Structural Health Monitoring in the Mainland

of China: Review and Future Trends

J. OUa,b and H. LIb

ABSTRACT
Structural health monitoring (SHM) is not only a power tool to ensure integrity and
safety of a structure, but also a in-situ test system to investigate the real behavior in operation
condition and deterioration evolution of performance of a structure. This paper summarizes
the advances in SHM in the mainland China, including sensing technology and novel
sensors, and health diagnostic theory. The applications and R&D status of SHM technology
in the mainland China are also introduced. Finally, the key challenges and issues in SHM area
are figured out.

INTRODUCTION
So many key infrastructures have been or are planning to be constructed in the mainland
China. Ensuring their integrity and safety is the most concerned issue for society. On the other
hand, the structures are so large and it is suspicious to understand their actual behavior and
grasp their performance deterioration evolution only through small scale tests in laboratory. The
SHM has been proven to be a powerful tool to resolve above problems.
The SHM initiated from early 1990s in the mainland China to evaluate safety of offshore
platforms. Then optical fibre Bragg grating sensing technology was first studied at that time.
Since 2000, the Ministry of Science and Technology and the National Natural Science
Foundation of China have supported big research program on this area. A number of experts
and engineer are attracted into this area. Novel sensing technologies and sensors and wireless
sensors are developed. Software for SHM including data acquisition, database and data process,
has been complied. The first application of SHM as a real-time and online system began in
2002 and a SHM system was implemented into the Shandong Binzhou Yellow River
Highway Bridge (Li, et al, 2006). The authors proposed to integrate construction monitoring
system, calibration test system and SHM systems into a whole system to realize life-cycle
performance monitoring and the first integrated system was installed into the Shandong
Dongying Yellow River Highway Bridge by Research Institute of Structural Health Monitoring
and Control of HIT (Harbin Institute of Technology) in 2004. At present phase, several
hundred of SHM systems have been implemented into bridges, buildings, highway, high-speed
railway, offshore engineering, hydraulic engineering and geotechnical engineering. More and
more companies, universities and institutes have ability to design and implement the SHM
system. The SHM technology has been realized Industrialization. Because the SHM systems
have accumulated mega-data, it is an urgent task to interpret data for the administration
agencies at present.
_______________

aSchool of Civil & Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024,
China
bSchool of Civil Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, PR China

This paper reviews the progresses of SHM in the mainland China and figured
out the future trends.

ADVANCES IN SMART SENSORS AND SENSING TECHENOLOTY

For civil structures, the following variables are needed to be monitored, i.e.
loads (e.g. vehicle, self-weight, and etc), environment (e.g. wind, earthquake,
temperature, humidity, rainfall, acid, alkali, chloride, salty, Co2 and etc), and
response (e.g. strain, crack, displacement, acceleration, corrosion, carbonization,
freeze-thaw and etc). In the last decade, smart sensors and sensing technology have
been extensively and actively researched for well monitoring above parameters, e.g.
optical fibre sensors, PZT array sensors, cement-based sensors, corrosion sensors,
fatigue sensors and other sensors. The above sensors are first developed to be wired,
then further to be wireless for purpose of low cost and convenient measurement. In
addition, demodulator for optical fibre Bragg grating sensors has been
industrialization and widely applied in actual engineering systems as a commercial
product. This paper only summarizes some main advances in this topic.
Cement-based Composites, Sensing Properties and Wired/Wireless Sensors
Most of sensors are incompliable with the matrix structures. To solve this
problem, the cement-based composites are developed. The cement-based
composites contain one or several conductive materials to convert the cement from
insulant to semi-conductive materials, which have piezoresistivity or
piezoelectricity. The cement-based composites filled with carbon black, short
reinforced carbon fibres, nickel powder and piezo-ceramic powers have been
proposed (Li, et al, 2008; Han and Ou, 2007; Cheng, et al, 2007). The materials are
further employed to fabricate strain sensors and acoustic emission sensors, which
have advantages, such as identical strength, compliability, same long service life
and low cost. The cement-based composites filled with nickel powder (CCNP) are
selected as an example to illustrate the sensing properties of this material and the
strain sensor based on this material.
Figure 1 shows the electric-mechanical and mechanical property of CCNP
under uniaxial compressive loading upto failure. It can be seen from Figure 1 that
the electrical resistivity of CCNP rapidly decreases as the compressive stress
increase during the initial stage of loading, and its fractional change goes down to
72.48% when compressive stress is10MPa. After that, the fractional change in
electrical resistivity slowly goes up to 79.28% as the compressive stress further
increases, and finally it begins to increase with compressive stress until the
specimen is crushed. This variation of electrical resistivity of CCNP with
compressive stress indicates that CCNP possess good piezoresistivity. As shown in

