Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.1

A uniform beam of a thin-walled angle section as shown in Fig. 4.19 is

subjected to the bending M y ( M z = 0 ). Find the neutral axis and bending
stress distribution over the cross-section.

Figure 4.19

Thin-walled angle section

Solution:
(a) For finding the location of the centroid, we select the corner of the thin-walled
section as the origin of a Cartesian coordinate system with the horizontal and
vertical distances between the centroid and the origin denoted by y c and z c ,
respectively.
yc =

h t ( h / 2) h
=
2ht
4

zc =

h t ( h / 2) h
=
2ht
4

--- ANS
(b) Set up a Cartesian coordinate system (y, z) in the pane of the section with the
origin at the centroid. The moments of inertia with respect to this coordinate
system are (assume t << h)
Iy =

th 3
ht 3
5 3
+ th( h zc )2 +
+ thzc2 =
th in which parallel axis theorem for
12
12
24

moments of inertia has been employed and the term

ht 3
has been neglected.
12

th 3
ht 3
5 3
+ th( h yc )2 +
+ thyc2 =
th
12
12
24
1
= yzdA = yzdA + yzdA = th 3
8
A1
A2

Iz =
I yz

where,

yzdA =

A1

h zc

zc

y c ztdz = y c t (

z 2 h zc 1 3
) | zc = th
2
16

4.1.1

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yzdA =

h yc

z c ytdy = z c t (

yc

A2

y 2 h yc 1 3
) | yc = th
2
16

(c) Using equation (4.25) in the textbook,

xx =

I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz

I z M y I yz M z

y+

I y I z I yz

By substituting the known values we obtain

(1 / 8) M y
(5 / 24) M y
xx =
y
+
z
[(5 / 24)(5 / 24) (1 / 8) 2 ]th 3
[(5 / 24)(5 / 24) (1 / 8) 2 ]th 3
My
=
(15 z 9 y )
2th 3
--- ANS
Maximum positive stress:
At z = h z c =

xx =

My

3
h
h and y = y c =
4
4

(15 z 9 y ) =

27 M y

2th 3
4th 2
Maximum negative stress:
At z = z c =

xx =

My
2th

h
3
and y = h y c = h
4
4

(15 z 9 y ) =

21M y
4th 2

The absolute maximum stress is xx =

(d) The neutral axis is located along xx

xx =

27 M y

4th 2
=0

My

(15 z 9 y ) = 0 => 15 z 9 y = 0
2th 3
So the neutral plane is located at 15 z 9 y = 0 in the y-z coordinate system (the
centroid is the origin of this coordinate system).
--- ANS

4.1.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.2 Rotate the angle section of Fig. 4.19 counterclockwise for 45 o . Find the neutral
axis and the maximum bending stress. Compare the load capacity with that of
the original section given by Fig. 4.19.

Figure 4.19

Thin-walled angle section

Solution:
Remove the primes
in the coordinates

Set up a temporary Cartesian coordinate system with the origin at the corner of the
thin-walled section to find the centroid. The horizontal and vertical distances from the
centroid to the origin are denoted by yc and zc , respectively.
Because of the symmetry, yc = 0 . Assuming t << h , we obtain

zc =

2h t ( h / 2 2 )
h
=
2ht
2 2
--- ANS

(a) Moment of inertia

2t h 3 th 3
( ) =
12
12
2
2t h 3 th 3
Iz = 2
( ) =
3
3
2

Iy = 2

I xy = yzdA = 0 (this is always true for symmetric sections)

(b) Set up a new coordinate system (y, z). Using equation (4.25) in the textbook,
4.2.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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xx =

I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz

y '+

I z M y I yz M z
I y I z I yz

z'

and substituting the values of moments of inertia in the equation above, we obtain

xx =

My
Iy

z = 12

My
th 3

--- ANS
Maximum positive stress is at

z=

h
2 2

, => xx =

3 2M y
th 2

Maximum negative stress is at

z=

h
2 2

, => xx =

3 2M y
th 2

The absolute maximum stress is xx =

3 2M y

th 2
(c) The neutral axis (plane) is located along xx = 0 ,

xx = 12

My

z = 0 => z = 0
th 3
So the neutral axis coincides with the centroidal axis.
Note that this section in this particular position is symmetric with respect to the
y-z coordinate system. For symmetric sections the neutral axis always coincides
with the location of the centroid.
--- ANS
(d) The load capacity with the original section
For the same maximum bending stress in both beams,

xx =
=>

3 2 M y ,rotate
th 2

M y ,rotate
M y ,origin

27 M y ,origin
4th 2

27
= 1.59
12 2

The load capacity of the rotated section is 1.59 times that of the original section.
--- ANS

4.2.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.3

The stringer-web sections shown in Figs. 4.20, 4.21, and 4.22 are subjected to
the shear force Vz 0 , while V y = 0 . Find the bending stresses in the stringers
for the same bending moment M y . Which section is most effective in bending?

Figure 4.20

Stringer-web section

Figure 4.21

Stringer-web section

Figure 4.22

Stringer-web section

Solution:
The contribution of the thin sheets to bending is assumed to be negligible. Thus the
neutral axis is only depends on the cross-sectional area of the stringers. Also, assume
4.3.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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y and z are the horizontal axis and vertical axis, respectively. The origin of the system
is located at the centroid.
(a) Figure 4.20.
(1) Because of symmetry, the centroid is located at the middle of the vertical
web.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 2( 2 A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2

I z = Ai y i = 2( 2 A 0 2 ) = 0
2

I yz = Ai y i z i = 0
i

(3) Bending stress. Considering M y 0 and M z = 0

My

xx =

Iy

z=

My
4 Ah 2

The stresses at the stringer are

.

