
its spontaneit". T(e 'reat (istorical e3ample o) t(is -a" o) li)e is o!r
empire, ri'(tl" described as b!ilt !p in >a )it o) absence o) mind.? To
Te!tonic statecra)t s!c( a statement rans as s(eer ("pocris", b!t none
t(e less it is t(e tr!t(. 4ndi/id!al b!ilders t(ere (a/e been and bits o)
personal plannin', b!t ne/er (as t(e edi)ice o) empire presented itsel)
as an ob9ect o) polic" or e/en o) desire to o!r 'o/ernment or people. 4ts
'eneral p!rpose can be )o!nd onl" in terms o) dri)t or tendenc". 4t -ill
no do!bt be !r'ed t(at irrationalism is a more appropriate term t(an
rationalism to describe t(is state o) mind. 2!t m" point is t(at t(e state
o) mind implies t(e e3istence o) some immanent reason, in (istor"
-orin' to-ard (armon" and 9!sti)"in' optimism. 8eason in t(e
nat!re o) t(in's (appil" dispenses -it( t(e pain)!l toil o) clear
indi/id!al t(inin'.
T(ese 'eneral re)lections ma" (elp to e3plain t(e !ni/ersal s!rprise
at t(e collapse o) o!r -orld in 191.. For -(et(er -e re'ard t(e
t(eori6in' )e- or t(e man" content -it( practice, -e )ind no perception
o) t(e )ormidable nat!re o) t(e anta'onisms -(ic( )or se/eral
'enerations (ad been 'at(erin' stren't( )or open con)lict. #/en t(e
(istorical commentators o) toda", as t(e" s!r/e" and 'ro!p into 'eneral
mo/ements t(e lar'e (appenin's o) t(e nineteent( cent!r", o)ten
e3(ibit t(e same blindness -(ic( 4 (a/e imp!ted to t(e c!rrent
t(eorists. T(e smoot( bo!r'eois optimism -(ic( c(aracterised t(e
liberal t(iners o) t(e mid-cent!r" in t(eir c(ampions(ip o)
nationalism, parliamentar" instit!tions, broad )ranc(ise, )ree trade,
capitalistic ind!str" and internationalism, is discernible in t(e present-
da" interpreters o) t(ese mo/ements. Tae )or e3ample t(at -idest
stream o) political e/ents in #!rope desi'nated as t(e mo/ement )or
national sel)-'o/ernment. ,istorians distin'!is( its t-o c!rrents or
imp!lses, one main' )or national !nit" or 'o/ernment, t(e nation
state in its completeness, and anot(er seein' to establis( democratic
r!le -it(in t(e state. &orrect in re'ardin' t(is common )lo- and
tendenc" o) e/ents as o) pro)o!nd si'ni)icance, t(e" (a/e !s!all" o/er-
/al!ed t(e ac(ie/ements. $n t(e one (and, t(e" (a/e taen too )ormal
a /ie- o) t(e liberati/e processes -it( -(ic( t(e" deal, and, on t(e
ot(er, t(e" (a/e )ailed to appreciate t(e )la-s in t(e -orin' o) t(e so-
called democratic instit!tions.
T(e rei'n o) mac(iner", t(e o!t-ard and /isible si'n o) nineteent(-
cent!r" pro'ress, (as anne3ed o!r /er" minds and processes o)
t(inin'. ;ec(anical metap(ors (a/e secretl" imposed t(emsel/es
!pon o!r politics and s<!ee6ed o!t (!manit". T(at -illin' comm!nion
o) intelli'ence -(ic( s(o!ld constit!te a part" (as become in name and
in s!bstance a >mac(ine?= politics are >en'ineered?, and di/er'ent
interests are reconciled b" >balance o) po-er?. 4 s(o!ld be )ar )rom
describin' t(e 'reat nationalist mo/ement o) t(e nineteent( cent!r" as
mec(anical. 4t -as t(e prod!ct o) passionate ent(!siasms as -ell as o)
t(e pla" o) reasonable interests. T(e str!''le )or liberation on t(e part
o) s!b9ect nationalities and )or !ni)ication in t(e place o) di/ision broe
o!t in a do6en di))erent <!arters d!rin' t(e )irst (al) o) t(e cent!r", and
t(e t-o )ollo-in' decades sa- t(e mo/ement not indeed completed,
b!t bro!'(t to a lon' (alt in -(ic( splendid s!ccesses -ere recorded.
4n some cases, as in +erman" and to a less e3tent in 4tal", d"nastic,
militar", )iscal and transport considerations -ere po-er)!l propellers
to-ard !ni)ication. 2!t e/er"-(ere a 'en!inel" national sentiment,
based on a /ar"in' blend o) racial, reli'io!s, lin'!istic and territorial
comm!nit", 'a/e )orce and no!ris(ment to t(e ne- national str!ct!re.
4ts liberati/e and sel)-reali6in' /irt!es -ere not 'arnered in #!rope
alone. T(e )o!ndations o) t(e nation(ood o) o!r 'reat o/ersea
dominions -ere laid in t(e colonial polic" o) t(is epoc(, -(ile t(e
breain'-a-a" o) t(e Spanis(-0merican colonies )rom t(eir #!ropean
attac(ment ca!sed a 'reat e3pansion o) national sel)-'o/ernment in t(e
ne- -orld. 2!t nationalism, re'arded as t(e spirit and t(e practice o)
racial and territorial a!tonom", (as borne an e3ceedin'l" precario!s
relation to democrac". 4t (as been consistent -it( t(e t"ranno!s
domination o) a d"nast", a caste or class, -it(in t(e area o) t(e nation.
