Vibration Chapter13

Mechanical Vibrations
Fifth Edition in SI Units

Singiresu S. Rao
Chapter 13
Nonlinear Vibration
3 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

13
Chapter Outline
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Examples of Nonlinear Vibration Problems
13.3 Exact Methods
13.4 Approximate Analytical Methods
13.5 Subharmonic and Superharmonic Oscillations
13.6 Systems with Time-Dependent Coefficients
13.7 Graphical Methods
13.8 Stability of Equilibrium States
13.9 Limit Cycles
13.10 Chaos
13.11 Numerical Methods

13.1
Introduction
5
13.1
© 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
13.1 Introduction
• Real systems are more often nonlinear

• Superposition principle does not hold true
• Totally unpredicted phenomena sometimes occur in nonlinear
systems
• Some methods to solve nonlinear vibration problems are presented
in this chapter

13.2
Examples of Nonlinear Vibration Problems
7
13.2
© 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
• Simple Pendulum
ml 2  mgl sin   0

g
For small angles,   02  0 where 0 
l

• Simple Pendulum
Solution   t   A0  0t   
A better solution is obtained by approximating sinθ ≈ θ – θ3/6 for small

angles: 3
  
ml   mgl     0
2

 6 
  3

or   0     0
 2
 6 
This equation is nonlinear because of the term involving θ3

• Simple Pendulum
Similar to equation of motion of spring-mass system with nonlinear

spring.
Let f(x) be restoring force of the spring.
Equation of motion: mx  f  x   0
If df/dx(x) is constant, the spring is linear.
If df/dx(x) is increasing, the spring is hard.

• Simple Pendulum
If df/dx(x) is decreasing, the spring is soft.
Pendulum with large amplitudes is considered as a system with

nonlinear spring component.

• Mechanical Chatter, Belt Friction System
2 friction coefficients:
 Static coefficient (μs) due to force required to initiate motion
 Kinetic coefficient (μk) due to force needed to maintain body in

motion

13.2 Examples of nonlinear vibration problems
Equation of motion: mx  F  x   kx  0

Damping force is positive for large.
Damping force is negative for small.
Nonlinear self-excited system (mechanical chatter).

13.2 Examples of nonlinear vibration problems
d
For large deflections, equation of motion:  mx   kx  0
dt

13.3
Exact Methods
13.3
13.3 Exact Methods
• Single DOF system with general spring force F(x):
x  a 2 F  0
d 2
dx
 
x  2a 2 F  x   0
x 2  2a 2  F   d or x  2a  F   d
x
x0
 x0
x

12
1 x d
2a 0  
t  t0  12
F   d
x0

13.3 Exact Methods
• If F(x) is an odd function, F(-x) = -F(x)
4 x0 d
Period of vibration:   
•
2a 0  
x0
F   d 
12
• For illustration, let F(x)=xn.
1 n  1 x0 d
2 0 x0n 1   n 1 1 2
t  t0 
a  
4 n  1 x0 d
2 0 x0n 1   n 1 1 2

a  
13.3 Exact Methods
• Set y=ξ/x0
4 1 n 1 1 dy
2 0 1  y n 1 1 2

a x0n 1

13.4
Approximate Analytical Methods
13.4
• For approximate solutions, analytical methods more desirable than

numerical methods.
• Once analytical solution is obtained, any desired numerical values can

be substituted
  
• Vibration of nonlinear system: x  t   f  x , t   g  x , t 

• Nonlinear terms appear only in g  x, t 

 x1   dx1 / dt   f1  x1 , x2 , , xn , t  
x  dx / dt   f  x , x ,, x , t  
  2    2    2 1 2 
, f  x , t   
n
x   , x   
        
 xn  dxn / dt   f n  x1 , x2 , , xn , t  
 g1  x1 , x2 ,  , xn , t  
 g  x , x ,, x , t  
  
g  x, t    2 1 2 n

  
 g n  x1 , x2 ,  , xn , t  

• Basic Philosophy
Assume solution in series form:
   2 3
x  t   x0  t   x1  t    x2  t    x3  t   
As α ∞ the equation reduces to exact solution of linear equations

  
x  f  x, t 
For small α,the series converges fast.