Figure1, the compressive stress increases with the compressive strain until the
composites are crushed at an ultimate stress of about 40MPa, so the composites are
still within an elastic regime when the compressive stress is less than 13 MPa, just
about one third of the ultimate stress of 40MPa (Han and Ou, 2007). It can therefore
be concluded that the sensitivity of the CCNP with respect to stress/strain is
obviously higher than that of other piezoresistive cement-based composites.

Figure 1 Piezoresistivity of CCNP under

Figure 2 Piezoresistive CCNP -based

uniaxial compressive loading upto failure

stress/strain sensors

The sensitivity of CCNP-based sensors (as shown in Figure 2) with respect to

compressive stress/strain is 16.629%MPa-1/0.13198%-1, which is nearly 650
times the sensitivity of a conventional strain gauge to compressive strain.
Because the cost and boring labor work, wireless sensors are very attractive.
Figure 3 shows the wired and wireless stress/strain measurement system integrated
with piezoresistive CCNP-based sensors. As shown in Figure 3, the output signals
of wired and wireless stress/strain measurement system integrated with CCNPbased sensors are very close to each other.

Wirelessreceivermodule
Powersupply

Sensors

Wiredacquisition
module
Sensors

Wirelesstransmittermodule
(a)Wiredsystem

(b)Wireless

Figure 3 Wired and wireless strain measurement system integrated with CCNP-based sensors and
their output comparison

Wired/Wireless Corrosion Monitoring System of the Reinforcing Steel in

Concrete Structures Based on Electrochemical Theory
Corrosion so commonly occurs in civil engineering and has strong impact on
structural safety and maintenance cost. Two kinds of corrosion sensors (see Figure
4), which are five-electrode corrosion sensor and all solid state-current confined

sensor, have been developed for the corrosion monitoring based on electrochemical
theory. A novel all solid and long life reference electrode has been studied to setup
the sensors. For the general corrosion monitoring, linear polarization resistance
method, weak polarization method, and transient excitation method can be applied
to extract the characteristic parameters which are related to the corrosion process.
These parameters include the resistance of the concrete Rc, the Faraday resistance
Rt, the non-ideal capacitance of the concrete/steel interface CNI, the time constant
c, the exponential decay factor , and etc. Besides the corrosion rate, all the
information about the general corrosion status of the concrete/steel system can be
acquired according to these parameters. According to Figure 4, it can be seen that
the corrosion rate of the steel bar after accelerated corrosion in concrete is from102
to 103 times than that of the passivated status (Qiao and Ou, 2007).

Figure 4 Photographs of five-electrode corrosion sensor and all solid state-current confined corrosion
sensor and the corrosion monitoring results of RC beams

Figure 5 Energy distribution of electrochemical current noise of RC

Figure 6 Wireless module of

beams before and after corrosion

the self-powered wireless

corrosion sensor

On the other hand, local corrosion is the most important factor which
influences the service life of the RC structures in many chloride included
environments. It has been validated that the electrochemical noise (EN) technique is
an effective method to monitor the pitting corrosion qualitatively. Also, the energy
distribution plot (EDP) of the EN based on Wavelet theory can be applied to
determine the occurrence of the pitting corrosion. As shown in Figure 5, the obvious
different character of the EDP before and after corrosion is due to the different
components in the EN. There are a large number of transients in the EN after

