Srinivasa Ramanujan

Srnivsa Rmnujan Iyengar FRS, better known as Srinivasa Ramanujan (Tamil: ) (22
December 1887 26 Aril 1!2") was a le#en$ar% &n$ian mat'ematician,
(1)
w'o, wit' almost no *ormal trainin# in
+re mat'ematics, ma$e s+bstantial contrib+tions to mat'ematical anal%sis, n+mber t'eor%, in*inite series an$
contin+e$ *ractions,
-orn an$ raise$ in .ro$e, Tamil /a$+, &n$ia, Raman+0an *irst enco+ntere$ *ormal mat'ematics at a#e 1", 1e
$emonstrate$ a nat+ral abilit%, an$ was #i2en books on a$2ance$ tri#onometr% b% S 3 3one%,
(2)
1e 'a$ mastere$
t'em b% a#e 14, an$ e2en $isco2ere$ t'eorems o* 'is own, 1e $emonstrate$ +n+s+al mat'ematical skills at sc'ool,
winnin# accola$es an$ awar$s, -% 17, Raman+0an con$+cte$ 'is own mat'ematical researc' on -erno+lli n+mbers
an$ t'e .+ler5asc'eroni constant, 1e recei2e$ a sc'olars'i to st+$% at 6o2ernment 7olle#e in 8+mbakonam, b+t
lost it w'en 'e *aile$ 'is non9mat'ematical co+rsework, 1e 0oine$ anot'er colle#e to +rs+e in$een$ent
mat'ematical researc', workin# as a clerk in t'e Acco+ntant96eneral:s o**ice at t'e 5a$ras ;ort Tr+st <**ice to
s+ort 'imsel*,
(1)
&n 1!1291!14, 'e sent samles o* 'is t'eorems to t'ree aca$emics at t'e =ni2ersit% o* 7ambri$#e,
<nl% 6, 1, 1ar$% reco#ni>e$ t'e brilliance o* 'is work, s+bse?+entl% in2itin# Raman+0an to st+$% +n$er 'im at
7ambri$#e,
D+rin# 'is s'ort li*etime, Raman+0an in$een$entl% comile$ nearl% 4!"" res+lts (mostl% i$entities an$ e?+ations),
(4)
Alt'o+#' a small n+mber o* t'ese res+lts were act+all% *alse an$ some were alrea$% known, most o* 'is claims 'a2e
now been ro2en correct,
(@)
1e state$ res+lts t'at were bot' ori#inal an$ 'i#'l% +ncon2entional, s+c' as t'e
Raman+0an rime an$ t'e Raman+0an t'eta *+nction, an$ t'ese 'a2e insire$ a 2ast amo+nt o* *+rt'er researc',
(A)
1owe2er, some o* 'is ma0or $isco2eries 'a2e been rat'er slow to enter t'e mat'ematical mainstream, Recentl%,
Raman+0an:s *orm+lae 'a2e *o+n$ alications in cr%stallo#ra'% an$ strin# t'eor%, T'e Ramanujan Journal, an
international +blication, was la+nc'e$ to +blis' work in all areas o* mat'ematics in*l+ence$ b% 'is work,
(6)
Hardy-Ramanujan Number 1729
T'e smallest nontri2ial n+mber, i,e,, t'e smallest n+mber reresentable in two wa%s as a s+m o* two c+bes, &t is #i2en
b% 172!
1729 = 1
3
+ 12
3
= 9
3
+ 10
3
.
Also, 172! is t'e ro$+ct o* 4 rime n+mbers:
1729 = 1
3
+ 12
3
= 9
3
+ 10
3
= 7 * 13 * 19.
T'e lar#est known s+c' n+mber ($isco2ere$ 12B1!B2""4 A:A6:A1am b% br+te *orce) is:
885623890831 = 7511
3
+ 7730
3
= 8759
3
+ 5978
3
= 3943 * 14737 * 15241.