Solution of Pendulum Equations
x  02 x  x 3  0 where x   , 0   g l  ,    02 6

12
Assuming weak nonlinearity (i.e. α small)

x t   x0  t   x1  t    2 x2  t      n xn  t   
Use a 2-term approximation

 x0  x1   02  x0  x1     x0  x1  3  0
i.e.  x0  02 x0     x1  02 x1  x03    2  3x03 x1 
  3  3 x0 x12    4 x13  0
Ignoring terms in α2, α3 and α4, equation will be satisfied if the

following are satisfied:
x0  02 x0  0 Eq 13.1
x1  02 x1   x03 Eq 13.2
Solution of Eq 13.1 :
x0  t   A0 sin  0t   
Hence Eq 13.2 becomes :
x1  02 x1   A03 sin 3  0t   
3 1 
  A03  sin  0t     sin 3 0t    
4 4 
3 A03
Particular solution: x1  t   tA0 cos 0t     sin 3 0t   
3
80 320 2
Approximate solution:
x t   x0  t   x1  t 
3t 3
 A0 sin  0t     A0 cos 0t   
80
A03
 sin 3 0t   
320 2

Note:
Weak nonlinearity leads to non periodic solution
Total solution approach infinity as t  ∞

• Lindstedt’s Perturbation Method
Assumes angular frequency varies as a function of amplitude
Solution: x  t   x0  t    x1  t    2
x2  t   
Angular frequency:  2
  2
0  1  A0    2
2  A0   
Using only linear terms in α:
x  t   x0  t   x1  t 
 2  02  1  A0  or  2  02  1  A0 
Substitute into solution of pendulum equation:
 
x0  x1   2  1  A0   x0  x1     x0  x1  3  0
  
i.e. x0  02 x0    2 x1  x03  1 x0  x1   2 3x1 x02  1 x1 

  3 3x0 x12   4  x   0
3
1
Neglect terms in α2, α3 and α4:

x0   2 x0  0
x1   2 x1   x03  1 x0
x0  t   A0 sin  t   
x1   2 x1   A0 sin  t     3  1  A0 sin  t    

3 3 1 3
  A0 sin  t     A0 sin 3 t   
4 4
 1  A0 sin  t    
3
Eliminate 1st and last term by taking 1  A03 , A0  0
4
With this the equation becomes:
1 3
x1   2 x1  A0 sin 3 t   
4

A03
Solution: x1  t   A1 sin  t     sin 3 t   
32 2
Initial conditions: x 0   A  A0 sin  t   

x  0   0  A0 cos 

or A0  A and  
2

A03
x1  0   0  A1 sin 1  cos 3
32 2
A03
x1  0   0  A1 cos 1   3  cos 3
32 2
A3 
A1   and 1 
32 2
2
A03
x t   A0 sin  t     sin 3 t   
32 2
 2  02   43 A02
• Iterative Method
Solution of the Undamped Equation
Duffing’s equation
x  02  x 3  F cost or x  02 x x 3  F cost

Assume solution to be:
Substitute back into Duffing’s equation:

1 x  t   A cos t
x2   A02 cos t  A3 cos3 t  F cos t

Using the identity

3 1
cos 3 t 
cos t  cos 3t
4
2nd approximation can be expressed as
4

Integrate and setx constants 3 3  0: 1
  A 2 of
 integration
2 A   F to
 cos t 
0  A3 cos 3t
 4  4
1  3 3  A3
x2  t   2  A0  A   F  cos t 
2
cos 3t
  4  36 2

If x1(t) and x2(t) are good approximations of x(t), the coefficients of cos ωt should
not be very different.
By equating these equations,
 exact
This procedure yields1 the 3solution  a linear
for 3
spring: F
2
A 3
A
 0   2
A  2
F  or   0  A2
 