corrosion. The change of the EDP represents the change of the corrosion
mechanism. According to the change of the energy distribution on the different
crystal, the pitting corrosion can be identified. The energy distribution on the crystal
5, 6,7and 8 is the intrinsic character of pitting corrosion of the steel bar in concrete.
The EDP of the EN can be used as the benchmark to identify the occurrence of
pitting corrosion.
Essentially, the electrochemical process of the corrosion is an energy release
process from the steel-smelting process. It is interesting that the weak current which
generalized during general and pitting corrosion process can be applied as the
power source of the wireless network based on micro-electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS), which is called as Self-powered Wireless Corrosion Sensor System. The
key point is how to harvest the minor-current during corrosion process to realize the
power supply of the wireless network. Two kinds of methods which are energy
harvesting material (such as nanopiezotronics) and traditional cell may be used to
realize this task. The most important advantage is the energy from the ambient to be
the electric current, no need to transform the current to other type of energy. Figure
6 shows the preliminary designed wireless module of the self-powered wireless
corrosion sensor in HIT lab. The realization of the self-powered wireless corrosion
monitoring sensor and network can be considered as a milestone in the field of
SHM.
Optical Fibre Sensing Technology and Demodulators for Optical Fibre Bragg
Grating Sensors
Optical fibre Bragg grating strain and temperature sensors (OFBG) have been
extensively studied (Ou and Zhou, 2008). The most important contribution is to
integrate OFBG sensors into fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) products when the
products are fabricated. Consequently, the FRP can protect the OFBG against
breakage and make the OFBG sensors have good durability and identical service
life with FRP products. On the other hand, the products have self-sensing property
due to embedded OFBG sensors. The products include FRP-OFBG reinforced bars,
cables, plates, tubes and other members. The stiffness match principle of
FRP-OFBG sensor with the monitored matrix structural materials is studied. It is
concluded that the stiffness of sensors should be close to monitored matrix
structural materials. Recently, Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis
(BOTDA)-based sensors have been extensively studied (Zhou et al, 2008) and used
in oil exploration.
Three types of demodulators have been developed for optical fibre Bragg
grating sensors at Harbin Tider Ltd, as shown in Figure 7. The performance of these
three types of demodulators is listed in Table 1. The demodulators have been
extensively used in civil structures, high-speed railway, highway, industry and the
Labs for research and educations in many universities.

Figure 7 Three types of demodulators developed at Harbin Tider Ltd, China

Table 1 Performance of the three types of demodulators
Specifications

TFBGD-210 Serial

TFBGD-700 Serial

TFBGD-9000 Serial

Demodulator

Demodulator

Demodulator

Channels

1- 2

1- 8

16 - 72

Range

1520-1570nm

1510-1590nm

1510-1590nm

Stability

1 pm

1 pm

1 pm

Repeatability

2 pm

2 pm

2 pm

Frequency Band

1-300Hz

1-300Hz

1-300Hz

Power Supply

220VAC,50Hz & Li-ion

220VAC,50Hz

220VAC,50Hz

Battery

ADVANCES IN HEALTH DIAGNOSTIC THEORY

The health diagnostic theory, including damage diagnostic approaches and
model updating techniques, is one of core issues in SHM. Vibration-based health
diagnostic approaches have been extensively investigated. However, this kind of
approaches is insensitive to local damage, in particular for existing of uncertainty
and measurement noise. The influence of environmental factors on modal
parameters, e.g. wind, temperature, vehicles and other factors, has been investigated
(Li, et al, 2009). Based on the above investigation, damage detection and model
updating can be conducted using the pre-processed modal parameters. Novel health
diagnostic approaches have been proposed for identification of local damage (Li et
al, 2009; Hou et al, 2009). The approaches with robustness to uncertainty and
measurement noise are also researched (Li, et al, 2008; Sun and Ou, 2008).
In addition, traditional model updating techniques are based on modal analysis.
Mass density and stiffness of element are usually selected as optimal variables.
However, stiffness of an element is related with both its geometry and elasticity
modulus. The elasticity modulus has no relationship with the ultimate capacity of a
structure, while the geometry has great impact on the ultimate capacity of the
structure. Therefore, it is needed to determine which factor is responsible to