Other mathematicians' views of Ramanujan
Raman+0an is #enerall% 'aile$ as an all9time #reat mat'ematician, like 3eon'ar$ .+ler, 7arl Frie$ric' 6a+ss, an$
7arl 6+sta2 Cacob Cacobi, *or 'is nat+ral mat'ematical #eni+s,
(8@)
6, 1, 1ar$% ?+otes: DT'e limitations o* 'is
knowle$#e were as startlin# as its ro*+n$it%, 1ere was a man w'o co+l$ work o+t mo$+lar e?+ations an$ t'eorems,,,
to or$ers +n'ear$ o*, w'ose master% o* contin+e$ *ractions was,,, be%on$ t'at o* an% mat'ematician in t'e worl$,
w'o 'a$ *o+n$ *or 'imsel* t'e *+nctional e?+ation o* t'e >eta *+nction an$ t'e $ominant terms o* man% o* t'e most
*amo+s roblems in t'e anal%tic t'eor% o* n+mbersE an$ %et 'e 'a$ ne2er 'ear$ o* a $o+bl%9erio$ic *+nction or o*
7a+c'%:s t'eorem, an$ 'a$ in$ee$ b+t t'e 2a#+est i$ea o* w'at a *+nction o* a comleF 2ariable was,,,D,
(8A)
1ar$%
went on to claim t'at 'is #reatest contrib+tion to mat'ematics was $isco2erin# Raman+0an,
G+otin# 8, Srini2asa Rao,
(86)
DAs *or 'is lace in t'e worl$ o* 5at'ematics, we ?+ote -r+ce 7, -ern$t: : ;a+l .r$Hs
'as asse$ on to +s 6, 1, 1ar$%:s ersonal ratin#s o* mat'ematicians, S+ose t'at we rate mat'ematicians on t'e
basis o* +re talent on a scale *rom " to 1"", 1ar$% #a2e 'imsel* a score o* 2A, C,., 3ittlewoo$ 4", Da2i$ 1ilbert 8"
an$ Raman+0an 1"",:D
&n 'is book Scientific Edge, note$ '%sicist Ca%ant /arlikar state$ t'at DSrini2asa Raman+0an, $isco2ere$ b% t'e
7ambri$#e mat'ematician 6,1, 1ar$%, w'ose #reat mat'ematical *in$in#s were be#innin# to be areciate$ *rom
1!1A to 1!1!, 1is ac'ie2ements were to be *+ll% +n$erstoo$ m+c' later, well a*ter 'is +ntimel% $eat' in 1!2", For
eFamle, 'is work on t'e 'i#'l% comosite n+mbers (n+mbers wit' a lar#e n+mber o* *actors) starte$ a w'ole new
line o* in2esti#ations in t'e t'eor% o* s+c' n+mbers,D /arlikar also #oes on to sa% t'at 'is work was one o* t'e to
ten ac'ie2ements o* 2"t' cent+r% &n$ian science an$ Dco+l$ be consi$ere$ in t'e /obel ;ri>e class,D
(87)
T'e work o*
ot'er 2"
t'
cent+r% &n$ian scientists w'ic' /arlikar consi$ere$ to be o* /obel ;ri>e class were t'ose o*
7'an$rasek'ara Ienkata Raman, 5e#' /a$ Sa'a an$ Sat%en$ra /at' -ose,
Aryabhata
ryabhaa is t'e *irst in t'e line o* #reat mat'ematician9astronomers *rom t'e classical a#e o* &n$ian
mat'ematics an$ &n$ian astronom%, 1is most *amo+s works are t'e Aryabhatiya (7. @!! at a#e o* 24
%ears) an$ Arya-Siddhanta,
!ace "a!ue system and #ero
T'e n+mber lace92al+e s%stem, *irst seen in t'e 4r$ cent+r% -ak's'ali 5an+scrit was clearl% in lace in
'is work,
(A)
E 'e certainl% $i$ not +se t'e s%mbol, b+t t'e Frenc' mat'ematician 6eor#es &*ra' ar#+es t'at
knowle$#e o* >ero was imlicit in Ar%ab'ata:s lace92al+e s%stem as a lace 'ol$er *or t'e owers o* ten
wit' n+ll coe**icients
(6)
1owe2er, Ar%ab'ata $i$ not +se t'e bra'mi n+meralsE contin+in# t'e Sanskritic tra$ition *rom Ie$ic times,
'e +se$ letters o* t'e al'abet to $enote n+mbers, eFressin# ?+antities (s+c' as t'e table o* sines) in a
mnemonic *orm
(7)
,
i as $rrationa!