2  4  4 A
F
A
02   2
Solution of Damped Equation
Duffing’s equation with viscous damping:

x  cx  02 x  x 3  F cos t
Phase difference between applied force and response or solution.
Fix the phase of the solution and determine the phase of the applied force.
x  cx  02 x  x 3  F cos t   

 A1 cos t  A2 sin t

F  A12  A22 is fixed

Assume c, A1 and A  tan
A2 small.
A12 are
1
 is to be determined
Assume 1st approximation to be:
Substitute into differential equation: x1  A cos t
A3
0    A  4 A  cos t  cA sin t  4 cos 3t  A1 cos t  A2 sin t
 2 2 3 3

Disregard terms involving cos3ωt and equating coefficients:
3 3
   A  A  A1
4
 2
0
2

cA  A
Square and add the equations:2

 2

 0   2
A 
3 3
4
 A 
   cA  2
 A1
2
 A2
2
 F 2

The equation can be rewritten as: S 2   , A  c 2 2 A2  F 2
 3

where S   , A  02   2 A  A3
4
For c  0, S   , A  F
Response curves are shown below:

Jump phenomenon
Vibration amplitude increase or decrease suddenly as frequency

increase or decrease.
Shaded region is unstable.

• Ritz-Galerkin Method
Solution found by satisfying the governing nonlinear equation in the average
Nonlinear differential equation E[x]=0
Assume solution to be
x t   a11  t   a22  t     ann  t 

~
Weighting factors ai determined by minimizing
E  t   0 as x  x
~ ~

 E  t  dt where  is the period of motion
2
0 ~

• Ritz-Galerkin Method
Minimization of the function requires
   2  E t 
 0 E  t  dt   20 E  t  ~ dt  0, i  1,2, , n
 2
ai  ~  ~ ai
This is a system of n equations that can be solved simultaneously to

find a1,a2,…,an

Example 13.1
Solution of Pendulum Equation Using the Ritz-Galerkin Method
Using one-term approximation, find the solution of the pendulum

equation
 2
E  x   x  02 x  0 x 3  0
6
by the Ritz-Galerkin method

Example 13.1
Solution
One-term approximation x~  t   A0 sin t
   1 
E x t    2 A0 sin t  02  A0 sin t  sin 3 t 
~
 6 
 2 1 2 2 02 3
  0    0 A0  A0 sin t 
2
A0 sin 3t
 8  24
Ritz-Galerkin method requires minimization of

 E  t  dt for finding A0
2
0 ~
 E   2 1 2 2 02 3 
 dt          
2
E ~
 0 0 A0  A0 sin t A0 sin 3 t 
0 ~ A0 0
 8  24 
 2 3 2 2 02 2 
  0    0 A0  sin t 
2
A0 sin 3t  dt  0
 8  8 
Example 13.1
Solution
 2 1 2 2  2 3 2 2  2
A0  0    0 A0  0    0 A0   sin tdt
2 2
 8  8 0
02 A03  2 3 2 2 
 
 0   2
 0 A0   sin t sin 3tdt
24  8 0
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 
 0 A0  0    0 A0   sin t sin 3tdt
2
8  8 0
04 A05  2

192 0
sin 3tdt  0
 2 1 2 2  2 3 2 2  04 A05 
i.e. A0  0    0 A0  0    0 A0  
2 2
0
 8  8  192 
Example 13.1
Solution
For nontrivial solution, A0≠0

1   1 5 
 4   202  A02  2   04 1  A02  A04   0
2   2 96 
Roots of equation:  2  02 1  0.147938A02  minimizes E 2 x t  dt

τ
 
0 ~
  1  0.352062A  maximizes  E  x t  dt

τ
 2 2
0
2
0
2
0 ~
Lindstedt’s solution and iteration methods:  2  02 1  0.125 A02 

Solution can be improves with a 2-term approximation for x(t)

