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Fatigue assessment of steel bridges.

Research · July 2020

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Richard Culwick
University of Birmingham
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 Workstream 1: Fatigue assessment of
steel bridges
Richard Culwick

The University of Birmingham

Abstract: Rail Bridges and tunnels are critical components of the railway infrastructure. Therefore, they
must be effectively monitored and maintained to ensure continued safe operation under heavy rolling
stock traffic. For practical use in the railway operating environment remote condition monitoring
systems must result in minimum disruption and enhance traffic potential along the railway network.
The Acoustic Emission methods discussed in the present study offer the capability of meeting this
particular challenge at an acceptable cost to the industry and without resulting in a fundamental
change in available resources.

Objectives:

The development of an Acoustic Emission (AE) remote condition monitoring system to effectively
monitor the structural health of rail assets. This system aims to be self-powering and passive to ensure
there is no impact on the efficient running of the network. In order to provide maximum functionality
the system will monitor and report faults in real time. This will provide information on crack evolution
with time and accurate assessment of the severity based on analysis of the AE waveforms recorded
by the system. The analysed results will be reported in line with current standards and procedures to
ensure smooth transition from current state of the art approaches based on manual and train-based
inspection. Complete AE waveforms will be recorded and analysed in order to identify the
characteristic features contained in the signals that are associated with crack growth in the different
stages of crack growth and when in the presence of defects.

State-of-the-art planned development:

The system developed as part of the present study aims to utilise the full potential of the AE
technology well-beyond current state of the art based on methods reported as early as 1972 by
Hartbower et al. (Hartbower et al., 1972). As defects grow through a structure elastic stress waves are
released, subsequently propagating through the material. These elastic stress waves can be detected
using passive piezoelectric sensors. By capturing and analysing complete AE waveforms the severity
and crack growth behaviour can be characterised apart from locating the exact position of detected
defects.

The developed AE remote condition monitoring technique presents a step change in monitoring of
railway assets capability, removing the need for regular access the network for structural health
evaluation. Moreover, it enables highly accurate real time information on the structural integrity of
critical parts of the railway network. This contributes to the noteworthy enhancement of the efficiency
and reliability of the railway, resulting in a potentially large reduction in manual and train-based
inspection as well as minimisation of unplanned maintenance leading to an overall cost saving for the
rail industry.

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 Experimental Methodology:

Initial investigations have been carried out under laboratory conditions simulating cyclic loading of
components using three-point fatigue testing of R220 steel the composition of which is given in Table
1. Field tests will also be completed to ensure compatibility and confirm the laboratory results.

C Si Mn P S Cr V Al
0.5-0.6 0.2-0.6 1-1.25 <=0.025 0.008-0.035 <=0.15 <=0.03 <=0.03
Table 1: The composition of R220 grade steel as listed by British steel. Test samples have been produced
from this grade of steel in the initial stages of this project (BritishSteel, 2018).

Laboratory investigation:

As access to rail infrastructure is limited any development of equipment must first be tested under
laboratory conditions to ensure its capability and compatibility with rail infrastructure.

Samples R220 steel were machined to dimensions of 120x10x20mm and spark wire notched to a depth
of 2 mm. The samples were initially pre-cracked using an Amsler 20 kN Vibraphore under a load of
0.85-8.5kN at a frequency of 100Hz until a crack had initiated, usually detected at just under 1 mm in
length creating an overall crack length of just under 3 mm. Once a crack had initiated the samples
were moved to a DARTEC 50kN servo-hydraulic universal test machine and loaded in three-point
bending oscillating at 1 Hz in a loading range of 0.65-6.5 kN.

To monitor the AE signals generated, two R50a sensors produced by PAC where attached using
ARALDITE to the surface of the sample (figure 1). The signals were passed through a pre-amp and
amplifier and connected to a computer using an AGILENT 2531A USB DAQ. Data was collected using
both AE-win and a customize system under development to fulfil this project. Crack growth was also
monitored using Direct current potential drop (DCPD) to allow the acoustic signals generated to be
compared to the crack growth rate.