4ndeed at all times t(e spirit o) nationalit" (as been s!b9ect to
e3ploitation b" a dominant class )or t(e s!ppression o) internal
discontents and t(e de)ence o) pri/ile'es. Stein, ,ardenb!r', 2ismarc
and Treitsc(e !sed t(e ent(!siasm o) nationalism to )asten t(e )etters
o) a dominant Dr!ssian caste !pon t(e +ermanic peoples. T(e str!''les
)or t(e maintenance o) t(e reco/er" o) Dolis( and ,!n'arian national
independence -ere directed b" t(e r!lin' ambitions o) an oppressi/e
racial and economic oli'arc(".
Dro)essor 8amsa" ;!ir, in (is interestin' st!d" o) t(e relations
bet-een nationalit" and sel)-'o/ernment in t(e nineteent( cent!r",
'reatl" o/erstrains t(e act!al association o) t(e mo/ements. 4) sel)-
'o/ernment si'ni)ies, as it s(o!ld, t(e direct participation o) t(e -(ole
people in its 'o/ernment, t(o!'( some temporal coincidence appears,
t(ere is as m!c( anta'onism as s"mpat(" in t(e act!al operation o) t(e
t-o tendencies in modern (istor". Nationalism is !sed as o)ten to a/ert
as to )oster democrac". For alt(o!'( t(e appeal to t(e racial !nit" and
common spirit o) a people )or t(e assertion o) its inte'rit" and
independence m!st indisp!tabl" tend to aro!se in t(e common people
a di'nit" and a desire to (a/e a /oice in p!blic a))airs, t(e leaders(ip
and presti'e o) militar" or political c(ampions in t(e str!''le ma" o)ten
s!))ice to )oster or e3tort a ser/ile consent o) t(e 'o/erned as a )eeble
s!bstit!te )or democrac". 4ndeed, it is precisel" on t(is ne'ati/e
attrib!te t(at Dro)essor ;!ir relies -(en (e insists t(at >t(e land-
o-nin' aristocrac" o) t(e ei'(teent( cent!r" r!led 2ritain b" consent?
and t(at in 2ritain, France and 2el'i!m a)ter 1A30, t(e >e))ecti/e
pop!lar control o) a 'o/ernment -as (ence)ort( solidl" establis(ed.?
2!t t(e )ail!re o) a s!b9ect people or a s!b9ect class to re/olt a'ainst its
r!lers is no tr!e consent. Nor does t(e irre'!lar connection bet-een
nationalit" and parliamentar" 'o/ernment 'o )ar to-ard identi)"in'
nationalism -it( democrac" as t(e t"pical ac(ie/ement in t(e politics
o) t(e nineteent( cent!r". None o) t(e e3tensions o) t(e )ranc(ise in
2ritain in t(e nineteent( cent!r" sec!red )!ll and e))ecti/e sel)-
'o/ernment )or t(e people or e/en )or t(e enlar'ed electorate re'arded
as representati/e o) t(e people. ,istorians and politicians alie (a/e
decei/ed t(emsel/es and ot(ers b" a 'ra/e o/er-/al!ation o) mere
electoral mac(iner". Neit(er b" t(e pop!lari6ation o) t(e )ranc(ise nor
b" t(e less )ormal operation o) p!blic opinion (as t(e realit" o)
democratic 'o/ernment been sec!red. T(e po-er o) t(e aristo-
pl!tocrac", some-(at c(an'ed in composition and demandin' more
c!nnin' and discretion )or its s!ccess)!l operation, still stands
s!bstantiall" !nimpaired in 2ritain, France and 0merica. T(ro!'( t(e
or'ans o) p!blic opinion t(e 'o/ernin' )e- still p!mp do-n t(eir -ill
!pon t(e electorate, to dra- it !p a'ain -it( t(e )ormal endorsement o)
an !nreal 'eneral -ill or consent o) t(e 'o/erned.
T(e con/iction t(at political sec!rit" and pro'ress are made e))ecti/e
b" t(e !nion o) national independence and representati/e 'o/ernment
rests !pon a totall" de)ecti/e anal"sis, -(ic( -as responsible in no
small meas!re )or t(e )ail!re to )orecast and to pre/ent t(e collapse o)
191.. T(e nat!re o) t(e )la- in t(is reasonin' is slo- to become
apparent to t(e middle-class intelli'ence necessaril" approac(in'
p!blic a))airs -it( t(e prepossessions o) its class. Ce can best disco/er
it b" t!rnin' once more to t(e de)ects o) nationalism. T(e )irst -e (a/e
alread" indicated, viz., t(e masin' o) t(e interests or ambitions o) a
r!lin', o-nin', class or caste in t(e national mo/ement. Nationalism is
o)ten internall" oppressi/e. 2!t a second /ice bred o) str!''le and t(e
intensit" o) sel)-reali6ation is an e3cl!si/eness -(ic( easil" lends itsel)
to )iscal or militar" policies o) national de)ence, t(ro!'( -(ic(
dan'ero!s separatist interests are )ostered -it(in t(e national state.