13.5
Subharmonic and Superharmonic Oscillations
13.5
• Nonlinear system will exhibit subharmonic and superharmonic

oscillations

• Subharmonic response: n 
n
• Superharmonic response:  n  n where n  2,3,4, 

• Subharmonic Oscillations
Consider subharmonic oscillations of order 1/3 of undamped

pendulum
x  02 x  x 3  F cos 3t
We seek a solution of the form

x t   x0  t   x1  t 
 2  02  1 or 02   2  1
ω is the 3rd subharmonic frequency of the forcing frequency

x0  x1   2 x0   2x1  1 x0   21 x1
   x0  x1   F cos 3t
3

Neglect terms in α2,α3 and α4: x0  x1   x0   x1  1 x0  x0  F cos 3t
2 2 3
Set α=0: x0   x0  F cos 3t

2
Solution: x0  t   A1 cos t  B1 cos t  C cos 3t
Initial conditions: x t  0   A, x  t  0   0
When A1=A, B=0, x0  t   A cos t  C cos 3t

F
C is the amplitude of the forced vibration, C  
8 2
Consider the terms in α and set them equal 0,

  x1   2 x1  1 x0  x03   0 or x1   2 x1  1 x0  x03
x1   2 x1  1 A cos t  1C cos t  A3 cos t

 C 3 cos 3 3t  3 A2C cos 2 t cos 3t
 3 AC 2 cos t cos 3 3t

1 1 
By using the trigonometric relations, cos 2
  cos 2 
2 2

3 1 
cos3   cos  cos 3 
4 4 
1 1 
cos cos   cos         
We have 2 2 
 3 3 3 
x1   2 x1  A 1  A2  C 2  AC  cos t
 4 2 4 
 A3 3 3 3 2 
  1C   C  A C  cos 3t
 4 4 4 
3 3 AC 2 C3
 AC  A  C  cos 5t  cos 7t  cos 9t
4 4 4
Coefficient of cos ωt must be zero and A≠0
1 
3 2
4

A  AC  2C 2 
3  2 AF 2 F 2 
1   A  2  
4 
4 8 64 
The equation to be satisfied by A and ω in order to have

subharmonic oscillation:
3
 6  02 4 
256
 
64 A2 4  8 AF 2  2 F 2  0


Curve PQ represents stable solutions
Curve QR denotes unstable solutions
Minimum amplitude for existence of stable subharmonic oscillations

can be found by setting dω2/dA=0 as A=(F/16ω2)

• Superharmonic Oscillations
Undamped Duffing’s equation: x

   2
0 x   x 3
 F cos t
Solution is assumed as x t   A cos t  C cos 3t
 2 2 3 3 3
Substitute one into the other: cos t   A  0 A  A  A C  AC 
2 3 2
 4 4 2 
 1 3 3 
 cos 3t  9 2C  02C  A3  A2C  C 3 
 4 2 4 
3 3  3 
 cos 5t  A2C  AC 2   cos 7t  AC 2 
4 4  4 
1 
 cos 9t  C 3   F cos t
4 
Neglect terms in cos5ωt, cos7ωt and cos9ωt.
Equate coefficients of cosωt and cos3ωt

3 3 3
02 A   2 A  A3  A2C  AC 2  F
4 4 2
1 3 3
02C  9 2C  A3  C 3  A2C  0
4 4 2
If C is small compared to A, neglect terms in C2 and C3:
1 3
 A3 F  02 A   2 A  A3
C 4  4
3 2 3 2
A  02  9 2 A
2 4
Equating C from both equations leads to

 1 3  3 2   3 2 2  3 3
  A  A    A  0  9    F  0 A   A  A 
2 2 2
 4  4  2   4 
i.e.
 15   33 9  3 
 A5   2   A3   2  02   A2  F 
 16   4 4  2 
   
 A 10 202  9 4  04  02 F  9 2 F  0

13.6
Systems with Time-Dependent Coefficients
(Mathieu Equation)
13.6
(Mathieu Equation)
• Pivot point vibrates as y(t)=Ycosωt
• Net acceleration g  y
  t   g   2
Y cos t

