Journal of Physics: Conference Series

PAPER • OPEN ACCESS

Recent citations
Development of non-conventional instrument - Modelling and optimisation of design of
transformers (NCIT) using smart materials non-conventional instrument transformers
Bojan Nikoli and Sanowar Khan

- Modelling of non-conventional instrument

To cite this article: Bojan Nikoli et al 2016 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 772 012065 transformers (NCIT) by Finite Element
Method FEM
Bojan Nikoli&#263 and and Sanowar Khan

View the article online for updates and enhancements.

This content was downloaded from IP address 200.24.4.3 on 09/12/2019 at 14:24

IMEKO2016 TC1-TC7-TC13 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 772 (2016) 012065 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/772/1/012065

Development of non-conventional instrument transformers

(NCIT) using smart materials

Bojan Nikolić, Sanowar Khan and Nikita Gabdullin

City University London, Northampton Square, London EC1V 0HB
United Kingdom

E-mail: bnikolic@ieee.org

Abstract. In this paper is presented a novel approach for current measurement using smart
materials, magnetic shape memory (MSM) alloys. Their shape change can be controlled by the
application of magnetic field or mechanical stress. This gives the possibility to measure
currents by correlating the magnetic field produced by the current, shape change in an MSM-
based sensor and the voltage output of a Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
actuated by this shape change. In the first part of the paper is presented a review of existing
current measurement sensors by comparing their properties and highlighting their advantages
and disadvantages.

1. Introduction
Under the term conventional instrument transformers is usually considered measurement of current
and voltage using transformers with an iron core. Their design has reached its optimum and has not
changed significantly over the last few decades. With the development of electronics and application
of electronic circuits in all spheres of today’s life, one of their main disadvantages came to the fore -
incompatibility with modern measurement equipment.
This is one of the main reasons why the so-called non-conventional instrument transformers
(NCIT) have gained considerable attention in recent years. NCITs are usually transformers without
ferromagnetic core or those, which, instead of the standard iron core use other materials that have a
better response to rapidly changing signals. As a part of measurement systems, different electrical
circuits are used with NCITs. Moreover, they are often integrated in the NCIT. This design flexibility
provides full compatibility with modern digital measuring devices and opens up possibilities for many
applications.
Today, there are many different devices and principles for current measurement. The existence of a
significant number of papers dealing with this subject shows popularity and importance of this topic,
but also shows that there still exist many unsolved problems and many challenges that need to be
overcome. Some of the proposed measurement principles have already found industrial application,
while others are still explored for such applications.
This paper presents a review of existing principles for sensors for current measurement and
proposes a novel approach using magnetic shape memory (MSM) smart alloys, which change shape
when subjected to magnetic fields.

Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
IMEKO2016 TC1-TC7-TC13 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 772 (2016) 012065 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/772/1/012065