variation of stiffness, i.e. geometry, or elasticity modulus or both them. A

multi-scale model updating technique may be a possible solution to this problem.
Structural Damage Identification Based on Wavelet Packet Energy with PPCA
The environmental effects, e.g. ambient noise and variations in temperature,
will impede accuracy of damage identification. So it is important to remove theses
effects for decreasing the uncertainty of damage detection results. A novel method
based on wavelet packet energy transform and Probabilistic Principal Component
Analysis (PPCA) is proposed to detect damage from data under different
temperatures and noise levels. The vibration data of the structure are decomposed
into the wavelet packet components and the wavelet packet energy is calculated to
indicate the structural damage. The PPCA is pursued to the wavelet packet energy
index for dimensionality reduction and environmental effects elimination. The flow
chart of this method is shown in Figure 8. A simply supported beam is employed to
illustrate the ability of the method. The results are shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Damage detection result using wavelet packet energy with PPCA

The advantage of the method lies in its simplicity and efficiency. It is not
required to measure the environmental parameters, which facilitates SHM. The
results indicate that different levels of damage may be well detected with
environmental effects being successfully eliminated. PPCA has high calculation
efficiency which is suitable to online SHM, and it can reduce dimensionality of
damage index and eliminate the environmental effects. Otherwise, the probability
model of PPCA is useful to define the upper and lower control limits of the damage.
Damage Detection Approach Based on Isolated Substructure
Consider that in practice, often only a small part of a larger complex structure
is critical and needs monitoring. A method of substructure isolation for local
damage detection is proposed, which can isolate the considered substructure from
the influences of the rest of the structure. The responses of the numerical
independent isolated substructure can be constructed via the measured responses of
the global system based on the linear combination of the elastic structure. Therefore,

local-only monitoring is possible using any of the existing methods via the analysis
of the simpler and smaller isolated substructure.
To conduct test, the upper part of the beam to the fixed end is the considered
substructure, marked with the small circle as shown in Figure 9. 3 piezoelectric
sensors are used, one at the boundary and the rest two in the interior. Laser is used
to measure the velocity of the boundary. The substructure is cut to simulate the
damage and the damage extent is about 40%. To make the global structure complex,
a steel mass block or a sponge support (as shown in Figure 9) is added on the beam
outside the substructure. The sponge support may cause nonlinear behavior. Three
global structure types are considered to verify that the constructed substructure
response is independent from the rest part of the global system, which are the
damaged beam (original); damaged beam with additional mass block (mass);
damaged beam with a sponge support (support). The identified damage extents are
shown in Figure 9. It can be seen that although the rest structure outside the
substructure is different, even with unknown parameters, e.g. unknown modified
mass and nonlinear behavior, the local damage can be identified successfully
through the isolated substructure.
sensor 1

laser

sensor 2

damage

sensor 3

mass

global structure
sensor 1

damage

v(t)=0
(t)=0

sensor 2

Sponge support
uncertain nonlinear

isolated substructure
sub 1

sub 2

sub 3

sub 4

sub 5

substructure divided

1.0

0.6
0.4

0.6

Actual
Original
Support

0.4
0.2

0.2
1

Substructure number

Method 1

0.0

Substructure number

1.00

0.8

Damage extent

Actual
Original
Mass
Support

Damage extent

0.8

0.8

0.0

1.0

Damage extent

Damage extent

1.0

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

Substructure number

Method 2
Method 3
Figure 9 Constructed response and the identified results

0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00

2
3
4
5
Substructure number

Method 4

Multi-scale Model Updating Approach

As mentioned above, a multi-scale finite element (FE) model is needed to
conduct detailed analysis. The multi-scale FE model consists of global FE model
with beam-column elements and local FE model with solid elements. The elements
where sensors are implemented and damaged elements are selected to modeling
using solid FE elements. Then the elasticity and mass density are the optimal
parameters to make the difference of measured and calculated modal parameters
minimum at the first step. Furthermore, the crack size and cross-section area are
selected as optimal parameters to make the difference of measured and calculated

strain at solid FE model minimum at the second step. Figure 10 illustrate the multiscale FE model. The depth of cracks of the multi-scale FE model is optimized based
on the SHM results. The stress concentration can be clearly observed in the figure.