Ar%ab'ata worke$ on t'e aroFimation *or ;i (J), an$ ma% 'a2e reali>e$ t'at J is irrational, &n t'e secon$
art o* t'e Ar%ab'ati%am (gaitaK$a 1"), 'e writes:
chaturadhikam atamaaguam dvaistath sahasrm
Ayutadvayavikambhasysanno vrttapariaha.
DA$$ *o+r to 1"", m+ltil% b% ei#'t an$ t'en a$$ 62,""", -% t'is r+le t'e circ+m*erence o* a circle o* $iameter
2",""" can be aroac'e$,D
T'is sa%s t'at t'e ratio o* t'e circ+m*erence to t'e $iameter is ((@L1"")M8L62""")B2"""" N 4,1@16, w'ic'
is acc+rate to *i2e si#ni*icant *i#+res,
Ar%ab'ata +se$ t'e wor$ sanna (aroac'in#), aearin# 0+st be*ore t'e last wor$, as sa%in# not onl% t'at
t'is is an aroFimation, b+t t'at t'e 2al+e is incommens+rable (or irrational), &* t'is is correct, it is ?+ite a
so'isticate$ insi#'t, *or t'e irrationalit% o* i was ro2e$ in .+roe onl% in 1761 b% 3ambert)
(8)
,
A*ter Ar%ab'ati%a was translate$ into Arabic (ca, 82" 7.) t'is aroFimation was mentione$ in Al9
8'wari>mi:s book on al#ebra
(1)
,
%ensuration and tri&onometry
&n 6anitaa$a 6, Ar%ab'ata #i2es t'e area o* trian#le as
tribhujasya phalashariram samadalakoti bhujardhasamvargah
t'at translates to: *or a trian#le, t'e res+lt o* a eren$ic+lar wit' t'e 'al*9si$e is t'e area,
(!)
Ar%ab'ata $isc+sse$ t'e concet o* sine in 'is work b% t'e name o* ardha-jya, 3iterall%, it means D'al*9
c'or$D, -eca+se o* simlicit%, eole starte$ callin# it jya, O'en Arabic writers translate$ 'is works *rom
Sanskrit into Arabic, t'e% re*erre$ it as jiba (a*ter $ri2en b% t'e 'onetic similarit%), 1owe2er, in Arabic
writin#s, 2owels are omitte$ an$ it #ot abbre2iate$ to jb, O'en later writers reali>e$ t'at jb is an
abbre2iation o* jiba, t'e% s+bstit+te$ it back wit' jiab, means Dco2eD or Dba%D (in Arabic, ot'er t'an bein#
merel% a tec'nical term, jiba is a meanin#less wor$), 3ater in 12t' cent+r%, w'en 6'erar$o o* 7remona
translate$ t'ese writin#s *rom Arabic into 3atin, 'e relace$ t'e Arabic jiab wit' its 3atin co+nterart,
sinus (w'ic' 'as a same literal meanin# o* Dco2eD or Dba%D), An$ a*ter t'at, t'e sinus became sine in
.n#lis',
(1")
$ndeterminate '(uations
A roblem o* #reat interest to &n$ian mat'ematicians since ancient times 'as been to *in$ inte#er sol+tions
to e?+ations t'at 'a2e t'e *orm aF L b N c%, a toic t'at 'as come to be known as $io'antine e?+ations,
1ere is an eFamle *rom -'askara:s commentar% on Ar%ab'ati%a: :
Find the number which gie! 5 a! the remainder when diided b" 8# 4 a! the
remainder when diided b" 9# and 1 a! the remainder when diided b" 7.