2. Sensors for current measurement

2.1. Rogowski coils

One of the most popular sensors for current measurement is Rogowski coil. These coils do not have
any ferromagnetic core, which allows measurement of current over a wide range. Using the same
Rogowski coil, it is possible to measure currents larger than 1 MA and as small as few mA [1].
Furthermore, current measurement over this wide range is linear since there is no core that can get
saturated.
Their measurement principle is based on “sensing” the magnetic field produced by current,
meaning that they cannot be used for measurement of DC currents. The measurement frequency range
is approximately 0.1 Hz-1 GHz [1], so they can be successfully used for the measurement of AC
currents as well as transients.
Rogowski coils are small, compact, lightweight and their power consumption is very low, which
makes current measurements in high-voltage circuits easy and safe owing to the absence of any
electrical connections with the measured circuit. There are also the so-called flexible designs of
Rogowski coils which allow measurements without interrupting the current circuit. Rogowski sensors
cause no disturbances to the measurement system since they draw no power from the main circuit and
the inductance added into the circuit due to the presence of the coil is only a few pH [1].
Moreover, these coils require almost no maintenance, except for periodical examination for
physical damage if the coils are exposed to some harsh environment. They can be calibrated at any
convenient current level and later used for any current level, including very large currents. They cause
no damage by large overload.
Furthermore, considering that the same device can be used for current measurement, control and
protection and that it has low price, it is more than clear why Rogowski coils found wide applications
in industry. However, there are several drawbacks which points to other instruments for current
measurement.
One of their main disadvantages is sensitivity to surrounding electromagnetic fields, meaning that
some kind of shielding is needed. Their output is very small which necessitates proper grounding and
shielding. The voltage on the coil’s output is in order of µV for primary currents bellow 100A.
However, at same time, such low sensitivity can actually be their advantage in some applications.
Measurement errors are typically in the range 5-20% of rated current [2], but there are some solutions
which increased their accuracy [3] where the error is in the range of 0.5-5%. This problem is partly
solved by the design of printed circuit board Rogowski coils, which have better accuracy (0.2-0.5%)
and higher immunity to external fields compared to classical Rogowski coils, but at same time their
output voltage is lower [4].
Another drawback of Rogowski-coil based current measurement is the need for an integrator for
vast majority of measurements. In addition to the fact that the integrator affects the accuracy and
stability of Rogowski sensor, the measurements conducted usually require that sampling, A/D
conversions and data transmissions are done at measurement locations, which can be impractical in
some situations. This also means that if all these electrical components are placed at a high voltage
site, a separate power supply is needed.

2.2. Optical current sensors

Optical current sensors usually use one of the two principles for measurement of current: change of
fibre-grating wavelength or the Faraday’s effect. There are two main types of fibre gratings: short-
period gratings or fibre Bragg gratings (FBG) and long-period gratings (LPG). It should be noted at
the outset that current sensors based on Faraday’s effect (effect of plane rotation of polarised light
when it travels through a magnetic field) have too low sensitivity for practical applications, are
extremely difficult to implement in an accurate and stable way and may be only affordable for high
voltage lines [5], [6]; this means more attention will be paid to sensors based on the first of the above
optical principles.

2
IMEKO2016 TC1-TC7-TC13 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 772 (2016) 012065 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/772/1/012065

One of the main advantages of optical sensors is the fact that there is an optical signal at their
output which makes them very convenient for use in modern systems where a lot of fibre optics is
used. Unlike Rogowski sensors optical sensors are not sensitive to surrounding electromagnetic fields
and they are smaller and more compatible to the requirements of modern smart grids. Their
nonconductive nature makes them electrically passive which, along with their chemical inertness make
them an excellent choice for measurement in corrosive and explosive environments. Generally, optical
sensors don’t saturate and have linear outputs comparable to Rogowski sensors.
Optical sensors are lightweight which helps to produce portable equipment, but also a collector,
which contains all accompanying electrical components and, hence does not need to be placed near the
measurement location when fibre optics is used. This is very useful for current measurement in the
presence of high voltages. This is not only because it is easier to place equipment and manipulate later
with it, but also because sensor electronics at the ground level is separated from sensing fibre optic at
high voltage. They can be easily used for remote operations and inspections over long distances.
Even though it is possible to add to the list of very positive features of optical sensors features as large
bandwidth and possibility to achieve highly accurate current measurements, there are also several
drawbacks of this technology. They are very sensitive to vibrations, temperature and other
environmental effects making outdoor installation complex. The temperature sensitivity of FBG is
typically around 6 pm/˚C and for LPG can be as high as 3.4 nm/˚C [7]. Their output data are more
unstable than those of the Rogowski coils [2].
The time delay of fibre optic current sensor’s output signal is generally around 100µs [8], while
some magneto-optical sensors (sensors which use the Faraday’s effect) with GHz response have been
produced [9]. One of the main disadvantages of current measurement using FBG or LPG is often very
complex demodulation system needed for the wavelength shift measurement. High production costs
due to high demand for materials and complex production process make it difficult for them to achieve
mass production.