T(e spirit o) nationalism, stim!lated b" t(e str!''le )or independence,
easil" becomes so sel)-centered as to mae its de/otees recless o) t(e
/ital interests o) t(e entire o!tside -orld. To 4ris( Nationalists,
&6ecoslo/as or Doles, t(is /ast -orld str!''le (as been apt to )i'!re
merel" or mainl" as t(eir 'reat opport!nit" )or t(e ac(ie/ement o) a
national aim to -(ic( t(e" are -illin' to sacri)ice -it(o!t a <!alm t(e
li/es, propert" and ri'(ts o) all ot(er peoples. T(is absorbin' passion,
lie ot(ers, is e3ploited )or /ario!s ends and is t(e spirit!al s!stenance
o) t(e protectionism t(at al-a"s brin's 'rist to t(e commercial mill.
2!t t(ere is a t(ird de)ect o) nationalism, o) t(e nat!re o) e3cess. 4t ma"
become in)lated and e3press itsel) in political and territorial
a''randi6ement. 4mperialism is nationalism r!n riot and t!rned )rom
sel)-possession to a''ression. No modern nation can p!rs!e a polic" o)
isolation. 4t m!st (a/e )orei'n relations, and its )orei'n polic" ma"
become >spirited?, passin' ras(l" into sc(emes o) con<!est and
anne3ation.
T(ese t(ree per/ersions o) nationalism, t(e oppressi/e, t(e e3cl!si/e
and t(e a''ressi/e, are all 'ro!nded in t(e domination o) a nation b" a
predominant class or set o) interests. T(is class po-er is rooted o)ten in
traditional presti'e, b!t t(is presti'e itsel) rests !pon solid economic
s!pports. 1andlordism and ser)dom, capitalism and -a'edom,
mone"lendin' and indebtedness B s!c( (a/e been t(e distincti/e
clea/a'es -(ic( (a/e so o)ten made a mocer" o) t(e boasted national
)reedom.
4) -e t!rn )rom t(is s!r/e" o) nineteent(-cent!r" nationalism to a
consideration o) t(e democratic mo/ement -it( -(ic( it (as been
associated, -e disco/er t(at >democrac"? is /itiated b" t(e same
de)ects. 4t eit(er si'ni)ies parliamentarism !pon an !tterl" inade<!ate
)ranc(ise, b" -(ic( t(e ma9orit" o) t(e 'o/erned (a/e no electoral
/oice, or else t(e )ormal 'o/ernment b" t(e people is a mac(ine
controlled )or all essential p!rposes b" small po-er)!l 'ro!ps and
interests. Dolitical democrac" based !pon economic e<!alit" is as "et an
!nat-tained ideal.
T(e liberal political p(ilosop(" o) t(e Victorian era )ailed entirel" to
compre(end t(is /ital )la- in t(e mo/ement o) nationalism and
democrac". T(at )ail!re -as c(ie)l" ca!sed b" its !nderl"in'
ass!mption t(at politics and b!siness are independent sp(eres.
0ccordin' to t(is /ie- it -as as illicit )or b!siness interests to (andle
politics as )or 'o/ernment to encroac( !pon b!siness interests. S!c(
inter)erence )rom eit(er side appeared !nnecessar" and in9!rio!s. 4t
-as not percei/ed t(at t(e e/ol!tion o) modern ind!str", commerce
and )inance (ad t-o important bearin's !pon politics. 4n t(e )irst
place, it impelled b!siness interests to e3ercise political press!re !pon
'o/ernment )or tari)) aids, l!crati/e p!blic contracts and )a/orable
access to )orei'n marets and areas o) de/elopment. Secondl", it
e/oed a 'ro-in' demand )or t(e protection o) -eaer ind!stries, t(e
-orers and t(e cons!min' p!blic, )rom t(e oppressi/e po-er o) stron'
corporations and combinations -(ic( in man" o) t(e essential trades
-ere displacin' competition.
4n ot(er -ords, (istor" -as pla"in' (a/oc -it( t(e economic
(armonies !pon -(ic( 2astiat and &obden relied )or t(e peace)!l and
)r!it)!l cooperation o) capital and labor -it(in t(e nation and o)
commerce bet-een t(e di))erent co!ntries o) t(e -orld. &obden
/aliantl" assailed t(e militarism, protectionism and imperialism o) (is
da" and reco'ni6ed t(eir a))init" o) spirit and certain o) t(eir common
b!siness aims, b!t -it(o!t an" )!ll perception o) t(eir economic
taproot or o) t(e rapid domination o/er )orei'n polic" -(ic( t(e" -ere
soon destined to attain. T(e 'ra/e social-economic problems -(ic(
(a/e latel" loomed so lar'e in t(e statecra)t o) e/er" co!ntr" la" t(en
!nreco'ni6ed. T(ro!'(o!t t(e lon' p!blic career o) t-o s!c( 'en!inel"
liberal statesmen as &obden and +ladstone neit(er e/inced t(e
sli'(test reco'nition t(at t(e state (ad an" interest or obli'ation in
respect o) t(e (ealt( and (o!sin', t(e -a'es, (o!rs and ten!re o)
emplo"ment, t(e settlement o) iss!es bet-een capital and labor, or in
an" drastic re)orms o) o!r )e!dal land s"stem. So )ar as t(e" reco'ni6ed
t(ese economic 'rie/ances at all, t(e" deemed indi/id!al or pri/atel"-
associated e))ort to be t(e proper and ade<!ate mode o) redress. C(ere
'o/ernment -as called !pon to inter/ene )or liberati/e or constr!cti/e
-or, t(e s!per)icialit" o) its treatment s(o-ed a <!ite ab"smal
i'norance o) social str!ct!re. 0 'eneration in -(ic( t(e 0rtisans
*-ellin' 0ct o) 1A75, t(e +ro!nd +ame and Small ,oldin's 0ct o) t(e
earl" ei'(ties and t(e )actor" acts o) 1A70 and 1A7A raned as serio!s
contrib!tions to a ne- social polic", is sel)-condemned )or !tter
incapacit" to see, m!c( less to sol/e, t(e social problem. S!c( statecra)t
)ailed to percei/e t(at t(e ne- conditions o) modern capitalist trade
and )inance (ad poisoned t(e policies o) nationalit" and democratic
sel)-'o/ernment and -ere breedin' anta'onisms t(at -o!ld brin' class
-ar -it(in eac( nation and international -ar in its train.