Figure 10 The multi-scale finite element model and computed results

APPLICATION OF SHM IN CIVIL

SITUATION OF R&D DEVELOPMENT

INFRASTRUCTURES

AND

Since the early this century, SHM has been implementing into actual
infrastructure in the mainland China. The infrastructure includes bridges, buildings,
highway, offshore platforms, hydraulic engineering, geotechnical engineering,
high-speed railway and etc. Here gives two examples to illustrate the SHM systems
in bridge, building and offshore platform.
SHM System for theTianjin Yonghe Bridge
The Tianjin Yonghe Bridge, as shown in Figure 11, is one of the earliest
cable-stayed bridges constructed in the mainland China. This bridge opened to
traffic since December 1987. Its closure segment was damaged after 19-year
operation and then repaired and rehabilitated in 2006. At the same time, a
sophisticated long-term SHM system has been designed and implemented by the
Research Institute of Structural Health Monitoring and Control of HIT. 14 uniaxial
accelerometers and 1 biaxial accelerometer were permanently installed on the deck
of main span and two side spans, and one tower top. An anemoscope was attached
on the tower top to measure the wind velocity and a temperature sensor was
installed at the mid-span of the girder to measure ambient temperature. 24 OFBG
strain sensors and 6 OFBG temperature sensors were embedded into (closure
segment) or welded on (rehabilitated segments) the surface of the girders as shown
in Figure 11 for real-time, long term and in situ monitoring. 8 OFBG strain sensors
were welded on the prestressed steel bars. 11 smart cables embedded with 3 OFBG
sensors each cable are used in this bridge. All the data were connected to a host
computer and accessed via internet. Strain and temperature data have been recorded
at sampling frequency of 62.5Hz. The SHM system for this bridge comprises a data
acquisition and processing system with a total of approximate 179 sensors,
including accelerometers, OFBG sensors, displacement transducers, anemometers,

temperature sensors and weight-in-motion, permanently installed on the bridge.

GPS

GPS

GPS

(a) Location of sensors on the Yonghe Bridge

YYL-4

K3

Strain gauge of concrete

Reference temperature gauge
T1
K4

K5

YYL-1

(b) Location of FBG sensors in segments 1,2

K3T2 YYL-5

YYL-3
K2
T1
K1
YYL-2

YYL-6
K3

Strain gauge
of steel bar

T3
K5
YYL-7

YYL-8

(c) Location of FBG sensors in segments 3,4

Figure 11 Diagram of the Yonghe Bridge and the location of the FBG sensors
1.0

0.6
Empirical probability density function
Theoretical probability density function
Empirical cumulative distribution function
Theoretical cumulative distribution function

0.03
0.02

0.4

0.2

0.01

Bending Moment (N.m)

0.8

0.04

0.00

Cumulative Probability

Probability Density

0.05

0.035

x 10

0.030

-2
-4
-6

Napierian logarithm of vehicle loads

-10
0

6 months

0.020

15 years
20 years

1 month

0.025

25 years
30 years

Origin

0.015
0.010
0.005

-8

0.0

10 years

1 year 5 years

(a) Live Load moment

Probability Density

0.06

24

48

72

96

Time (h)

120

144

168

0.000
0.0

2.5

5.0

7.5

10.0

12.5

15.0

Bending Moment (N.m)

17.5

20.0 6 22.5
10

Figure 12 Measured vehicle, bending moment and its extreme value probability
1.0
0.9