2.3. Magnetic sensors

Magnetic sensors attracted a lot of attention in recent years. This primarily attributable to the fact that
these sensors are seen to be better in a good number of theoretical papers dealing with these materials
and proposing different operating principles. The proposed measurement systems using magnetic
sensors usually involve some other transducers and other technologies (very often optical fibre
grating), what makes these systems very complex and susceptible to errors. So far many such
magnetic sensors have been proposed. Among them are magnetoresistive sensors, which work on the
principle that magnetic field affects the resistance of the sensor. This could be based on anisotropic
magnetoresistance (AMR), giant magnetoresistance (GMR), magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) and giant
magnetoimpedance (GMI) sensors. Sensors which use magnetic force produced by measured current
have been also proposed, as well as sensors made of magnetostrictive materials. Of particular interests
are magnetostrictive materials, which belong to the group of giant magnetostrictive materials (GMM).
All magnetic sensors are generally very small and light which makes them interesting for many
applications.
Magnetoresistive magnetometers can be energised by applying a constant current and the output
voltage is proportional to the strength of magnetic field. They are especially attractive for low cost
applications. Magnetoresistive sensors are generally energy efficient devices (for example, AMR
sensors’ power consumption is less than 1W) [5]. They can sense very low magnetic fields (for AMR
sensors this can be as low as 0.1nT) as well as a quite strong fields (GMR sensors can be used in fields
as large as 0.1T) [9].
Increased interest in magnetostrictive sensor technology results from improvements in the
performance of magnetostrictive materials and led to an increased use of these sensors for a wide
range of applications.
Despite what has been said earlier, these magnetic sensors have several serious drawbacks that
prevent their even wider application. They tend to be highly nonlinear and suffer from hysteresis

3
IMEKO2016 TC1-TC7-TC13 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 772 (2016) 012065 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/772/1/012065

which usually requires some compensation methods to be used to linearise the sensor. Besides, they
are also sensitive to temperature changes and, often to vibrations. For example, magnetostrictive
materials have a temperature dependence in the order of 5ppm/˚C [6].
Magnetostriction is a unipolar phenomenon which means that a positive strain is produced for
opposite directions of the magnetic field. Furthermore, relatively large magnetic field is needed to
make use of the magnetostrictive property. Also since magnetostrictive sensors do not transduce
current directly into an electrical form, at least one more step is needed for current measurement.
For magnetoresitive materials the change of resistance caused by an external magnetic field is very
small. For example, for permalloy, which is the most common used material for AMR sensors, this is
less than 4% [9].
The impedance of GMI sensors depends strongly on both the magnetic field strength and its
frequency. To benefit from the GMI effect, high frequency current of the order of GHz is needed
which limits their application as sensors [9].

2.4. Hall effect sensors

Another very popular method of measuring current is by the use of Hall effect sensors. These sensors
have easier fabrication process and lower cost compared to Rogowski coils and optical sensors. They
can measure currents over a relatively wide frequency range (from DC-1MHz [9]) provided that the
current values are between 10mA and 35kA [10]. They are usually very small and linear (linearity
errors less than 1% over significant operating range) [11] and have modest power consumption
between 0.1-0.2W [9]. It is possible to install them without interrupting current circuit.
In general, Hall effect sensors are sensitive to temperature, stress and ageing. Consequently these
sensors have non-negligible offset and sensitivity drifts. Without calibration, the typical temperature
drift is 500ppm/˚C and ageing drift of up to 2% [12]. They are also affected by external magnetic
fields and can be very sensitive to the relative positioning of the current-carrying conductor and the
sensor. Hall effect sensors are usually made of semiconductor materials which are highly
piezoresistive.