At z = h , xx =

At z = h , xx =

My
4 Ah

My
4 Ah

My

z=

4 Ah

z=

My
4 Ah
--- ANS

(b) Figure 4.21.

(1) Because of symmetry (when neglecting the effects of webs), the centroid is
located at the center of the section as shown in the figure.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2

h
2
I z = Ai y i = 4( A ( ) 2 ) = Ah 2
2
i
I yz = Ai y i z i = 0
i

(3) Bending stress. Considering M y 0 and M z = 0

xx =

I yz M y
I y I z I yz

y+

IzM y
I y I z I yz

z=

My
Iy

The stresses at the stringers are (y position is not involved)

4.3.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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My

At z = h , xx =

At z = h , xx =

4 Ah 2

My

z=

My
4 Ah 2

4 Ah

z=

My
4 Ah
--- ANS

(c) Figure 4.22.

(1) Again, when neglecting the effects of webs, the centroid is located at the
middle of the vertical web.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2

I z = Ai y i = 2( A h 2 ) = 2 Ah 2
2

I yz = Ai y i z i = 2( A h ( h)) = 2 Ah 2
i

(3) Bending stress. Considering M y 0 and M z = 0

xx =
=

I yz M y
I y I z I yz

My
2 Ah 2

y+

My
2 Ah 2

y+

IzM y
I y I z I yz

z=

2M y
[4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2

y+

2M y
[4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2

The stresses at the stringer are

At z = h , y = h ,

xx =
.

y+

My
2 Ah

z=

My
2 Ah 2

( h + h) = 0

My
2 Ah 2

y+

My
2 Ah 2

z=

My
2 Ah 2

(0 + h ) =

My
2 Ah

At z = h , y = 0 ,

xx =
.

2 Ah

At z = h , y = 0 ,

xx =
.

My

My
2 Ah 2

y+

My
2 Ah 2

z=

My
2 Ah 2

(0 h) =

My
2 Ah

At z = h , y = h ,

xx =

My
2 Ah

y+

My
2 Ah

z=

My
2 Ah 2

( h h) = 0
--- ANS

4.3.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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(d) Comparing the above results, sections in Figure 4.20 and Figure 4.21 are both
more effective than the section in Figure 4.22 for this particular loading.
--- ANS

4.3.4

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.4

Compare the bending capabilities of the two sections of Figs. 4.21 and 4.22 if
M y = 0, Mz 0.

Figure 4.21

Stringer-web section

Figure 4.22

Stringer-web section

Solution:
The thin sheets are assumed to be negligible in bending. Thus, the location of the
centroid of the cross-section only depends on stringers. The coordinates (y, z) are set
up with the origin at the centroid with y and z designating the horizontal axis and
vertical axis, respectively.
(a) Figure 4.21.
(1) The centroid is located at the center of of the space defined by the four
stringers.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2

4.4.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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h
2
I z = Ai y i = 4( A ( ) 2 ) = Ah 2
2
i
I yz = Ai y i z i = 0
i

(3) Bending stress.

Considering M y = 0 and M z 0 we have

IyM z

xx =

I y I z I yz

y+

I yz M z
I y I z I yz

z=

Mz
y
Iz

The stresses in stringers 1 and 4 are:

At y =

h
M
, xx = z2 y
2
Ah

The stresses in stringers 2 and 3 are

M
h
At y = , xx = z2 y
2
Ah

--- ANS
(b) Figure 4.22.
(1) The centroid is located at the middle of the vertical web.
(2) Moment of inertia
I y = Ai z i = 4( A h 2 ) = 4 Ah 2
2

I z = Ai y i = 2( A h 2 ) = 2 Ah 2
2

I yz = Ai y i z i = 2( A h ( h)) = 2 Ah 2
i

(3) Bending stress.

For M y = 0 and M z 0

xx =
=

I yM z
I y I z I yz

y+

I yz M z
I y I z I yz

z=

Mz
Mz
y+
z
2
Ah
2 Ah 2

The stress in stringer 1 is

At z = h , y = h

4.4.2

4M z
2M z
y+
z
2
2
[4 2 (2) ] Ah
[4 2 (2) 2 ] Ah 2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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xx =

Mz
Mz
Mz
M
y+
z=
(2h + h) = z
2
2
2
2 Ah
2 Ah
2 Ah
Ah

Stringer 2:
At z = h , y = 0 , xx =

Mz
Mz
Mz
Mz
y
z
+
=
(0 + h) =
2
2
2
2 Ah
Ah
2 Ah
2 Ah

Stringer 3:
At z = h , y = 0 , xx =

Mz
Mz
Mz
Mz
y
z
h
+
=

(
0
)
2 Ah
Ah 2
2 Ah 2
2 Ah 2

Stringer 4:
At z = h , y = h , xx =

Mz
Mz
Mz
Mz
y+
z=
( 2 h h) =
2
2
2
2 Ah
Ah
2 Ah
2 Ah
--- ANS

(c) Comparing the above results, we see that sections in Figure 4.21 and Figure 4.22
have the same bending efficiency; they both reach the same maximum bending
stress under the same moment.
--- ANS

4.4.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.5

Figure 4.23 shows the cross-section of a four-stringer box beam. Assume that
the thin walls are ineffective in bending and the applied bending moments are
M y = 500,000 N cm

M z = 200,000N cm .
Find the bending stresses in all stringers.