Cable C1
Cable C10

Damage index D

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

12

16

20

24

28

32

Time year

Figure 13 Measured stress of smart cables and fatigue damage evolution of cables

It can be seen from Figure 12 that the three weighted normal distribution can
perfectly fit the distribution of logarithm of vehicle loads. The bending moment
caused by live load can be obtained from the overall measured strain through
removing creep strain, temperature-induced strain and dead load-induced strain.
The probability of extreme value of bending moment for various return periods may
be further derived based on the measured strain, as shown in Figure 12.
The time history of stress of cables can be real time monitored using the
embedded OFBG sensors and then the rainflow is employed to calculate the fatigue
damage evolution, as shown in Figure 13. It can be seen that the fatigue damage of
short cable is much severer than that of long cable.
SHM System for the China National Aquatics Center
The China National Aquatics Center (CNAC) was built for the swimming

games of 2008 Summer Olympics. The steel space frame has top chord and bottom
chord as well as web members. Figure 14 presents the overall perspective of this
space structure. A SHM system has been implemented into the CNAC, including
total 32 uniaxial, biaxial and 3-D accelerometers, 260 OFBG strain and temperature
sensors, 29 pressure meters, and 1 anemoscope. This SHM system has been
operating since Jan., 2008. Based on the accumulated data, the relationship of
modal parameters with temperature is shown in Figure 14. It can be seen that some
modal frequencies linearly decrease with increase of temperature, whereas, to the
contrary for the other modal frequencies. In addition, the modal frequencies for this
kind of structure are so close to each other, so it is difficult to detect damage and
pre-warning using modal parameters for this structure. The pre-warning based on
measured strain is a potential way and results are shown in Figure 14.

1.15

1.15
Feb.

May

Fitted

Fitted

95%

1
0.95

Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)

Frequency (Hz)

May

1.1

1.05

0.9
10

1.25
Feb.

95%

1.1

1.05
1
0.95

20

30
40
50
Temperature ()

Mode 1

60

0.9
10

20

30
40
50
Temperature ()

Mode 2

60

1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
10

Feb.
20

May

Fitted

30
40
50
Temperature ()

95%
60

Mode 3

Measured strain-based pre-warning method

Figure 14 China National Aquatics Center and measured results

KEY CHALLENGES AND ISSUES IN SHM

Although great progresses have been made in SHM, some challenges still exist
and following issues should be paid more attention.
(1) The amount of sensors is too few to compare with the number of degree of
freedom of structure self. The measurement is not enough to obtain accurate results
and leads to ill-condition solution in reverse problem. The distributed sensors like
neuron of human body are anticipated to be realized in the future.
(2) The lives of sensors and data acquisition system are much shorter than that

of civil structures. The sensors with long life are anticipated to be developed in the
future. In addition, other possible solution way is to research replaceable technology
of sensors and replaceable sensors. The stability of sensors for long-term service,
e.g. zero-drift, is still a problem to be solved.
(3) The chemical parameters of durability, e.g. acid, alkali, chloride, corrosion,
ageing of materials and etc, are difficult to monitoring. Because these parameters
are associated with performance of a structure and structural members, they are
very important for making decisions on structural safety, warning and reliability
prediction.
(4) The sensing technology for quantificationally monitoring failure and
collapse process of a structure under extreme events is still on the way, which is
very important for understanding the collapse mechanism of a structure.
(5) The robustness of sensors in harsh environment is anticipated to be
improved.
(6) The wireless sensor networks and the wireless-based movable topology
sensor networks should be further studied.
(7) The vibration-based damage diagnostic approaches are insensitive to minor
and local damage. Novel approaches are anticipated to study. Nonlinear structural
dynamics may be a potential way to resolve this problem.
(8) There is no standard element in civil structure unlike mechanical system,
leading to no fixed feature of damage and make damage detection be more difficult.
(9) The ambient and the structural system are time-variant, which increase the
difficult to identify minor and local damage. Novel approaches, which may either
distinctly or implicitly consider effects of time-variance on modal parameters, are
expected to investigate.
(10)
The uncertainty and measurement noise impede accuracy of damage
detection. The approaches with robustness to noise and uncertainty, or probability
damage detection approaches should be further researched.
(11)
Damage detection approaches and model updating techniques, which
can provide more detailed damage information, should be proposed for safety and
reliability evaluation.
(12)
Information fusion-based damage detection approaches, which
integrate monitored data from various kinds of sensors, are anticipated to develop.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is supported by grants from NSFC (Grant No.50538020 and
50525823), National High Technology Research and Development Program of
China (863 Program) (No. 2007AA04Z435).

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