3. Novel sensing principle based on ‘smart alloys’

Magnetic shape memory (MSM) alloys are relatively new “smart” materials which change their shape
when subjected to external magnetic fields. The Ni-Mn-Ga alloys are the most studied MSM alloys
which have been shown to have enormous potential to be used in actuators and sensors. MSM alloys
have a remarkable magnetic field induced (MFI) strain, maximum theoretical value of which varies,
depending on material’s microstructure from 6% for the most studied five-layered modulated (10M) to
12% for non-modulated (NM) [13], [14]. These are more than one order of magnitude higher than
maximum strains produced by conventional magnetostrictive and piezoelectric materials reaching
strains of well-known thermal shape memory alloys. However, MSM alloys respond to magnetic field
excitation significantly faster and are predicted to have very long fatigue life if certain operational
conditions are met. As it is obvious from their reversible properties MSM alloys can be used both as
position and stress sensors [15].
The basic principle of a novel current sensor based on MSM alloys, proposed in this paper relies
upon the proportionality of the strain produced by an MSM element which is subjected to a magnetic
field produced by the current whose magnitude is being measured. This is shown schematically in
figure 1 in which the output voltage, V generated by the LVDT is proportional to the strain, ε
produced by the MSM element. This MSM strain is in turn proportional to the magnetic field B which
is ultimately proportional to the current in the conductor, I (measurand).

4
IMEKO2016 TC1-TC7-TC13 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 772 (2016) 012065 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/772/1/012065

I B ɛ V
CONDUCTOR MSM LVDT

Figure 1. Schematic showing the proposed current-measurement system

based on magnetic shape memory (MSM) alloys.

The sensor system consists of an MSM element and a suitably coupled LVDT. The magnetic field
(B) produced by a current (I) in the conductor is converted into displacement of the MSM element (ɛ)
which changes the output voltage (V) of the LDVT. This approach allows sensing of very high
currents remotely essentially by sensing the magnetic field produced by these currents.
The main disadvantages of the proposed MSM-based current sensors are attributable to temperature
sensitivity and magneto-mechanical hysteresis of currently available MSM alloys. The former is
associated with the upper temperature limit determined by the austenite-martensite transformation
temperature of 60-80˚C [16] for conventional alloys and by the temperature-dependent twinning
stress. The hysteresis is also associated with this twinning stress. The twinning stress can be seen as an
energy barrier to be overcome for propagating twin boundaries in the MSM material and hence,
changing the shape of the MSM element. Consequently the sensitivity of the proposed sensor is
inversely proportional to the magnitude of the twinning stress. Twinning stress is still considerably
high for conventional type I twin MSM elements. However, less studied type II twin crystals can be
very promising for sensor applications due to low twinning stress which does not depend on
temperature [17]. This results in very low hysteresis together with good temperature stability.
Due to larger strain range MSM alloys can be used in applications where GMM materials are not
adequate. For instance, a typical 20mm MSM element with 5M microstructure elongates by up to
1.2mm under no larger than 0.6T magnetic field if the mechanical load is small [18]. Furthermore,
relatively high magnetic field is needed to “activate” an MSM element which essentially suggests their
possible application for measuring only large currents.

4. Conclusions
It seems the incompatibility of conventional measurement transformers with modern equipment is one
of the main reasons for searching novel current-sensing and measurement solutions based on different
alternative principles. The first part of this paper gives a brief overview of already existing sensing
principles of current NCITs by comparing their properties and focusing on their advantages and
disadvantages.
Although Rogowski coils, Hall sensors, conventional optical sensors as well as measurement
principles based on FBG are dominant at the moment, there are still many unsolved problems.
In this paper, though at an early stage we have proposed the concept of a novel alternative approach
for current measurement using magnetic shape memory (MSM) smart materials. The main idea behind
this approach is to correlate the magnetic field produced by the current to be measured with the output
voltage of an LVDT actuated by the shape change of an MSM element under the magnetic field.
There are, however many challenges to be overcome before a viable prototype can be designed, built
and tested under laboratory and ‘field’ conditions. These include magneto-mechanical and thermo-
mechanical stability of MSM material under variable ambient conditions, achievement of high degree
of linearity at every stages of transition between the physical sub-systems shown in figure 1. This
essentially means ensuring linearity of interdependent variables I, B, ɛ and V. This work is being
undertaken at present by numerical finite element modelling and design.