Figure 4.23

Thin-walled section

Solution:

(a) Set up a temporary coordinate system with stringer 1 as the origin. The location of
the centroid is
yc =

Ai yi
i

Ai

( 2 200 + 1 200 )
= 54.5cm
(4 + 2 +1+ 4 )

( 1 50 + 4 100 )
= 40.9 cm
(4 + 2 +1+ 4 )

zc =

Ai zi
i

zi
i

(b) The moment of inertia

I y = Ai zi = ( 4 + 2 )( 40.909091 )2 + 1 ( 50 40.909091 )2 + 4 ( 100 40.909091 )2
2

= 240901cm 4

Similarly,

I z = Ai yi 2 = 87273cm4
i

4.5.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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I yz = Ai yi zi = 14545 cm 4
i

It is more convenient to put in the chart, for instance:

Ai
Stringer
No.
(cm 2 )

yi
(cm )

zi
(cm )

Ai y i z i

(cm 4 )

(cm 4 )

(cm 4 )

Ai z i

Ai yi

-54.5

-40.9

6694

11901

89256

145.5

-40.9

3347

42314

-11901

145.5

9.1

82.6

21157

1322

-54.5

59.1

13967

11901

-12893

24091

87273

-14545

(c) Bending stress in the stringers.

By using the equation: xx =

I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz

y+

I z M y I yz M z
I y I z I yz

z , and

M y = 500,000 N cm

M z = 200,000N cm .
I y = 24090.909cm 4
I z = 87272.727cm 4

I yz = 14545.455cm 4
We obtain xx = 1.298 y 21.54 z
Therefore the bending stresses in the stringers are:

xx

No.

yi
(cm )

zi
(cm )

( N / cm 2 )

-54.54

-40.91

951.92

145.45

-40.91

692.31

145.45

9.09

-384.62

-54.54

59.09

-1201.92

Stringer

--- ANS

4.5.2

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4.6

Find the neutral axis in the tin-walled section of Fig. 4.23 for the loading given
in Problem 4.5.
M y = 500,000 N cm

M z = 200,000N cm .
Find the bending stresses in all stringers.

Figure 4.23

Thin-walled section

Solution:
(a) From Problem 4.5 we get the centroid position as follows.
yc = 54.5 cm , zc = 40.9 cm
These are the horizontal and vertical distances, respectively, from stringer 1.
(b) Set up the coordinate system (y,z) with the origin located at the centroid. Neutral
plane is located at the position that centroid is the origin. From the bending stress
formulas we find the neutral plane by setting the bending stress to zero, i.e.,

xx = 1.298 y 21.538 z = 0
On the cross-section, this equation represents the line passing through the centroid
with y = 16.59 z and an angle
z
y

= tan 1( ) = tan 1(

1
) = 3.45o
16.59

--- ANS
4.6.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.7

Find the bending stresses in the stringers at the fixed end of the box beam loaded
as shown in Fig. 4.24. Assume that the thin sheets are negligible in bending.
Find the neutral axis.

Figure 4.24

Loaded box beam

Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and left to right as stringer 1, stringer 2,
and stringer 3, respectively. Relative to string 2 the centroid position is given by
yc =

Ai yi
i

Ai

4 80
= 26.67 cm
34

4 40
= 13.33cm
3 4

zc =

Ai zi
i

Ai
i

(b) The bending moments at the fixed end of the box beam produced by the loads are
M y = 2 PL = 2( 200)(500) = 200000 N cm ( M y is positive in positive y)

M z = 2 PL = 2(200)(500) = 200000N cm ( M z is positive in negative z)

(c) Set up the coordinate system (x,y,z) with the origin at the centroid.
Moment of inertia (see table below for details):

I y = Ai zc 2 = 4( 2 13.332 + 26.67 2 ) = 4266 cm4

i

I z = Ai yc 2 = 4( 2 26.67 2 + 53.332 ) = 17067 cm4

i

4.7.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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I yz = Ai yc zc = 4266 cm 4
i

Ai
Stringer
No.
(cm 2 )

yi
(cm )

zi
(cm )

Ai y i z i

(cm 4 )

(cm 4 )

(cm 4 )

Ai z i

Ai yi

-26.67

26.67

2844

2844

-2844

-26.67

-13.33

711

2844

1422

53.33

-13.33

711

11377

-2844

4266

17067

-4267

(d) Bending stress in the stringers.

Using the equation xx =

I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz

y+

I z M y I yz M z
I y I z I yz

z,

we obtain xx = 31.25 y 78.125 z

and the bending stresses in the stringers are:

xx

No.

yi
(cm )

zi
(cm )

( N / cm 2 )

-26.67

26.67

-1250

-26.67

-13.33

1875

53.33

-13.33

-625

Stringer

--- ANS
(e) Neutral plane by angle .
Neutral plane is located at the position where bending stresses vanish under this
particular loading. We have

xx = 31.25 y 78.125 z = 0
It is the line passing through the centroid with y = 2.5 z
z
y

= tan 1( ) = tan 1(

1
) = 21.8 o
2.5

--- ANS

4.7.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.8

Find the deflection of the box beam of Fig. 4.24 using the simple beam theory.