i,e, *in$ / N 8FLA N !%L@ N 7>L1, &t t+rns o+t t'at t'e smallest 2al+e *or / is 8A, &n #eneral, $io'antine
e?+ations can be notorio+sl% $i**ic+lt, S+c' e?+ations were consi$ere$ eFtensi2el% in t'e ancient Ie$ic teFt
S+lba S+tras, t'e more ancient arts o* w'ic' ma% $ate back to 8"" -7., Ar%ab'ata:s met'o$ o* sol2in#
s+c' roblems, calle$ t'e kuaka () met'o$, 8+ttaka means +l2eri>in#, t'at is breakin# into small
ieces, an$ t'e met'o$ in2ol2e$ a rec+rsi2e al#orit'm *or writin# t'e ori#inal *actors in terms o* smaller
n+mbers, To$a% t'is al#orit'm, as elaborate$ b% -'askara in 7. 621, is t'e stan$ar$ met'o$ *or sol2in#
*irst or$er Dio'antine e?+ations, an$ it is o*ten re*erre$ to as t'e Ar%ab'ata al#orit'm,
(11)
T'e $io'antine
e?+ations are o* interest in cr%tolo#%, an$ t'e RSA 7on*erence, 2""6, *oc+se$ on t'e kuttaka met'o$ an$
earlier work in t'e S+l2as+tras,
Leonhard Euler
Leonhard Paul Euler (1A Aril 17"7 18 Setember 1784) was a ioneerin# Swiss mat'ematician an$
'%sicist w'o sent most o* 'is li*e in R+ssia an$ 6erman%, 1is s+rname is rono+nce$ $%&'()r$ O -l!r in
.n#lis'
(4)
(6erman ron+nciation: *%&+(,-)E t'e common .n#lis' ron+nciation $%.u/()r$ E" -l!r is #enerall%
consi$ere$ incorrect,
(@)
.+ler ma$e imortant $isco2eries in *iel$s as $i2erse as calc+l+s an$ #ra' t'eor%, 1e also intro$+ce$
m+c' o* t'e mo$ern mat'ematical terminolo#% an$ notation, artic+larl% *or mat'ematical anal%sis, s+c' as
t'e notion o* a mat'ematical *+nction,
(A)
1e is also renowne$ *or 'is work in mec'anics, *l+i$ $%namics,
otics, an$ astronom%,
.+ler is consi$ere$ to be t'e reeminent mat'ematician o* t'e 18t' cent+r% an$ one o* t'e #reatest o* all
time, 1e is also one o* t'e most roli*icE 'is collecte$ works *ill 6"8" ?+arto 2ol+mes,
(6)
A statement
attrib+te$ to ;ierre9Simon 3alace eFresses .+ler:s in*l+ence on mat'ematics: DRea$ .+ler, rea$ .+ler, 'e
is t'e master (i,e,, teac'er) o* +s all,D
(7)
.+ler was *eat+re$ on t'e siFt' series o* t'e Swiss 1"9*ranc banknote an$ on n+mero+s Swiss, 6erman, an$
R+ssian osta#e stams, T'e asteroi$ 2""2 .+ler was name$ in 'is 'onor, 1e is also commemorate$ b% t'e
3+t'eran 7'+rc' on t'eir 7alen$ar o* Saints on 2@ 5a% 9 'e was a $e2o+t 7'ristian (an$ belie2er in
biblical inerranc%) w'o wrote aolo#etics an$ ar#+e$ *orce*+ll% a#ainst t'e rominent at'eists o* 'is time,
)ontributions to mathematics
.+ler worke$ in almost all areas o* mat'ematics: #eometr%, calc+l+s, tri#onometr%, al#ebra, an$ n+mber