Not !ntil t(e ei'(ties did t(ese anta'onisms be'in to become e/ident
to t(ose -it( e"es to see. *!rin' t(e period )rom 1A50 to 1AA0 2ritain
still remained so )ar a(ead o) ot(er co!ntries in (er ind!strial
de/elopment, (er )orei'n trade, (er s(ippin' and (er )inance, t(at s(e
entertained no )ears o) serio!s ri/alr". T(o!'( o!r marets and t(ose
o) o!r -orld--ide empire -ere )ormall" open !pon e<!al terms to
)orei'n merc(ants, o!r traders (eld t(e )ield, and 2ritis( enterprise and
capital met little competition in #!ropean marets or in loans )or t(e
'reat railroad de/elopment in Nort( and So!t( 0merica. Not !ntil t(e
ind!strial co!ntries o) t(e &ontinent (ad reconstit!ted t(eir ind!stries
!pon 2ritis( models and (ad )!rnis(ed t(emsel/es -it( steam
transport, -(ile t(e Enited States, reco/ered )rom t(e &i/il Car, -as
ad/ancin' rapidl" alon' t(e same road, -as an" c(ec p!t !pon t(e
optimism -(ic( (eld t(at #n'land -as desi'ned b" Dro/idence to be
t(e abidin' -ors(op o) t(e -orld. T(ro!'(o!t t(e mid-Victorian era
o!r economists and social prop(ets, -it( a )e- e3ceptions, -ere
satis)ied -it( a national prosperit" and pro'ress -(ic( enric(ed
b!siness classes, -(ile t(e le/el o) com)ort amon' t(e silled artisans
s(o-ed a considerable and )airl" constant rise.
4nternall", t(e economic (armon" appeared, at an" rate to -ell-to-do
obser/ers, to be 9!sti)ied b" e/ents. #3ternall", t(ere seemed no reason
)or s!spectin' an" 'at(erin' con)lict )rom t(e )act t(at one 'reat nation
a)ter anot(er -as enterin' !pon t(e pat( o) ind!strial capitalism. C("
s(o!ld t(e risin' prod!cti/it" and trade o) +erman", t(e Enited States
and ot(er de/elopin' nations be an" so!rce o) enmit" or in9!r" to !s5
T(e economic (armonies -ere clear in t(eir insistence t(at )ree
interco!rse -o!ld brin' abo!t an international di/ision o) labor as
pro)itable to all t(e participatin' nations as t(e similar di/ision o) labor
-it(in eac( nation -as to its indi/id!al members. 4t -as impossible )or
t(e -orld to prod!ce too m!c( -ealt( or to prod!ce it too rapidl" )or
t(e satis)action o) t(e e3pandin' -ants o) its c!stomers. Foolis(
persons prated o) o/er-prod!ction and pointed to rec!rrent periods o)
trade depression and !nemplo"ment. 2!t t(e (armonists sa- not(in'
in t(ese p(enomena b!t s!c( )riction, miscalc!lation and
malad9!stment as -ere in/ol/ed in t(e processes o) str!ct!ral c(an'e
and t(e elasticit" o) marets. 0s a noted economist o) t(e ei'(ties p!t
it, >t(e modern s"stem o) ind!str" -ill not -or -it(o!t a mar'in o)
!nemplo"ment.?
0ll t(e same, se/eral notable occ!rrences in t(e ei'(ties r!))led t(e
complacenc" o) mid-Victorian optimism. $ne -as t(e re/elation o) t(e
massed po/ert" and de'radation o) t(e sl!m-d-ellers in o!r to-ns and
t(e searc(li'(t t!rned !pon -orin'-class conditions in t(is and ot(er
lands b" t(e competin' criticisms o) ,enr" +eor'e and t(e ne-l"
)ormed Socialist or'ani6ations. T(e second -as t(e rise in t(e Enited
States o) t(ose tr!sts and ot(er )ormidable combinations, -(ic(
emer'ed as t(e c!lmination and t(e cancellation o) t(at competition
!pon -(ic( t(e (armonists relied )or t(e sal!tar" operation o) t(eir
economic la-s. T(e t(ird did not ass!me at )irst si'(t an economic
)ace. 4t -as t(e testimon" to competin' imperialism )!rnis(ed b" t(e
2erlin &on)erence )or t(e partition o) &entral 0)rica. T(is -as t(e )irst
intimation to t(e -orld o) a ne- ri/alr" t(e tr!e nat!re o) -(ic( la"
lon' concealed !nder t(e 'arb o) )orei'n polic" and -as at t(e time b"
no means plain to t(e statesmen -(o -ere its e3ec!tants.