Figure 4.24

Loaded box beam

Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and then left to right as stringer 1, stringer
2, and stringer 3, respectively. From the solution of problem 4.7, we have the
following moments of inertia:
I y = 4266 cm 4
I z = 17066 cm 4

I yz = 4266 cm 4
Let the origin ( x = 0 ) of the coordinate system be located at the fixed end.
The bending moments produced by the forces applied at the free end are
M y = 400 (500 x ) N cm

M z = 400 (500 x) N cm

(b) The governing equations (see p. 122 in the book) for the bidirectional bending are

I y M z I yz M y
d 2v
E 2 =
= 0.063(500 x) ( N / cm 3 ) ,
2
dx
I y I z I yz
E

I z M y I yz M z
d 2w
=
= 0.156(500 x) ( N / cm 3 )
2
2
dx
I y I z I yz

Integrating twice the above differential equations, we obtain

4.8.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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x3
Ev = 0.063(250 x ) + C1 x + C 2
6
2

x3
Ew = 0.156(250 x ) + C 3 x + C 4
6
2

By applying the boundary conditions, the integration constants are solved as

v ( x = 0) = 0 ,

dv
( x = 0) = 0 => C1 = C 2 = 0
dx

w( x = 0) = 0 ,

dw
( x = 0) = 0 => C 3 = C 4 = 0
dx

Then the lateral (in y-direction) and vertical (in z-direction) deflections are,
respectively,
v( x) =

0.063
x3
(250 x 2 )
6
E

w( x) =

0.156
x3
(250 x 2 )
E
6

In the expressions above, distance x is measured in cm, and the units of Youngs
modulus and deflection are N / cm 2 and cm , respectively.
--- ANS
As an example, consider Aluminum 2024-T3, E = 72GPa = 72 10 5 ( N / cm 2 ) .
The deflections in y and z directions at the free end are:
0.063
5003
2
v( x = 500) =
(250 500
) = 0.36cm
72 105
6
0.156
5003
2
w( x = 500) =
(250 500
) = 0.90cm
72 105
6

4.8.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.9

Find the bending stresses in the stringers of the box beam in Fig. 4.24 for the
bending moments given in Problem 4.5.
M y = 500,000 N cm

M z = 200,000N cm .

Figure 4.24

Loaded box beam

Solution:
(a) Name the stringers from top to bottom and then left to right as stringer 1, stringer
2, and stringer 3, respectively. The centroid position is given by
yc =

Ai yi
i

Ai

4 80
= 26.67 cm
34

4 40
= 13.33cm
3 4

zc =

Ai zi
i

Ai
i

relative stringer 2.
(b) Moment of inertia (see the table below for details)

I y = Ai zc 2 = 4( 2 13.332 + 26.67 2 ) = 4267 cm4

i

I z = Ai yc 2 = 4( 2 26.666667 2 + 53.3333332 ) = 17067 cm4

i

I yz = Ai yc zc = 4267 cm 4
i

4.9.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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Ai
Stringer
No.
(cm 2 )

yi
(cm )

zi
(cm )

Ai y i z i

(cm )

(cm )

(cm 4 )

Ai z i

Ai yi
4

-26.67

26.67

2844

2844

-2844

-26.67

-13.33

711

2844

1422

53.33

-13.33

711

11378

-2844

4267

17067

-4267

(c) Bending stress in the stringers.

Subsituting the moments and moments of inertia in the bending stress formula

xx =

I y M z I yz M y
I y I z I yz

y+

I z M y I yz M z
I y I z I yz

z,

we obtain xx = 23.44 y 140.62 z

Therefore the bending stresses in the stringers are:

xx

No.

yi
(cm )

zi
(cm )

( N / cm 2 )

-26.67

26.67

-3125

-26.67

-13.33

2500

53.33

-13.33

625

Stringer

--- ANS

4.9.2

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4.10

A cantilever beam of a solid rectangular cross-section is loaded as shown in Fig.

4.25. Assume that the material is isotropic. Find the deflections of the beam
using the simple beam theory and Timoshenko beam theory, respectively. Plot
the ratio of the maximum deflections of the two solutions (at the free end)
versus L/h. Use the shear correction factor k =

5
.
6

P
x

L
Figure 4.25

Cantilever beam subjected to a shear force P

Solution:
(a) Simple beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for the simple beam theory is:

EI y

d 4 w0
dx 4

= pz

(4.10.1)

In this particular problem, we have I y =

EI y

1 3
th , p z = 0 . Thus,
12

d 4 w0
=0
dx 4

(4.10.2)

Integrating the equation (4.10.2) and applying boundary conditions,

EI y

d 3 w0
= C 0 = P (shear force)
dx 3

Integrating again, we obtain

EI y

d 2 w0
= Px + C1 .
dx 2

At x = L , M = EI y

(4.10.3)

d 2 w0
( x = L) = 0 = PL + C1
dx 2

=> C1 = PL
From (4.10.3),
4.10.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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EI y

dw0
1
= Px 2 + PLx + C 2
2
dx

dw0
= 0 => C 2 = 0
dx

At x = 0 ,

1
1
Finally, EI y w0 ( x) = Px 3 + PLx 2 + C 3 , and C 3 = 0 because w0 = 0
6
2

at x = 0 .