t'eor%, as well as contin++m '%sics, l+nar t'eor% an$ ot'er areas o* '%sics, 1e is a seminal *i#+re in t'e
'istor% o* mat'ematicsE i* rinte$, 'is works, man% o* w'ic' are o* *+n$amental interest, wo+l$ occ+%
between 6" an$ 8" ?+arto 2ol+mes,
(6)
.+ler:s name is associate$ wit' a lar#e n+mber o* toics,
%athematica! notation
.+ler intro$+ce$ an$ o+lari>e$ se2eral notational con2entions t'ro+#' 'is n+mero+s an$ wi$el%
circ+late$ teFtbooks, 5ost notabl%, 'e intro$+ce$ t'e concet o* a *+nction
(A)
an$ was t'e *irst to write f(#)
to $enote t'e *+nction f alie$ to t'e ar#+ment #, 1e also intro$+ce$ t'e mo$ern notation *or t'e
tri#onometric *+nctions, t'e letter e *or t'e base o* t'e nat+ral lo#arit'm (now also known as .+ler:s
n+mber), t'e 6reek letter P *or s+mmations an$ t'e letter i to $enote t'e ima#inar% +nit,
(22)
T'e +se o* t'e
6reek letter J to $enote t'e ratio o* a circle:s circ+m*erence to its $iameter was also o+lari>e$ b% .+ler,
alt'o+#' it $i$ not ori#inate wit' 'im,
(24)
*na!ysis
T'e $e2eloment o* calc+l+s was at t'e *ore*ront o* 18t' cent+r% mat'ematical researc', an$ t'e -erno+llis
Q*amil% *rien$s o* .+lerQwere resonsible *or m+c' o* t'e earl% ro#ress in t'e *iel$, T'anks to t'eir
in*l+ence, st+$%in# calc+l+s became t'e ma0or *oc+s o* .+ler:s work, O'ile some o* .+ler:s roo*s are not
accetable b% mo$ern stan$ar$s o* mat'ematical ri#o+r,
(2@)
'is i$eas le$ to man% #reat a$2ances, .+ler is
well9known in anal%sis *or 'is *re?+ent +se an$ $e2eloment o* ower series, t'e eFression o* *+nctions as
s+ms o* in*initel% man% terms, s+c' as
/otabl%, .+ler $isco2ere$ t'e ower series eFansions *or e an$ t'e in2erse tan#ent *+nction, 1is $arin#
(an$, b% mo$ern stan$ar$s, tec'nicall% incorrect) +se o* ower series enable$ 'im to sol2e t'e *amo+s
-asel roblem in 174A:
(2@)
0 ge1metric inter2retati1n 13 4u(er5! 31rmu(a6 4u(er intr1duced the u!e 13 the e721nentia(
3uncti1n and (1garithm! in ana("tic 2r113!. 8e di!c1ered wa"! t1 e72re!! ari1u! (1garithmic
3uncti1n! u!ing 21wer !erie!9 and he !ucce!!3u((" de:ned (1garithm! 31r negatie and
c1m2(e7 number!9 thu! great(" e72anding the !c12e 13 mathematica( a22(icati1n! 13
(1garithm!.
*22-
8e a(!1 de:ned the e721nentia( 3uncti1n 31r c1m2(e7 number!9 and di!c1ered
it! re(ati1n t1 the trig1n1metric 3uncti1n!. F1r an" rea( number ;9 4u(er5! 31rmu(a !tate! that
the c1m2(e7 e721nentia( 3uncti1n !ati!:e!