4mperialism is not, indeed, a simple polic" -it( a sin'le moti/e. 4t is
compact o) political ambition, militar" ad/ent!re, p(ilant(ropic and
missionar" enterprise and s(eer e3pansionism, partl" )or settlement,
partl" )or po-er, partl" )or le'itimate and materiall" 'ain)!l trade. 2!t
more and more, as t(e -(ite man%s -orld (as been occ!pied and
coloni6ed, t(e a''randi6in' instincts (a/e t!rned to t(ose tropical and
s!btropical co!ntries -(ere 'en!ine -(ite coloni6ation is impossible
and -(ere ric( nat!ral reso!rces and s!bmissi/e bac-ard peoples
present t(e opport!nit" o) a ne- and distincti/el" economic empire.
Since t(e compellin' press!re )or t(is 'reed o) empire (as been t(e
main so!rce o) t(e 'ro-in' discord in t(e modern -orld, it is o) t(e
!tmost importance to !nderstand (o- t(e discord rises and to see its
or'anic relation to t(e class -ar -it(in t(e se/eral nations -(ic( (as
'ro-n contemporaneo!sl" -it( it. 4) modern ind!strial societ" -ere
closel" con)ormable to t(e economic (armonies, t(e mobilit" and
competition o) capital and b!siness abilit" -o!ld ens!re t(at no lar'er
s(are o) t(e prod!ct s(o!ld be obtained b" t(e o-ners o) t(ose
prod!cti/e a'ents t(an ser/ed to promote t(eir !s!al 'ro-t( and
e))icienc", and t(at t(e s!rpl!s o) t(e )r!its o) ind!str" s(o!ld pass to
t(e 'eneral bod" o) t(e -orin' pop!lation in t(eir capacit" o) -a'e
earners and cons!mers, t(ro!'( t(e instr!mentalit" o) (i'( -a'es and
lo- prices. &ombinations o) -orers -o!ld be needless and
misc(ie/o!s, )or t(e" co!ld not increase t(e a''re'ate t(at -o!ld )all to
labor, and t(e 'ains t(e" mi'(t sec!re )or stron'er 'ro!ps o) -orers
-o!ld be at t(e e3pense o) t(e -eaer sections. 4t -as to t(e interest o)
labor t(at capital and b!siness abilit" s(o!ld be -ell rem!nerated, in
order t(at t(e increase o) sa/in's and o) t(e -a'e )!nd s(o!ld be as
lar'e as possible, and t(at t(e arts o) in/ention and b!siness enterprise
s(o!ld be stim!lated to t(e !tmost. For labor -as t(e resid!ar" le'atee
o) t(is )r!it)!l cooperation. 4t -as, a'ain, a mani)est impossibilit" t(at
prod!ction s(o!ld o!tstrip cons!mption, )or somebod" (ad a lien !pon
e/er"t(in' t(at -as prod!ced, and t(e -ants o) men -ere illimitable.
T(!s e))ecti/e demand m!st eep pace -it( e/er" increase o) s!ppl".
T(e notion t(at members o) t(e same trade -ere (ostile competitors, in
t(e sense t(at t(ere -as not eno!'( maret to 'o ro!nd, and t(at, i)
some sold t(eir 'oods, ot(ers -o!ld )ail to sell, seemed a palpable
abs!rdit".
7et it -as precisel" t(ese impossibilities and abs!rdities t(at asserted
t(emsel/es as dominant )acts in t(e operation o) modern capitalist
b!siness. #/er" b!siness man ne- )rom e3perience t(at a c(ronic
tendenc" to prod!ce more 'oods t(an co!ld pro)itabl" be sold pre/ailed
o/er lar'e )ields o) ind!str", t(at t(e -(eels o) ind!str" (ad )re<!entl"
and )or lon' periods to be slo-ed do-n in order to pre/ent o/er-
prod!ction, and t(at more and more -or, mone", )orce and sill (ad
to be p!t into t(e sellin' as distin'!is(ed )rom t(e prod!cti/e side o)
b!siness. #/er" instr!cted -orer ne- t(at -ealt( -as not in )act
distrib!ted in accordance -it( t(e economic (armonies, t(at m!c( o) it
st!c in t(e )orm o) rent and ot(er !nearned or e3cessi/e pa"ments )or
-ell-placed capital and brains, and t(at t(e 'reat 'ains o) t(e tec(nical
impro/ements did not come do-n to >t(e resid!al le'atee?. C(ere )ree
competition s!r/i/ed, it became c!t-t(roat, leadin' to !nrem!n-erati/e
prices, con'ested marets and )re<!ent stoppa'es= -(en e))ecti/e
combination too its place, restricted o!tp!t and re'!lated prices
operated bot( in restraint o) prod!ction and in t(e emer'ence o)
monopol". D!t ot(er-ise, t(e -eaer bar'ainin' po-er o) labor, pitted
a'ainst t(e s!perior material reso!rces, or'ani6ation, no-led'e and
ot(er strate'ic ad/anta'es o) t(e land-o-nin', capitalistic and
entreprene!r classes, le)t t(e )ormer -it( an e))ecti/e demand )or
commodities too small to p!rc(ase t(e prod!cts o) t(e mac(ine
ind!stries as )ast as t(ese -ere capable o) pro/idin' t(em. T(e (abit!al
!nder-cons!mption o) t(e -orers, d!e to t(e massin' o) !nearned or
e3cessi/e income in t(e (ands o) t(e master classes, (as been t(e
plainest testimon" to t(e realit" o) t(at anta'onism o) interests -it(in
eac( nation -(ic( is dramati6ed as >class -ar?. No smoot( tal abo!t
t(e real identit" o) interests bet-een capital and labor disposes o) t(e
iss!e. 0 real identit" does e3ist -it(in certain limits. 4t does not pa"
capitalists, emplo"ers, lando-ners or ot(er stron' bar'ainers to dri/e
do-n -a'es belo- t(e le/el o) e))icienc". Nor does it pa" labor, e/en
s(o!ld it possess t(e po-er, to )orce do-n >pro)its > belo- -(at is
re<!ired, !nder t(e e3istin' arran'ements, to maintain a 'ood )lo- o)
capital and tec(nical and b!siness abilit" into a trade. 2!t -(ere/er t(e
state o) trade is s!c( as to "ield a ret!rn more t(an eno!'( to co/er
t(ese minim!m pro/isions, t(e s!rpl!s is a real >bone o) contention?