Therefore, the deflection curve is

w0 ( x) =

1
1
1
P
x
L x
( Px 3 + PLx 2 ) = [2( ) 3 + 6 ( ) 2 ]
2
EI y 6
Et
h
h h
--- ANS

The maximum deflection occurs at x = L :

wmax, S =

P
L
L L
4P L 3
[ 2( ) 3 + 6 ( ) 2 ] =
( )
Et
h
h h
Et h

--- ANS
(b) Timoshenko beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for Timoshenko beam theory are:

EI y

d 2 y
dx

kGA(

dw0
+ y ) = 0
dx

(4.10.4)

d 2 w0 d y
kGA( 2 +
) + pz = 0
dx
dx

(4.10.5)

and can be combined into the following equation,

EI y

EI y d 2 p z
d 4 w0
=

p
z
GA dx 2
dx 4

(4.10.6)

In this particular problem, we have I y =

EI y

1 3
th , and p z = 0 . Hence we have
12

d 4 w0
= 0 as the governing equation.
dx 4

The concentrated loading at the free end produces a constant shear force along the
beam, so we have

kGA(

dw0
+ y ) = shear force = P
dx

(4.10.7)

Substituting (4.10.7) in (4.10.4) yields

4.10.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

EI y

d 2 y
dx 2

=P

(4.10.8)

Integrating equation (4.10.8) twice, we obtain

EI y y =

1 2
Px + B0 x + B1
2

(4.10.9)

Using (4.10.7) and (4.10.9), we obtain

dw0
P
P
1 1 2
=
y =

( Px + B0 x + B1 )
dx
kGA
kGA EI y 2
Integrating the equation above,

w0 ( x) =

1 1 3 1
P
x
( Px + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2
kGA
EI y 6
2

(4.10.10)

The following boundary conditions are used to determine the arbitrary constants in
(4.10.10):
M ( x = L) = EI y

d y
dx

( x = L) = 0

=> B0 = PL

y ( x = 0) = 0 (no rotation of the cross-section)

=> B1 = 0

w0 ( x = 0) = 0

=> B2 = 0

Then the deflection equation (4.10.10) becomes

w0 ( x) =
With k =

1 1 3 1
P
x
( Px PLx 2 )
kGA
EI y 6
2

E
5
1
, A = th , I y = th 3 , and G =
, we obtain
2(1 + )
6
12

w0 ( x) =

P
x
L x
12(1 + ) P x
( ) [ 2( ) 3 6 ( ) 2 ]
h
Et
h
h h
5 Et

--- ANS
The maximum deflection occurs at x = L :
wmax,T =

12(1 + ) P L 4 P L 3
( )+
( )
h
Et h
5 Et

--- ANS
(c) The ratio of the maximum deflections of the two solutions versus L/h
Assume the material to be Aluminum 2024-T3 with E = 72GPa , = 0.33 . For
convenience, we let

L
=.
h

The maximum deflection according to the simple beam theory:

4.10.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

wmax, S =

P
4P
( ) 3 = 0.055556 3
t
72t

The maximum deflection according to the Timoshenko beam theory:

wmax,T =

12(1 + 0.33) P
4P
P
P
( ) +
( ) 3 = 0.044333 + 0.055556 3
5(72)t
72t
t
t
Maximum deflections vs. L/h

14
12

(w = P/t)

10
8
Simple
Timoshenko

6
4
2
0
0

L/h

Define Error (%) =

wmax,T wmax, S
wmax,T

100%

Error (%) vs. L/h

100
90
80

Error (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

4
L/h

4.10.4

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.11 A thin-walled beam of length 2 m long with one end built into a rigid wall and
the other end is subjected to a shear force Vz = 5000 N . The cross-section is
given by Fig. 4.21 with h = 0.2m and the wall thickness = 0.002m . The
material is aluminum 2024-T3 with E = 70GPa , G = 27GPa , and the
cross-sectional area of each stringer is 25cm 2 . Assume that thin walls carry
only shear stresses. Find the deflections at the free end using the simple beam
theory and the Timoshenko beam theory, respectively. Compare the transverse
shear stress in the vertical web obtained from the two theories.

Figure 4.21

Stringer-web section

Solution:
(a) Simple beam theory
(1) The displacement equilibrium equation for the simple beam theory is:
EI y

d 4 w0
=0
dx 4

(4.11.1)

Integrate the equation (4.11.1) and apply shear force boundary condition to yield,
EI y

d 3 w0
= C 0 = V z (shear force)
dx 3

Integrate again to obtain

EI y

d 2 w0
= V z x + C1 ,
dx 2

At the free end, x = L , M = EI y

d 2 w0
( x = L) = 0 = V z L + C1
dx 2

=> C1 = V z L
4.11.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

Again by integration, we have

EI y

dw0
1
= V z x 2 + V z Lx + C 2 .
2
dx

At the fixed end, x = 0 , the rotation of the cross-section vanishes, i.e.,

y =

dw0
= 0 => C 2 = 0
dx

Thus, we have, after integration,

1
1
EI y w0 ( x) = V z x 3 + V z Lx 2 + C 3
6
2

In which the integration constant C3 is determined by the boundary condition

w0 = 0 at x = 0 => C 3 = 0 .
The deflections curve is

w0 ( x) =

1
1
1
( V z x 3 + V z Lx 2 )
EI y 6
2

(4.11.2)

(2) Properties of the cross-section

I y = Ai z i = 4 Ah 2 = 4( 25 10 4 )(0.2) 2 = 4 10 4 m 4
2

E = 70GPa
L = 2m
Vz = 5000 N
(3) Deflections
Compute deflection curve (4.11.2):
w0 ( x) =