A secial case o* t'e abo2e *orm+la is known as .+ler:s i$entit%,
calle$ Dt'e most remarkable *orm+la in mat'ematicsD b% Ric'ar$ Fe%nman, *or its sin#le +ses o* t'e
notions o* a$$ition, m+ltilication, eFonentiation, an$ e?+alit%, an$ t'e sin#le +ses o* t'e imortant
constants ", 1, e, i an$ J,
(2A)
&n 1!88, rea$ers o* t'e $athematical %ntelligencer 2ote$ it Dt'e 5ost -ea+ti*+l
5at'ematical Form+la .2erD,
(26)
&n total, .+ler was resonsible *or t'ree o* t'e to *i2e *orm+lae in t'at
oll,
(26)
De 5oi2re:s *orm+la is a $irect conse?+ence o* .+ler:s *orm+la,
&n a$$ition, .+ler elaborate$ t'e t'eor% o* 'i#'er transcen$ental *+nctions b% intro$+cin# t'e #amma
*+nction an$ intro$+ce$ a new met'o$ *or sol2in# ?+artic e?+ations, 1e also *o+n$ a wa% to calc+late
inte#rals wit' comleF limits, *ores'a$owin# t'e $e2eloment o* mo$ern comleF anal%sis, an$ in2ente$
t'e calc+l+s o* 2ariations incl+$in# its best9known res+lt, t'e .+ler3a#ran#e e?+ation,
.+ler also ioneere$ t'e +se o* anal%tic met'o$s to sol2e n+mber t'eor% roblems, &n $oin# so, 'e +nite$
two $isarate branc'es o* mat'ematics an$ intro$+ce$ a new *iel$ o* st+$%, anal%tic n+mber t'eor%, &n
breakin# #ro+n$ *or t'is new *iel$, .+ler create$ t'e t'eor% o* '%er#eometric series, ?9series, '%erbolic
tri#onometric *+nctions an$ t'e anal%tic t'eor% o* contin+e$ *ractions, For eFamle, 'e ro2e$ t'e
in*init+$e o* rimes +sin# t'e $i2er#ence o* t'e 'armonic series, an$ 'e +se$ anal%tic met'o$s to #ain some
+n$erstan$in# o* t'e wa% rime n+mbers are $istrib+te$, .+ler:s work in t'is area le$ to t'e $e2eloment o*
t'e rime n+mber t'eorem,
(27)
Number theory
.+ler:s interest in n+mber t'eor% can be trace$ to t'e in*l+ence o* 7'ristian 6ol$bac', 'is *rien$ in t'e St,
;etersb+r# Aca$em%, A lot o* .+ler:s earl% work on n+mber t'eor% was base$ on t'e works o* ;ierre $e
Fermat, .+ler $e2eloe$ some o* Fermat:s i$eas, an$ $isro2e$ some o* 'is con0ect+res,
.+ler linke$ t'e nat+re o* rime $istrib+tion wit' i$eas in anal%sis, 1e ro2e$ t'at t'e s+m o* t'e
recirocals o* t'e rimes $i2er#es, &n $oin# so, 'e $isco2ere$ t'e connection between t'e Riemann >eta
*+nction an$ t'e rime n+mbersE t'is is known as t'e .+ler ro$+ct *orm+la *or t'e Riemann >eta *+nction,
.+ler ro2e$ /ewton:s i$entities, Fermat:s little t'eorem, Fermat:s t'eorem on s+ms o* two s?+ares, an$ 'e
ma$e $istinct contrib+tions to 3a#ran#e:s *o+r9s?+are t'eorem, 1e also in2ente$ t'e totient *+nction R(n)
w'ic' is t'e n+mber o* ositi2e inte#ers less t'an t'e inte#er n t'at are corime to n, =sin# roerties o*
t'is *+nction, 'e #enerali>e$ Fermat:s little t'eorem to w'at is now known as .+ler:s t'eorem, 1e
contrib+te$ si#ni*icantl% to t'e t'eor% o* er*ect n+mbers, w'ic' 'a$ *ascinate$ mat'ematicians since
.+cli$, .+ler also ma$e ro#ress towar$ t'e rime n+mber t'eorem, an$ 'e con0ect+re$ t'e law o*