and lies entirel" o!tside t(e economic (armonies. 4t 'oes to t(e
stron'er part" as t(e spoils o) act!al or potential class -ar. Stries and
loco!ts are not t(e -(oll" irrational and -aste)!l actions t(e" appear
at )irst si'(t. 4n de)a!lt o) an" more reasonable or e<!itable -a" o)
distrib!tin' t(e s!rpl!s amon' t(e claimants, t(e" ran as a nat!ral
and necessar" process. ,o-e/er m!c( -e ma" deplore class -ar, it is to
t(is e3tent a realit" and does testi)" to an e3istin' class anta'onism
inside o!r social-economic s"stem.
4 (a/e alread" e3plained b" implication (o- t(is in(erent
anta'onism o) classes contains t(e seeds o) t(e -ider anta'onism o)
states and 'o/ernments. T(e maldistrib!tion o) -ealt(, -(ic( eeps
t(e cons!min' po-er o) t(e people persistentl" belo- t(e prod!cin'
po-er o) mac(ine ind!str", impels t(e controllers o) t(at ind!str" to
direct more and more o) t(eir ener'" to sec!rin' )orei'n marets to
tae t(e 'oods t(e" cannot sell at (ome and to pre/ent prod!cers in
ot(er co!ntries, con)ronted -it( t(e same necessit", )rom enterin'
t(eir (ome maret ,ere is a sim!ltaneo!s dri/e )or 'o/ernmental aidF
)irst, in protectin' t(e (ome maret )rom t(e in/asion o) )orei'n 'oods=
secondl", in ind!cin' or coercin' t(e 'o/ernments o) )orei'n co!ntries
to admit o!r 'oods into t(eir maret on more )a/orable terms t(an
t(ose o) ot(er competin' co!ntries. ,ence arise t(ree policies, all
pre'nant -it( international anta'onism. T(e protection, adopted
primaril" in order to sec!re (ome trade and eep o!t t(e )orei'ner, is a
constant breeder o) dissension amon' peoples and 'o/ernments. 4ts
secondar" e))ect, to assist stron' combinations -it(in a co!ntr" to sti)le
)ree competition and b" imposin' (i'( prices to increase t(e /ol!me o)
s!rpl!s pro)it, )!rt(er a''ra/ates t(e maldistrib!tion o) t(e national
income, -(ic( -e reco'ni6e as t(e mot(er o) discord. For t(is
increased s!rpl!s means a )!rt(er restriction o) internal cons!mption
and a correspondin' press!re )or enlar'ed )orei'n o!tlets. ;ore and
more m!st t(e capitalist classes in eac( ind!striall" ad/anced co!ntr"
press t(eir 'o/ernments )or protection at (ome and a po-er)!l
ba'man%s polic" abroad.