5
IMEKO2016 TC1-TC7-TC13 IOP Publishing
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 772 (2016) 012065 doi:10.1088/1742-6596/772/1/012065

References
[1] Metwally I A 2010 Self-integrating Rogowski coil for high-impulse current measurement
IEEE Trans. on Instrumentation and Measurement 59 No. 2 353-360
[2] Cao L 2010 Application Comparison of Rogowski-type and Optical-type Electronic Current
Transformer CICED Int. Conf. (Nanjing) pp. 1-5
[3] Frolov G, Grudin O and Warland T 2008 Compensating Rogowski coils for current
measurement Electronic Engineering Times pp. 31-32
[4] Kojovic Lj A et al. 2010 Practical Aspects of Rogowski Coil Applications to Relaying IEEE
PSRC Special Report
[5] Kirkham H 2009 Current Measurement Methods for the Smart Grid IEEE PES General Meeting
pp. 1-7
[6] Mora J, Díez A, Cruz J L and Andrés M V 2000 A magnetostrictive sensor interrogated by
fiber gratings for DC-current and temperature discrimination IEEE Photonics Technology
Letters 12, No. 12 1680-82
[7] Thyagarajan K and Ghatak A 2007 Fiber Optic Essentials (John Wiley & Sons Inc.).
[8] Viawan F A, Wang J, Wang Z and Ying Yang W 2009 Effect of Current Sensor Technology on
Distance Protection IEEE/PES Power Systems Conf. and Exposition pp 1-7
[9] Lenz J and Edelstein A S 2006 Magnetic sensors and their applications IEEE Sensors J 6 No.
3 631-649
[10] Tsai Y P, Chen K L, Chen Y R and Chen N 2014 Multifunctional coreless Hall-effect current
transformer for the protection and measurement of power systems IEEE Trans. on
Instrumentation and Measurement 63 No. 3 557-565.
[11] Ramsden E 2006 Hall-Effect Sensors: Theory and Application (Elsevier Inc.)
[12] Pastre M and Kayal M 2005 A Hall Sensor-Based Current Measurement Microsystem With
Continuous Gain Calibration IEEE PhD Research in Microelectronics and Electronics 2 95-
98
[13] Murray S J, Marioni M, Allen S M, O’Handley R C and Lograsso T A 2000 6% magnetic-field-
induced strain by twin-boundary motion in ferromagnetic Ni–Mn–Ga Appl. Phys. Lett. 77
No. 6 886
[14] Sozinov A, Lanska N, Soroka A and Zou W 2013 12% magnetic field-induced strain in Ni-Mn-
Ga-based non-modulated martensite Appl. Phys. Lett. 102 No. 2 021902
[15] Stephan J M, Pagounis E, Laufenberg M, Paul O, Ruther P and Reorientation A M 2011 A
novel concept for strain sensing based on the ferromagnetic shape memory alloy NiMnGa
IEEE Sens J 11 No. 11 2683–89
[16] Pagounis E, Chulist R, Szczerba M J and Laufenberg M 2014 High-temperature magnetic shape
memory actuation in a Ni–Mn–Ga single crystal Scr. Mater. 83 29–32
[17] Straka L, Soroka A, Seiner H, Hanninen H and Sozinov A 2012 Temperature dependence of
twinning stress of Type I and Type II twins in 10M modulated Ni-Mn-Ga martensite Scr.
Mater. 67 No. 1 25–28
[18] Pagounis E and Müllner P 2014 Recent Developments in Magnetic Shape Memory Actuation
Proc. Actuator 86–91