?+a$ratic recirocit%, T'e two concets are re#ar$e$ as *+n$amental t'eorems o* n+mber t'eor%, an$ 'is
i$eas a2e$ t'e wa% *or t'e work o* 7arl Frie$ric' 6a+ss,
(28)
G. . ardy
G. . !God"rey arold# ardy FRS (Febr+ar% 7, 1877 7ranlei#', S+rre%, .n#lan$
(1)
December 1, 1!@7
7ambri$#e, 7ambri$#es'ire, .n#lan$
(2)
) was a rominent .n#lis' mat'ematician, known *or 'is
ac'ie2ements in n+mber t'eor% an$ mat'ematical anal%sis,
/on9mat'ematicians +s+all% know 'im *or A $athematician&s A'ology, 'is essa% *rom 1!@" on t'e
aest'etics o* mat'ematics, T'e aolo#% is o*ten consi$ere$ one o* t'e best insi#'ts into t'e min$ o* a
workin# mat'ematician written *or t'e la%man,
1is relations'i as mentor, *rom 1!1@ onwar$s, o* t'e &n$ian mat'ematician Srini2asa Raman+0an 'as
become celebrate$, 1ar$% almost imme$iatel% reco#ni>e$ Raman+0an:s eFtraor$inar% albeit +nt+tore$
brilliance, an$ 1ar$% an$ Raman+0an became close collaborators, &n an inter2iew b% ;a+l .r$Hs, w'en
1ar$% was aske$ w'at 'is #reatest contrib+tion to mat'ematics was, 1ar$% +n'esitatin#l% relie$ t'at it
was t'e $isco2er% o* Raman+0an, 1e calle$ t'eir collaboration Dt'e one romantic inci$ent in m% li*e,D
ure mathematics
1ar$% re*erre$ 'is work to be consi$ere$ 'ure mathematics, er'as beca+se o* 'is $etestation o* war an$
t'e militar% +ses to w'ic' mat'ematics 'a$ been alie$, 1e ma$e se2eral statements similar to t'at in 'is
A'ology:
"I hav nvr don anything !us"ul!. #o discovry o" min has mad$ or is likly to
mak$ dirctly or indirctly$ "or good or ill$ th last di%rnc to th amnity o" th
&orld."*1-
1owe2er, asi$e *rom *orm+latin# t'e 1ar$%9Oeinber# rincile in o+lation #enetics, 'is *amo+s work on
inte#er artitions wit' 'is collaborator Raman+0an, known as t'e 1ar$%9Raman+0an as%mtotic *orm+la,
'as been wi$el% alie$ in '%sics to *in$ ?+ant+m artition *+nctions o* atomic n+clei (*irst +se$ b% /iels
-o'r) an$ to $eri2e t'ermo$%namic *+nctions o* non9interactin# -ose9.instein s%stems, T'o+#' 1ar$%
wante$ 'is mat's to be D+reD an$ $e2oi$ o* an% alication, m+c' o* 'is work 'as *o+n$ alications in
ot'er branc'es o* science,
5oreo2er, 1ar$% $eliberatel% ointe$ o+t in 'is A'ology t'at mat'ematicians #enerall% $o not D#lor% in t'e
+selessness o* t'eir work,D b+t rat'er beca+se science can be +se$ *or e2il as well as #oo$ en$s
Dmat'ematicians ma% be 0+sti*ie$ in re0oicin# t'at t'ere is one science at an% rate, an$ t'at t'eir own,
w'ose 2er% remoteness *rom or$inar% '+man acti2ities s'o+l$ kee it #entle an$ clean,D 1ar$% also
re0ecte$ as a D$el+sionD t'e belie* t'at t'e $i**erence between +re an$ alie$ mat'ematics 'a$ an%t'in# to
$o wit' t'eir +tilit%, 1ar$% re#ar$s as D+reD t'e kin$s o* mat'ematics t'at are in$een$ent o* t'e '%sical
worl$, b+t also consi$ers some Dalie$D mat'ematicians, s+c' as t'e '%sicists 5aFwell an$ .instein, to