Drotection, (o-e/er, is onl" t(e )irst plan in t(is plat)orm. T(e
second is diplomatic and ot(er press!re bro!'(t to bear on -eaer
states )or tradin' pri/ile'es or special sp(eres o) commercial interests,
as in &(ina and Dersia, or )or t(e en)orcement o) debt pa"ment or ot(er
b!siness arran'ements in -(ic( pri/ate traders or in/estors demand
redress )or in9!ries. T(is last consideration introd!ces t(e t(ird and b"
)ar t(e most important ca!se o) international discord. T(e s!rpl!s
income !nder modern capitalism, it m!st be reco'ni6ed, cannot be
absorbed in e3tendin' t(e prod!cti/e mac(iner" needed to s!ppl" o!r
(ome marets. Nor can it )ind )!ll rem!nerati/e occ!pation in t(e
s!ppl" o) )orei'n marets, eit(er !nder t(e condition o) )ree
competition -it( e3porters )rom ot(er co!ntries or b" s!c( tradin'
pri/ile'es as t(ose to -(ic( -e (a/e all!ded. 0n increasin' proportion
o) t(at s!rpl!s income m!st be permanentl" in/ested in ot(er
co!ntries. T(is (as been t(e most important )actor in t(e economic and
political trans)ormation o) t(e >-orld d!rin' t(e last 'eneration. Ender
t(e direction o) silled )inanciers an increasin' )lo- o) s!rpl!s or
sa/in's (as 'one abo!t t(e -orld, nocin' at e/er" door o) pro)itable
in/estment and !sin' 'o/ernmental press!re -(ere/er it -as
necessar". Special rail-a", minin' or land concessions, loans pressed
!pon state 'o/ernments or m!nicipalities or in bac-ard co!ntries
!pon in'lets or tribal c(ie)s, t(e pe''in' o!t o) permanentl" pro)itable
staes in )orei'n lands B t(ese met(ods (a/e been emplo"ed b" stron'
b!siness s"ndicates e/er"-(ere -it( more or less s!pport )rom t(eir
'o/ernment. S!c( areas, at )irst penetrated b" pri/ate b!siness
enterprise, soon ac<!ire a political si'ni)icance, -(ic( 'ro-s alon' a
slidin' scale o) slipper" lan'!a'e )rom >sp(eres o) le'itimate
aspiration? to >sp(eres o) in)l!ence?, protectorates and colonial
possessions. No-, 9!st as t(ere are not eno!'( (ome marets )or 'oods
or capital to tae !p t(e trade >s!rpl!s?, so t(ere is )o!nd to be not
eno!'( -orld maret )or t(e 'ro-in' press!re o) -orld capital seein'
t(ese o!tside areas o) in/estment and t(e marets -(ic( 'o -it( t(em.
;ore and more t(is press!re o) )inanciers )or pro)itable )orei'n )ields
(as pla"ed in -it( t(e political ambitions o) statesmen to mae t(e
in)lammator" composition o) modern imperialism. T(is imperialism is
t(!s seen to be t(e close con'ener o) t(e capitalism and protectionism
t(at are t(e roots o) class anta'onism -it(in t(e se/eral nations. C(ile
it no!ris(es 9ealo!sies, s!spicions and (ostilities bet-een nations, it
also stren't(ens t(e master classes in e/er" nation b" )or'in' t(e 9oint
political and economic -eapons o) protection and militarism and
crossin' and so con)!sin' t(e class anta'onism b" mas<!eradin' as
>nationalism?. G!ite plainl" t(e imperialist or capitalist sa"s to t(e
-orerF >&ome in -it( !s in o!r 'reat imperialistic e3ploitation o) t(e
-orld. T(is is t(e onl" -a" o) sec!rin' t(e lar'e, e3pandin' and
rem!nerati/e marets necessar" to )!rnis( )!ll, re'!lar emplo"ment at
(i'( -a'es. &ome in -it( !s and s(are an illimitable s!rpl!s, 'ot not
)rom !nder-pa"in' "o! b!t o!t o) t(e !ntapped reso!rces o) t(e tropics
-ored )or o!r 9oint bene)it b" t(e lo-er races.? T(is in/itation to
-(olesale parasitism is openl" )la!nted b" s!c( bodies as t(e 4mperial
*e/elopment 8eso!rces &ommittee and is more timidl" s!''ested in
/ario!s ne- pro9ects )or (armoni6in' t(e interests o) capital and labor
on t(e basis o) t(e de/elopment o) capitalistic combinations. Cere it
s!ccess)!l, it -o!ld do not(in' to (eal t(e discord eit(er bet-een
capital and labor in t(is co!ntr" or bet-een t(e di/er'ent interests o)
capitalist 'ro!ps in t(e se/eral co!ntries. Na", e/en i) it -ere e3tended
b" some international concert o) -estern capitalist po-ers to a more or
less complete control o) t(e tropics, it -o!ld onl" enlar'e t(e area o)
discord b" arra"in' t(e r!lin' nations o) t(e -orld a'ainst t(e lo-er
races -(om t(e" (ad set to 'rind o!t -ealt( to be taen )or t(e
masters% cons!mption.
4 m!st not, (o-e/er, carr" )!rt(er at t(is sta'e t(is spec!lati/e 'lance
into t(e possible )!t!re. For -(at concerns !s (ere is to !nderstand t(e
so!rces o) t(e blindness -(ic( ca!sed t(e -ar to brea !pon !s as a
(orrible s!rprise. 4 desire (ere to s(o- t(at t(is blindness la" in a deep-
seated misappre(ension o) t(e dominant mo/ements o) t(e cent!r"
and partic!larl" o) t(e latest o!tcomes o) per/erted nationalism and
capitalism in t(eir 9oint reactions !pon )orei'n relations.
Ce (a/e seen t(ese t-o dominant )orces emer'in' and mo!ldin' t(e
co!rse o) act!al e/ents. Nationalism and capitalism in secret
con9!nction prod!ced independent, armed and opposed po-ers -it(in
eac( co!ntr", claimin' and -ieldin' a paramo!ntc", political, social
and economic, -it(in t(e nation and -orin' )or )!rt(er e3pansion
o!tside. T(is competition o) -(at ma" )airl" be called capitalist states,
e/ol/in' modern )orms o) militarism and protectionism, laid t(e
po-der trains. T(e dramatic antit(esis o) a''ressi/e a!tocracies and
paci)ic democracies in recent (istor" is )alse, and t(e )ail!re to discern
t(is )alse(ood e3plains t(e 'reat s!rprise. No-(ere (ad t(e conditions
o) a paci)ic democrac" been establis(ed. #/er"-(ere an in)lamed and
a''randi6in' nationalism (ad placed t(e 'ro-in' po-ers o) an absol!te
state Habsol!te alie in its demands !pon its citi6ens and in its attit!de
to ot(er statesI at t(e disposal o) po-er)!l oli'arc(ies, directed in t(eir
operations mainl" b" clear-si'(ted b!siness men, !sin' t(e political
mac(iner" o) t(eir co!ntr" )or t(e )!rt(erance o) t(eir pri/ate interests.