1
1
1
( (5000) x 3 + (5000)(2) x 2 )
4
2
(70 10 )(4 10 ) 6
9

= 2.9762 10 5 x 3 + 1.7857 10 4 x 2

( m)

Deflection at the free end:

w0 ( x = 2m) = 2.9762 10 5 (2) 3 + 1.7857 10 4 (2) 2

= 4.762 10 4
0.48 mm

--- ANS
(b) Timoshenko beam theory
(1) The displacement equilibrium equations for the Timoshenko beam theory
are:

4.11.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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EI y

GA(

d 2 y
dx

GA(

dw0
+ y ) = 0
dx

(4.11.3)

d 2 w0 d y
+
) + pz = 0
dx 2
dx

(4.11.4)

which can be combined into the following equation,

EI y

EI y d 2 p z
d 4 w0
=
p

z
GA dx 2
dx 4

(4.11.5)

In the equations above, the area A in the GA term is the effective area of the
thin-walled section that carries shear stress and should not be confused with the
stringer cross-sectional area.
Since p z = 0 we have
d 4 w0
EI y
= 0 as the governing equation.
dx 4
The concentrated shear loading at the free end produces a constant shear force
along the beam; so we have
GA(

dw0
+ y ) = Vz
dx

(4.11.6)

Substitution of (4.11.6) in (4.11.3) yields

EI y

d 2 y
dx 2

= Vz

(4.11.7)

Integrating (4.11.7), we obtain

1
EI y y = V z x 2 + B0 x + B1
2

(4.11.8)

Using (4.11.6) and (4.11.8), we have

dw0 Vz
V
1 1
=
y = z
( Vz x 2 + B0 x + B1 )
dx GA
GA EI y 2
Integrating the above equation with the result,

w0 ( x) =

Vz
1 1
1
x
( Vz x3 + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2
GA
EI y 6
2

(4.11.9)

Applying boundary conditions to equation (4.11.8) and (4.11.9), we have

M ( x = L) = EI y

y ( x = 0) = 0

d y
dx

( x = L) = 0 => B0 = V z L
=> B1 = 0

4.11.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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=> B2 = 0

w0 ( x = 0) = 0
Then equation (4.11.9) becomes

Vz
V 1
1
x z ( x3 Lx 2 )
GA
EI y 6
2

w0 ( x) =

(4.11.10)

(2) Properties of the cross-section

In the Timoshenko beam theory the area A (in the GA term) of the
thin-walled cross-section is
Ashear = 2ht = 2(0.2)(0.002) = 8 10 4 m 2

I y = Ai z i = 4 Ah 2 = 4( 25 10 4 )(0.2) 2 = 4 10 4 m 4
2

E = 70GPa , G = 27GPa
L = 2m
Vz = 5000 N
(3) Deflection
Compute the deflection curve (4.11.10) using the above properties:
w0 ( x) =

5000
x (2.9762 10 5 x 3 1.7857 10 4 x 2 )
(27 10 9 )(8 10 4 )

= 2.3148 10 4 x + 1.7857 10 4 x 2 2.9762 10 5 x 3

( m)

Deflection at the free end is

w0 ( x = 2m) = 2.3148 10 4 (2) + 1.7857 10 4 (2) 2 2.9762 10 5 (2) 3

= 9.391 10 4
0.94 mm

--- ANS

The difference between the two theories is

Error(%) =

w0 ,Tim w0 ,Sim
9.391 4.762
=
100% = 49.3%
w0 ,Tim
9.391

(c) Transverse Shear Stress

(1) Simple beam theory
From the derivation of the simple beam theory, we assume xy = 0 as an
approximation. As a result, the transverse shear stress can not be directly
obtained from the stress-strain relations. It is obtained usually from the
4.11.4

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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equilibrium equation. We have

xz =

Vz
5000
=
= 6.25 106 N / m 2 = 6.25MPa
4
Ashear 8 10

(2) Timoshenko beam theory

xz = G xz =

Vz
= 6.25MPa
Ashear

--- ANS

4.11.5

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.12

A 2024-T3 aluminum box beam with a thin-walled section is shown in Fig.

4.26. Assume that thin walls (thickness t = 0.3 cm) are ineffective in bending.
The cross-sectional area of each stringer is 20 cm2. Find the deflections at the
free end using the simple beam theory for shear loads Vz = 5000 N and
V y = 5000 N separately. Solve the same problem using Timoshenko beam

theory. In which loading case is the simple beam theory more accurate in
predicting the deflection? Explain.

Figure 4.26

Box beam with a triangular thin-walled section

Solution:
(a) First, we need to know the centroid of this section.
Take stringer 2 as the origin of a coordinate system. Then the centroid is located at

A y
=
A
i

yc

20 60
= 20 cm
3 20

20 (40 + 20)
= 20 cm
3 20

Az
=
A
i

zc

The moments of inertia with respect to the coordinate system with the origin at the
centroid are
I y = Ai z c = 20( 20 2 + ( 20) 2 ) = 16000 cm 4
2

I z = Ai y c = 20( 40 2 + 2 ( 20) 2 ) = 48000 cm 4

2

4.12.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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I yz = Ai y c z c = 4[40 0 + (20) 20 + (20) (20)] = 0 (This should be

i

obvious because the section is symmetric with respect to y-axis)

For 2024-T3, E = 72GPa = 72 10 5 N / cm 2 , = 0.33
=> G = 27.068 10 5 N / cm 2

(b) Simple beam theory

The displacement equilibrium equations for the simple beam theory are:
d 4 w0
EI y
= 0,
dx 4

for V z loading

(4.12.1)

d 4 v0
EI z
= 0,
dx 4

for V y loading

(4.12.2)