(Mathieu Equation)
• Equation of motion of pendulum: ml   m g  y  l sin   0

2
• sinθ≈θ for small deflections
    Y cos t   0

  2
g
l l 
 
• If the pendulum is inverted,
ml 2  mgl sin   0
g
or   sin   0
l

(Mathieu Equation)
• If pivot point vibrates as y(t)=Ycosωt, equation of motion becomes

 g  2
Y 
     cos t  sin   0
 l l 
• For small angular displacements,
     Y cos t   0 Mathieu Equation

  2
g
 l l 
 

(Mathieu Equation)
• Periodic Solutions using Lindstedt’s Perturbation Method

d2y
Mathieu equation: 2   a   cos t  y  0
dt
Approximate solution as
y  t   y0  t    y1  t   2 y2  t   
a  a0   a1  2 a2  
Substituting both equations into Mathieu equation:
 y0  a0 y0     y1  a1 y0  y0 cos t  a0 y1 

 2  y2  a2 y0  a1 y1  y1 cos t  a0 y2     0

(Mathieu Equation)
Set the coefficients of various powers of Є to 0

0 : y0  a0 y0  0
1: y1  a1 y0  y0 cos t  a0 y1  0
2 : y2  a2 y0  a1 y1  y1 cos t  a0 y2  0

Each yi is required to have a period of 2π or 4π
 n
cos a0 t  cos t
2 n2
y0  t     , n  0,1,2, a0  , n  0,1,2, 
sin a0 t sin tn 4
 2

(Mathieu Equation)
When n=0: a0=0, y0=1

y1  a1  cos t  0 or y1  a1  cos t
For y1 to be periodic, a1 must be zero.
Integrate this equation twice: y1  t   cos t  
With the known values of a0, a1, y0 and y1, Mathieu equation can be
rewritten as
1 1
y2  a2   cos t    cos t  0 or y2    a2   cos t  cos 2t
2 2
(Mathieu Equation)
For y2 to be periodic, -0.5 – a2 must be zero.
Thus for n=0, a   1 2  

2
When n=1: a0=1/4, y0=cos(t/2) or sin(t/2)
With y0=cos(t/2), Eq 13.105 gives 1  1 t 1 3t

y1  y1    a1   cos  cos
4  2 2 2 2
Homogeneous solution: t t
y1  t   A1 cos  A2 sin
2 2
For y1 to be periodic, -a1– ½ must be zero, 1 1 3t
y1  y1   cos
4 2 2
(Mathieu Equation)
Substituting y1(t)=A2cos(3t/2) inside, we obtain A2=1/4. Hence

1 3t
y1  t   cos
4 2
With the known values of a0, a1, and y1 Eq 13.104 can be rewritten
as
1 t 11 3t   1 3t 
y2  y2  a2 cos   cos    cos  cos t
4 2 24 2  4 2
 1 t 1 3t 1 5t
   a2   cos  cos  cos
 8 2 8 2 8 2

(Mathieu Equation)
Coefficient of cos(t/2) on the right hand side =0

1 1  2
a2   , a     
8 4 2 8
1  2
Similarly with y0=sin(t/2), we obtain a    
4 2 8
When n=2: a0=1, y0=cos t or sin t
1 1
y

With y0=cos(t/2), Eq 13.105 gives 1  y1   a1 cos t   cos 2t
2 2

(Mathieu Equation)
For y1 to be periodic, a1=0.
1 1
A
y1(t)=A3 + B3cos2t, 3   , B3 
2 6
y2  y2  a2 cos t  y1 cos t  0
 1 1 
or y2  y2   a2 cos t     cos 2t  cos t
 2 6 
 1 1 1
 cos t   a1     cos 3t
 2 12  2

(Mathieu Equation)
For y2 to be periodic, coefficient of cos t = 0.