T(is b" no means implies t(at states are e<!all" a''ressi/e, e<!all"
absol!te and e<!all" s!sceptible to b!siness control. Still less does it
impl" t(at in t(e immediate ca!sation o) t(e -ar conscio!s economic
con)licts o) interests -ere t(e e))icient ca!ses, or t(at direct ca!sal
responsibilit" is to be distrib!ted e<!all" amon' t(e belli'erent 'ro!ps.
4ndeed, t(e acco!nt o) nineteent(-cent!r" mo/ements (ere presented,
i) correct, e3plains -(" t(e +erman State became more absol!tist in its
claims and po-ers t(an ot(er states, more conscio!sl" a''ressi/e in its
e3ternal polic" and in recent "ears more de)initel" occ!pied -it(
economic considerations. 4ts 'eo'rap(ical position, its mea're access to
t(e sea, its rapid recent career o) ind!strialism, its 'ro-in' need o)
)orei'n marets and its late entrance !pon t(e str!''le )or empire, all
contrib!ted to s(arpen t(e sense o) anta'onism in +erman statecra)t
and to mae it more a''ressi/e. T(e press!res )or )orcible e3pansion
-ere necessaril" stron'er in t(is pent-!p nation t(an in t(ose -(ic(
en9o"ed in a literal sense >t(e )reedom o) t(e seas? and lar'e
dependencies )or occ!pation, 'o/ernment, trade priorit" and
capitalistic e3ploitation. T(e r!t(less realism o) +erman statecra)t, its
(abit!al and s!ccess)!l reliance !pon militar" )orce, t(e to!'( strain o)
)e!dal t"rann" and ser/it!de, s!r/i/in' in t(e spirit o) Dr!ssian
instit!tions, ser/ed to mae +erman" in a <!ite pec!liar de'ree t(e
center o) discord alie in its internal and its e3ternal polit". 4n t(e
nation -(ere ;ar3 and 2ismarc (ad stamped t(eir teac(in' so
)orcibl" !pon t(e 'eneral mind, no 'reat )ait( in t(e economic
(armonies and paci)ic internationalism co!ld be e3pected to s!r/i/e.
To t(ese distincti/el" realistic )orces m!st be added t(e s!btler b!t not
less si'ni)icant contrib!tions o) ,e'el and *ar-in, -orin' alon'
-idel" di))erent c(annels to 'i/e a >scienti)ic? s!pport to political
a!tocrac", economic domination and an absol!tist state stri/in' to
en)orce its -ill in a -orld o) ri/al states contendin' )or s!r/i/al and
s!premac". $!t o) t(at de/il%s bre- -ere concocted t(e (ead" doctrines
o) Treitsc(e and (is sc(ool, to -(ose ed!cati/e in)l!ences s!c(
e3tra/a'ant importance is attac(ed b" t(ose -(o see to represent t(e
-(ole +erman nation as pri/" to a lon'-preconcerted plan )or -ar. T(at
lar'e romantic- t(eories, claimin' scienti)ic or p(ilosop(ical a!t(orit",
(a/e (ad, especiall" in +erman", a considerable in)l!ence in disposin'
t(e ed!cated members o) t(e r!lin' and possessin' classes to accept
policies o) )orce in t(e internal and e3ternal acts o) 'o/ernment t(at
seemed )a/orable to t(eir interests and presti'e, t(ere can be no do!bt.
Ce no- also t(at in +erman" and else-(ere amon' t(e class-
conscio!s leaders o) socialist and labor mo/ements a sort o) semi-
scienti)ic sanction )or t(e !se o) /iolence in a class -ar t(at -as an
ine/itable p(ase in t(e e/ol!tion o) a >ne-? societ" -as based !pon t(e
same biolo'ical misconception.
2!t -e m!st not be misled b" ideolo'ists or (eated pamp(leteers
into imp!tin' an e3cessi/e /al!e to t(ese t(eories re'arded as act!al
)orces in cond!ct. Cere t(is /al!e -(at it is pretended in some
<!arters, t(e -ar -o!ld not (a/e come as a s!rprise. 4t -o!ld (a/e
been e3pected. T(e -ide pre/alence o) doctrines o) >)orce?, ri/alr" o)
nations and str!''le )or s!r/i/al on a basis o) social e))icienc", -ere not
in an" real sense determinant )actors in brin'in' abo!t t(e -ar. Nor
did t(e" do more t(an miti'ate in more re)lectin' minds t(e pro)o!nd
astonis(ment -(ic( accompanied t(e o!tbrea o) -ar. T(e reall"
operati/e ca!ses -ere t(e deep anta'onism o) interest and )eelin'
-(ic( t(is anal"sis (as disclosed or, con/ersel", t(e )eebleness o) t(e
sa)e'!ards a'ainst -ar !pon -(ic( liberal and (!mane t(iners (ad
relied, viz., economic internationalism, democrac" and t(e restricted
)!nctions o) t(e state.

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