Integrating the above equations, we get

EI y

d 3 w0
= V z
dx 3

(4.12.3)

EI z

d 3 v0
= V y
dx 3

(4.12.4)

Thus,
d 3 w0 V z
5000
=
=
= 4.3403 10 8
3
EI y 72 10 5 16000
dx

(1 / cm 2 )

d 3 v0 V y
5000
=
=
= 1.4468 10 8
3
EI z
dx
72 10 5 48000

(1 / cm 2 )

Integrating the above equations, we have

1
w0 ( x ) = 7.234 10 9 x 3 + C1 x 2 + C 2 x + C 3
2

1
v0 ( x) = 2.411 10 9 x 3 + C 4 x 2 + C 5 x + C 6
2

The arbitrary constants are determined by the boundary conditions,

For w0 ( x)
w0 ( x = 0) = 0 ,

=> C 3 = 0

dw0
( x = 0) = 0
dx

=> C 2 = 0

4.12.2

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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d 2 w0
EI y
( x = L) = M ( x = L) = 0
dx 2
d 2 w0
=> EI y
( x = 200cm) = 5000(200) + (72 10 5 16000)C1 = 0
2
dx
=> C1 = 8.681 10 6
So, w0 ( x ) = 7.234 10 9 x 3 + 4.340 10 6 x 2

(4.12.5)

For v 0 ( x )
v0 ( x = 0) = 0 ,

=> C 6 = 0

dv0
( x = 0) = 0
dx

=> C 5 = 0

d 2 v0
EI z
( x = L) = M ( x = L) = 0
dx 2
d 2 v0
=> EI z
( x = 200cm) = 5000(200) + (72 10 5 48000)C 4 = 0
2
dx
=> C 4 = 2.894 10 6
So, v 0 ( x ) = 2.411 10 9 x 3 + 1.447 10 6 x 2

(4.12.6)

--Therefore deflections at the free end can be obtained from (4.12.5) and (4.12.6) by
setting x = 200cm :
w0 ( x = 200cm) = 7.234 10 9 (200) 3 + 4.340 10 6 (200) 2
= 0.116 cm
v 0 ( x = 200cm) = 2.411 10 9 (200) 3 + 1.447 10 6 (200) 2
= 0.039 cm
--- ANS
(c) Timoshenko beam theory
The displacement equilibrium equations for Timoshenko beam theory for V z
loading are:

EI y

d 2 y
dx

GAz (

dw0
+ y ) = 0
dx

(4.12.7)

d 2 w0 d y
GAz ( 2 +
) + pz = 0
dx
dx

(4.12.8)

4.12.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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which can be combined into the following equation,

EI y

EI y d 2 p z
d 4 w0
p
=

z
GAz dx 2
dx 4

(4.12.9)

Note that Az is the projection of the cross-sectional area of the thin sheets onto
z-axis. In this case, Az = 2 40 0.3 = 24cm 2 .
In this particular problem, we have p z = 0 . Hence
EI y

d 4 w0
=0
dx 4

is the governing equation.

The concentrated shear loading at the free end produces a constant shear force
along the beam, so we have

GAz (

dw0
+ y ) = Vz
dx

(4.12.10)

Substituting the above in equation (4.12.7) yields

EI y

d 2 y
dx 2

= Vz

(4.12.11)

Integrating equation (4.12.11), we obtain

1
EI y y = V z x 2 + B0 x + B1
2

(4.12.12)

Using equation (4.11.10) and (4.11.12), we have

dw0
V
V
1 1
= z y = z
( V z x 2 + B0 x + B1 )
dx
GAz
GAz EI y 2
Integrating the above equation,
w0 ( x) =

Vz
1 1
1
x
( V z x 3 + B0 x 2 + B1 x) + B2
GAz
EI y 6
2

(4.12.13)

Applying boundary conditions to equation (4.12.13)

M ( x = L) = EI y

d y
dx

( x = L) = 0

=> B0 = V z L

y ( x = 0) = 0

=> B1 = 0

w0 ( x = 0) = 0

=> B2 = 0

Then equation (4.12.13) becomes

w0 ( x) =

Vz
V 1
1
x z ( x 3 Lx 2 )
GAz
EI y 6
2
4.12.4

(4.12.14)

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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Similarly, the deflection in y-direction due to V y is

v0 ( x) =

Vy
GAy

Vy

1
1
( x 3 Lx 2 )
EI z 6
2

(4.12.15)

where Ay is the projection of the cross-sectional area of the thin sheets onto y-axis.
We have Ay = 2 60 0.3 = 36cm 2 .