DCPD voltage
R50a AE application
sensor

DCPD measuring
probes

Figure 1: Image showing a sample under three-point bending with the R50a AE sensors and DCPD
monitoring probes in place.

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The samples were all cyclic loaded up to failure. Subsequently, fractographic investigation of the failed
sample surfaces was carried out. The analysis of the AE data in conjunction with fractographic
investigation of the samples tested allows the identification of key features on the crack surface
corresponding to changes in AE activity recorded. The unique waveforms and AE characteristics can
therefore be identified for both the severity of the fatigue crack and the presence of different defects
within the sample structure.

Under field conditions background noise is excluded using a combination of signal filtering and post-
processing. Previous work has proved this to be effective (H. Gunel et al., 2017). Under laboratory
conditions further steps will be taken in addition to these processing steps in order to produce clean
base identification signals. For this to be achieved a known undamaged reference sample has been
tested under the same conditions as the notched samples considered in the present study. This
provides a benchmark background AE signal containing no crack-related features that can be
subtracted during subsequent analysis. This filtering methodology can be employed under railway
operating conditions.

Once reference AE signals have been identified, an automated identification system will be developed
and tested on further sets of samples to ensure accuracy. In consultation with rail industry partners
the system will be designed to provide data to network operators and maintainers in line with current
reporting procedures and standards. On detection of a crack growth event a log will be generated
categorizing the severity of the crack in line with current reporting systems. Within the log more
details will be given including location and the fatigue crack growth behaviour. This will allow
maintenance teams to rapidly assess the action to be taken. Future integration may allow for
automatic rerouting and speed limiting of rail traffic in the affected area, as well as automatic assigning
of tasks to maintenance teams.

Field studies:

Whilst this laboratory work will provide an initial framework from which to base the AE system, field
tests will also be required to refine the detection criteria and noise exclusion parameters. Initially
these field studies will use the same custom system used in the laboratory tests, work must however
be done to adapt the system for long term use and integration into the network. The current
equipment uses a desktop type computer to monitor and analyse the AE data generated however in
practice smaller less power-hungry equipment will be required. This project aims to meet this demand
using self-powering local sensors able to wirelessly upload data to a central hub for processing.

The number of sensors required and the distance over which data must be transmitted will vary
depending on the particular infrastructure to be monitored. Bridges across rail networks vary in size
from short sections spanning trenches or streams to large structures kilometres long crossing valleys
and large rivers.

For a defect to be located at least two sensors are required based on linear location. If complex
components are monitored, then at least three sensors are required for point location. For most
bridge applications multiple sensors are required to provide coverage for the entire structure, with
the exact number being dictated by the size of the bridge. Also, the more complex the design of the
bridge the more sensors would be required to provide accurate location information across the
structure.

Whilst some of this may be simulated in smaller scales away from the network, to gain a clear and
accurate model further testing will be required on a variety of bridge designs to ensure the most
accurate information possible is provided to network operators. The project will also investigate the

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feasibility of a sensor array monitoring several different assets at once for example monitoring RCF
growth in rails as well as the structural health of the bridge.

Potential of practical implementation and market intakes:

The AE technology being developed in this project has the potential to provide structural health
monitoring solutions across a wide range assets, both within the rail industry and in other industries
where accurate real-time passive monitoring of crack growth is required. The system can be easily
adapted to meet the demands of different applications whether that be the size of the sensors,
reporting capability or environmental factors such as temperature resistance. The advantage this
adaptability offers to the rail industry is twofold; firstly, sensor systems can be adapted to meet
individual demands of different rail environments and the assets being monitored. Secondly by
opening up the system to wider industries the overall cost of the product can be reduced.

Whilst the cost of the implementation of this system can be reduced by the wider application of these
sensor arrays, a cost is still required for its implementation. It must therefore at the very least offer a
substantial improvement on current monitoring methods, and ideally lead to an overall cost reduction
for network operators. AE emission monitoring techniques are able to achieve these challenges.