be amon# t'e DrealD mat'ematicians, w'ose work D'as ermanent aest'etic 2al+eD an$ Dis eternal beca+se
t'e best o* it ma%, like t'e best literat+re, contin+e to ca+se intense emotional satis*action to t'o+san$s o*
eole a*ter t'o+san$s o* %ears,D Alt'o+#' 'e a$mitte$ t'at w'at 'e calle$ DrealD mat'ematics ma%
some$a% become +se*+l, 'e asserte$ t'at, at t'e time in w'ic' t'e A'ology was written, onl% t'e D$+ll an$
elementar% artsD o* eit'er +re or alie$ mat'ematics co+l$ Dwork *or #oo$ or ill,D
Eu$lid
Eu$lid (rono+nce$ B 0+ kl $B E"( -lidE Ancient 6reek: S<TUVWXYZ Eukleid)s), *l, 4"" -7, also known as
Eu$lid o" Ale%andria, was a 6reek mat'ematician, o*ten re*erre$ to as t'e DFat'er o* 6eometr%,D 1e was
acti2e in AleFan$ria $+rin# t'e rei#n o* ;tolem% & (424284 -7), 1is Elements is one o* t'e most
in*l+ential works in t'e 'istor% o* mat'ematics, ser2in# as t'e main teFtbook *or teac'in# mat'ematics
(eseciall% #eometr%) *rom t'e time o* its +blication +ntil t'e late 1!t' or earl% 2"t' cent+r%,
(1)(2)(4)
&n it, t'e
rinciles o* w'at is now calle$ .+cli$ean #eometr% were $e$+ce$ *rom a small set o* aFioms, .+cli$ also
wrote works on ersecti2e, conic sections, s'erical #eometr%, n+mber t'eor% an$ ri#or,
3ittle is known abo+t .+cli$:s li*e, as t'ere are onl% a 'an$*+l o* re*erences to 'im, &n *act, t'e ke%
re*erences to .+cli$ were written cent+ries a*ter 'e li2e$, b% ;rocl+s an$ ;a+s o* AleFan$ria,
(@)
;rocl+s
intro$+ces .+cli$ onl% brie*l% in 'is *ommentary on the Elements, written in t'e *i*t' cent+r%, w'ere 'e
writes t'at .+cli$ was t'e a+t'or o* t'e Elements, t'at 'e was mentione$ b% Arc'ime$es, an$ t'at w'en
;tolem% t'e First aske$ .+cli$ i* t'ere was no s'orter roa$ to #eometr% t'an t'e Elements, 'e relie$,
Dt'ere is no ro%al roa$ to #eometr%,D Alt'o+#' t'e +rorte$ citation o* .+cli$ b% Arc'ime$es 'as been
0+$#e$ to be an interolation b% later e$itors o* 'is works, it is still belie2e$ t'at .+cli$ wrote 'is works
be*ore t'ose o* Arc'ime$es,
(A)(6)
&n a$$ition, t'e Dro%al roa$D anec$ote is ?+estionable since it is similar to a
stor% tol$ abo+t 5enaec'm+s an$ AleFan$er t'e 6reat,
(7)
&n t'e onl% ot'er ke% re*erence to .+cli$, ;a+s
brie*l% mentione$ in t'e *o+rt' cent+r% t'at Aolloni+s Dsent a 2er% lon# time wit' t'e +ils o* .+cli$ at
AleFan$ria, an$ it was t'+s t'at 'e ac?+ire$ s+c' a scienti*ic 'abit o* t'o+#'t,D
(8)
&t is *+rt'er belie2e$ t'at
.+cli$ ma% 'a2e st+$ie$ at ;lato:s Aca$em% in 6reece,
T'e $ate an$ lace o* .+cli$:s birt' an$ t'e $ate an$ circ+mstances o* 'is $eat' are +nknown, an$ onl%
ro+#'l% estimate$ in roFimit% to contemorar% *i#+res mentione$ in re*erences, /o likeness or $escrition
o* .+cli$:s '%sical aearance ma$e $+rin# 'is li*etime s+r2i2e$ anti?+it%, T'ere*ore, .+cli$:s $eiction in
works o* art is t'e ro$+ct o* t'e artist:s ima#ination,