The deflection due to V z is

5000
5000
1
1
x
( x 3 (200) x 2 )
5
5
2
(27.068 10 )(24)
(72 10 )(16000) 6

w0 ( x) =

= 7.697 10 5 x (7.234 10 9 x 3 4.340 10 6 x 2 )

And for V y :
v0 ( x) ==

1
1
5000
5000
x
( x 3 (200) x 2 )
5
5
2
(27.068 10 )(36)
(72 10 )(48000) 6

= 5.131 10 5 x (2.411 10 9 x 3 1.447 10 6 x 2 )

--At the free end the respective deflection can be obtained from (4.12.5) and
(4.12.6) by substituting in x = 200cm
w0 ( x = 200cm) = 7.697 10 5 (200) [7.234 10 9 (200) 3 4.340 10 6 (200) 2 ]
= 0.131 cm
v 0 ( x = 200cm) = 5.131 10 5 (200) [2.411 10 9 (200) 3 1.447 10 6 (200) 2 ]
= 0.049cm

--- ANS
(d) Summary
(1) Deflections at the free end
Simple Beam
Theory

Timoshenko
Beam Theory

Error (%)

Vz = 5000 N

0.116 cm

0.131 cm

11.5

(2) V y = 5000 N

0.039 cm

0.049 cm

20.4

(1)

Error (%) =

d Timoshenko d Simple
d Timoshenko

where d = w0 or v0

4.12.5

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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(2) Case 1 ( V z = 5000 N ) of the above results is more accurate. It is mainly

because of the reason that I y is smaller than I z , and, as a result, the bending
behavior for z-direction is more likely to resemble a slender beam than that
for y-direction.
--- ANS

4.12.6

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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4.13

Consider the structure with a cutout as shown in Fig. 4.17. Find the axial force
distribution in stringers 3-4 and 5-6. Assume that both stringers and webs have
the same material properties of E = 70GPa and G = 27GPa . Also assume
that b = 200mm , the thickness of the web t = 2mm , and the cross-sectional
area of the stringer A = 64mm 2 . Hint: The zero-stress condition in the web at
the cutout cannot be enforced because of the simplified assumption that shear
stress and strain are uniform across the width of the web. Use the known
condition that the force in the side stringers is 1.5P at the cutout.

P
L1

Figure 4.17

L2

Cutout in a stringer sheet panel

Solution:
(a) First, we consider the part left hand side of the cutout.

1.5P

F1

F2

1.5P

F1
L1
x

The balance of forces in the x-direction yields

2 F1 + F2 = 3P

(4.13.1)

Also we have the differential equation

4.13.1

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

1 dF1
t dx

(4.13.2)

F F
d
G
=
( 1 2)
dx E (b / 2) A1 A2

(4.13.3)

Combining equations (4.13.2) and (4.13.3), we have

F F
1 d 2 F1
G
6G
=
( 1 2)=
( F1 P)
2
t dx
E (b / 2) A1 A2
EAb
=>

d 2 F1 6Gt
=
( F1 P) ,
EAb
dx 2

=>

d 2 F1
2 F1 = 2 P
dx 2

let 2 =

6Gt
EAb

(4.13.4)

The general solution of this second-order differential equation is

F1 ( x) = C1 cosh x + C 2 sinh x + P
(where cosh x =

e x + e x
e x e x
and sinh x =
)
2
2

Applying the boundary conditions,

=> = 0 , that is

At x = 0 (fixed end)
=>

dF1
( x = 0) = C 2 = 0
dx

At x = L1

dF1
( x = 0) = 0
dx

=> C 2 = 0

=> F1 ( x = L1 ) = 1.5P

=> F1 ( x = L1 ) = C1 cosh L1 + P = 1.5P

=> C1 =

P
2 cosh L1

Therefore the solution of the differential equation is

F1 ( x) = P (

cosh x
+ 1)
2 cosh L1

(4.13.5)

--The axial force distribution in stringers 3-4 can be obtained from (4.13.1) and (4.13.5),
that is
F2 ( x) = 3P 2 F1 ( x ) = P(1

with =

6Gt
=
EAb

cosh x
)
cosh L1

6(27 10 9 )(2 10 3 )
= 19.016
(70 10 9 )(64 10 6 )(0.2)
4.13.2

(1 )
m

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

C.T. Sun

--- ANS

(b) Next, we consider the part to the right of the cutout:

F1

1.5P

5
F2

1.5P

F1
x

From the balance of forces in the x-direction we have

2 F1 + F2 = 3P

(4.13.6)

Also we have the differential equation

1 dF1
t dx

(4.13.7)

F F
d
G
( 1 2)
=
dx E (b / 2) A1 A2

(4.13.8)

Combining equations (4.13.7) and (4.13.8), we have

F F
1 d 2 F1
G
6G
=
( 1 2)=
( F1 P)
2
t dx
E (b / 2) A1 A2
EAb
=>

d 2 F1 6Gt
=
( F1 P) ,
EAb
dx 2

let 2 =

6Gt
EAb

d 2 F1
=>
2 F1 = 2 P
2
dx

(4.13.9)

The general solution of this second-order differential equation is

F1 ( x) = C1 cosh x + C 2 sinh x + P
Applying the boundary conditions,
at x = 0

=> F1 ( x = 0) = 1.5P

=> F1 ( x = 0) = C1 + P = 1.5P
at x = L2

=> C1 = 0.5P

=> F1 ( x = L2 ) = P

=> F1 ( x) = 0.5P cosh L2 + C 2 sinh L2 + P = P

4.13.3

Mechanics of Aircraft structures

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=> C 2 =

P
2 tanh L2

The solution of the differential equation is

F1 ( x ) =

P
sinh x
(cosh x
+ 2)
2
tanh L2

(4.13.10)

--The axial force distribution in stringer 5-6 can be obtained from (4.13.6) and (4.13.10),
that is
F2 ( x) = 3P 2 F1 ( x) = P (1 cosh x +

where =

6Gt
=
EAb

sinh x
)
tanh L2

6(27 10 9 )(2 10 3 )
= 19.016 ( 1 )
m
(70 10 9 )(64 10 6 )(0.2)
--- ANS

4.13.4