Current monitoring methods widely used across rail networks require access to the infrastructure to
allow physical checks to take place, thus impacting on the running of the network leading to delays
and cancellations. This has an economic cost not only in terms of the man power required to carry out
these checks but also in the knock on costs associated with shutting down the network (Yilmazer,
2012) particularly at short notice. In the year 2017-2018 Network Rail spent £3793m on replacement
and maintenance, the equivalent to 32.91% of its budget (ORR, 2018). With such a large proportion of
its budget assigned to replacement and maintenance the implementation of a system that is able to
streamline this process and ensure the correct maintenance and replacement is implemented,
presents the opportunity for large cost savings.

Remote AE monitoring is able to meet these challenges and go further, increasing the economic
viability of the system under development. Whilst initial access is required to the asses to install the
system, during service no access is required to the network until a defect is indicated. At this point the
highly accurate information provided about the nature of the defect will allow maintenance planners
to take the most suitable course of action. To reduce the impact of that failure real time monitoring
can ensure were possible that corrective maintenance and replacement is carried out outside normal
operation of the network or at less congested periods as. This is particularly important as many
networks move towards twenty-four hour operations.

Work has begun into the feasibility of AE monitoring meeting these challenges, and the results have
shown great potential. Following initial laboratory testing the AE data was analysed in several ways to
explore the information which could be obtained using this technique. Firstly the AE signals per cycle
where compared to a Paris law plot generated using the DCPD data to find the crack growth per cycle
and the change in Delta K to assesses whether the AE data also follows the Paris law. Should this be
found to be the case this not only shows that there are changes in AE energy corresponding directly
to crack growth but also provides the basis from which to monitor and assess the severity of any
defects present within a structure.

It can be seen in figure 2, showing the number AE signals recorded per cycle, that the AE signals do
follow the general trend of the Paris law plot, showing an upwards trend in AE counts per cycle with
increase in Delta K. The DPCD data plot is more linear than that of the AE data plot, and therefore an
exact comparison cannot be drawn between the AE data and the Paris law meaning further analysis

4
of the data is required to create an accurate model, the trend shown does show the potential of AE
monitoring.

Figure 2: Showing a comparison on the change in the number of AE signals recorded per cycle following
threshold filtering and the change in crack length per cycle recorded using DCPD plotted against Delta
K. the DCPD data can be seen to follow the Paris law as expected.

Figure 3 gives some insight into the cause of variation in the AE results. By plotting the cumulative
energy change against the number of cycles and comparing again to the crack length plot produced
from the DPCD data, it can be seen that there’s is still a discrepancy between the two techniques,
however this is now seen as varying jumps in AE energy. If these peaks can be associated with
particular crack growth behaviour the AE data would be able to provide a greater level of detail on the
way in which a crack is propagating.

(a)

Figure 3: graph showing a comparison of the crack growth as monitored using DCPD in comparison to
the cumulative AE energy. Spikes in AE energy can be seen compared to the smoother DCPD curve.
Following imaging of the fracture surface features corresponding to these spikes in AE energy, for
example peak (a) is identified in figure 4.

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To identify what the cause of these peaks in data the fracture surfaced of the sample was imagined.
In doing so peaks in acoustic emission peaks have been linked to features on the fracture surface that
have led to rapid brittle crack growth as can be seen in figure 4. Whilst this linking of these features
to the AE energy confirm that the AE data can be linked to crack growth and give a greater
understanding of the crack growth behaviour, the identification of the defects causing this brittle
fracture and the severity of such events is required to allow real time AE monitoring, to be successful.

Iron carbide

MnS inclusion

Figure 4: SEM micrograph showing iron carbide and MnS inclusions corresponding to a spike in AE
energy seen at point (a) in figure 3.

To achieve this aim, the custom system being designed in this project analyses the complete AE
waveforms. By doing so characteristic waveforms can be identified for different stages of crack growth
and defects within the structure, thereby providing a complete picture of the current structural health
of the asset being monitored. This technique will also build resilience into the monitoring system as a
single reading will give an idea of the current structural health of the asset meaning that if a sensor
fails and signals are lost the asset can still be monitored. This is an advantage over the other AE analysis
techniques which require continues monitoring of the asset with no failure.

Early analysis of these complete waveforms has proved promising with crack growth peaks clearly
visible figure 5 even without processing of the signal to remove background noise. The waveforms
must however be further processed to identify the waveform characteristics required. Early steps of
this processing using Fast Fourier transforms have begun and can be seen in figure 6.

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 (a) (b)

Figure 5: Raw unprocessed complete AE waveform showing the sinusoidal loading sequence and clear
sharp peak corresponding to crack growth separated from the background machine noise (a). Some
peaks can also be observed on crack closure as the surfaces interact (b).

Figure 6: Plot of the complete waveform shown in figure 5 following Fast Fourier transformation
analysis. By analysing the waveform in this way characteristics frequency patterns can be identified
for each stage of crack growth and in the presence of defects.

It can be seen from this data that whilst further investigations are need to fully analyse the AE data
generated during different crack growth scenarios and the presence of different defects, changes in
crack growth behaviour and the presence of defects can already be detected an there is a clear path
forward to design a custom built system to automatically identify characteristic waveforms and
therefore provide real-time accurate structural health monitoring.

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Timing:

Initial trails have proved the concept feasibility; however it is clear that further work is needed both
in the laboratory and in-situ before the system can be implemented more widespread in the field.
Development of the system under laboratory conditions is already well underway.

To reduce the lead time before a system becomes avaible field tests are also running alongside
laboratory work where possible the details of which have been detailed above. Whilst running field
tests in tandem with laboratory work it is clear that further test will need to be completed once all
laboratory testing is completed. The time from completion of laboratory work to full implementation
will depend on the applications to which this technology is deployed.

Competence and economic needs:

The technology developed will deliver new competences to the rail industry. It will enable new
technical capabilities that can result in drastic reduction of Operational and Maintenance (O&M)
costs. Moreover, the implementation of the new AE remote condition monitoring system will
contribute towards the increased availability of the railway network, helping optimise the capacity
factor and maximise the traffic density. This will be achieved whilst keeping inspection and
monitoring costs at a minimum, enhancing maintenance strategy efficiency.

Acknowledgments:

The author wishes to thank the School of Metallurgy and Materials at the University of Birmingham
and EPSRC for the provision of funding. The author also wishes to acknowledge the technical support
offered by Network Rail and Dr Patrick Vallely, Head of Programme Planning at Network Rail, in
particular.

References:

BRITISHSTEEL. 2018. steel-grade-dimensions-and-properties.pdf [Online]. Available:

https://britishsteel.co.uk/media/40810/steel-grade-dimensions-and-properties.pdf
[Accessed 21/03/ 2018].
H. GUNEL, E., YILMAZER, P., BICER, U., ALTINTAS, B., AMINI, A., VALLELY, P., HUANG, Z., GARCÍA
MÁRQUEZ, F. P., KAEWUNRUEN, S. & PAPAELIAS, M. 2017. Increasing the Reliability,
Availability, Maintainability and Safety of Railway Network Operations through effective
Remote Condition Monitoring.
HARTBOWER, C. E., REUTER, W. G., MORAIS, C. F. & NASA 1972. Correlation of stress wave emission
characteristics with fracture in aluminium alloys.
KAISER, J. 1950. Untersuchungen über das Auftreten von Geräuschen beim Zugversuch. PhD,
Technische Hochschule München.
ORR 2018. Annual efficiency and finance assessment of Network Rail 2017-18. In: ROAD, O. O. R. A.
(ed.).
YILMAZER, P. 2012. Structural health condition monitoring of rails using acoustic emission techniques
/ Pinar Yilmazer.