5 5 2
a2  , a  1    
12 12
Similarly with y0=sin(t/2), we obtain
1 2
a  1  
12

13.7
Graphical Methods
13.7
• Phase Plane Representation
For a single DOF system, displacement and velocity are used to

describe the motion completely
When the parameters are used as coordinate axes, the resulting

graph is call phase plane representation
A typical point traces a trajectory in the phase plane.

Example 13.2
Trajectories of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Find the trajectories of a simple harmonic oscillator.

Example 13.2
Trajectories of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator Solution
Equation of motion of undamped linear system

x  n2 x  0
Set y  x
dy dx dy  2
x
 n2 x,  y   n
dt dt dx y
Integrating, y 2  n2 x 2  c 2
Value of c depends on initial conditions
Trajectories are family of ellipses.

Example 13.2
Trajectories of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator Solution

Example 13.3
Phase Plane of an Undamped Pendulum
Find the trajectories of an undamped pendulum

Example 13.3
Solution
Equation of motion:
  02 sin  where 02  g l

Set y  x  
dy dx dy  2
0 sin x
 0 sin x,
2
 y  
dt dt dx y
or ydy  02 sin xdx
Example 13.3
Solution
Integrating with x  0 when x  x0 ,

y 2  202  cos x  cos x0 
Let z  y 0
z 2  2 cos x  cos x0 

Example 13.4
Phase Plane of an Undamped Nonlinear System
Find the trajectories of a nonlinear spring-mass system governed by

the equation:
x  02  x  2x 3   0

Example 13.4
Solution
Nonlinear pendulum equation is a special case of the above equation.
Proof: sin      3
6 when  is small
  3

  0     0
 2
 6 

Example 13.4
Solution
The equation can be rewritten as
dx
dt
 y,
dy
dt

 02 x  2x 3 
or

dy  02 x  2x 3


dx y

or ydy  02 x  2x 3 dx 
Example 13.4
Solution
Integrating with x  0 when x  x0 ,

z 2  x 2  x 4  A2 where z  y 0
A2  x02 1  x02 

Example 13.4
Solution
For α=0, the equation is a circle of radius A.

For α<0, the equation is an oval within the circle
For α=(1/4)A2, the equation becomes
4
x
y 2  x 2  2  A2 
4A
  x 2    x 2 
 y   A    y   A    0
  2 A    2 A 
This shows that the trajectories are parabolas

• Characteristics of trajectories
Consider single DOF nonlinear oscillatory system:
x  f  x, x   0
dx dy
Define  x  y and  y   f  x, y 
dt dt
dy f  x, y 
    x, y 
dx y
Hence there is a unique slop of the trajectory at every point (x,y)

• Phase Velocity
Velocity which a point moves along a trajectory

v x  x , v y  y
Components of phase velocity parallel to x and y axes:


Magnitude of v :
2 2
  dx   dy 
v  vx  v y      
2 2
 dt   dt 
If system has periodic motion, trajectory is a closed curve

• Method of Constructing Trajectories
Equations of motion of system:
dx dy
 f1  x, y  ,  f 2  x, y 
dt dt
dy f 2  x, y 
    x, y 
dx f1  x, y 
The curve Φ(x,y)=c for fixed value of c is called an isocline.
Isocline is locus of pts at which the trajectories passing through them

have constant slope c

• Method of Constructing Trajectories
Plot several isoclines with different values of c:
The final trajectory looks like this:

Example 13.5
Trajectories Using the Method of Isoclines
Construct the trajectories of a simple harmonic oscillator by the

method of isoclines.

Example 13.5
Trajectories Using the Method of Isoclines
Solution
n2 x n2 x
Family of isoclines: c or y  
y c
This equation is a family of straight
lines passing through origin.
Isoclines are as shown:

• Obtaining Time Solution Form Phase-Plane Trajectories
For small Δx and Δt, average velocity can be

x
x av   x   t  so that t 
x av

13.8
Stability of Equilibrium States
13.8
• Stability Analysis
dx dy dy f 2  x, y 
We have  f1  x, y  ,  f 2  x, y  , 
dt dt dx f1  x, y 
Let (x0,y0) be singular point so that
f1  x0 , y0   f 2  x0 , y0   0
Assume (x=0,y=0) is a singular point so that
f1  0,0   f 2  0,0   0
Expand f1 and f2 in terms of Taylor series

x  f1  x, y   a11 x  a12 y  Higher order terms

y  f 2  x, y   a21 x  a22 y  Higher order terms
f1 f1
where a11  , a12  ,
x  0,0  y  0, 0 
f 2 f 2
a21  , a22 
x  0, 0  y  0, 0 
x and y are small. f1 and f2 can be approximated by linear terms

 x   a11 a12   x 
   
 y  a21 a22   y 
 x   X  t
Assume solution to be     e
 y Y 
Substitute one into another gives
a11   a12   X  0

 a    
 21 a22     Y  0

a11   a12
Characteristic equation: 0
a21 a22  
Eigenvalues: 1 , 2 
1
2
p  p 2  4q  
where p  a11  a22 , q  a11 a22  a12 a21
x  X 1  1t  X 1  2 t
General solution:    C1  e  C2  e
 y X 2  X 2 

If (p2-4q)<0, the motion is oscillatory

If (p2-4q)>0, the motion is aperiodic
If p>0, the system is unstable
If p<0, the system is stable
 x  X1 X 2     
Use the transformation         T   
 y   Y1 Y2     
 x   a11 a12   x 
to uncouple       
 y  a21 a22   y 
  1 0      1

Thus we have        or 
    0 2       2 

Solution:   t   e 1t
,   t   e 2 t

• Classification of Singular Points
Case (i) – λ1 and λ2 are real and distinct (p2>4q)
  t    0 e 1t ,   t    0 e 2t
If λ1 and λ2 have the same sign, the equilibrium point is called a
node.
If λ2 < λ2 the origin is called an unstable node
If λ1 and λ2 have the opposite sign, one solution tends to the origin
while the other tends to ∞

Case (ii) – λ1 and λ2 are real and equal (p2=4q)
  t    0 e 1t ,   t    0 e 1t
Trajectories are straight lines passing through origin
If λ1<0, the origin will be a stable node.
If λ1>0, the origin will be an unstable node

Case (iii) – λ1 and λ2 are complex conjugates

Let λ1  θ1  iθ2 and 2  1  i 2
Then   1  i 2  and   1  i 2  
  t    0e1t ei 2t ,   t     0 e1t e i 2t
Trajectories are logarithmic spirals. Origin is a spiral point.
If θ1<0 (p<0, q>0), the focal point will be stable.

If θ1<0 (p>0, q>0), the origin will be an unstable node
The sign of θ1 gives the direction of rotation.


13.9
Limit Cycles
13.9
13.9 Limit Cycles
• Sometimes the trajectories tend to a single closed curve.

i.e. every solution tends to a periodic solution as t∞
• The closed curve is called a limit cycle.
• Van der Pol equation: x

   1  x 2
 x  x  0,   0
• Although the solution of the equation is not known, it can be
represented using isoclines

13.9 Limit Cycles
  1  x 2  y  x
dx dy
• We have y  x  , y

dt dt
• The isocline corresponding to a specified value of the slop dy/dx=c
is given by
dy dy dt  1  x 2  y  x  x 
   c or y   0
   1  x  y  c 
dx dx dt y 2 
• The maximum value of x is always close to 2 irrespective of the

value of α

13.9 Limit Cycles

13.10
Chaos
13.10
13.10 Chaos
• Behavior of system becomes unpredictable because of the

nonlinearities in a deterministic equation.
• Attractor
• A point towards which all nearby solutions move as time

progresses.

13.10 Chaos
• Poincarě Section
• System with 3 degrees of freedom:
• Intersection of phase plane with yz plane is the Poincarě section

13.10 Chaos
• Functions with Stable Orbits

xn 1  xn ; n  1,2,
For any 2 initial values of x1 which differ by small amount, the

values of xn+1 converge to 1
Thus the functional relation is said to have a stable orbit at x=1

13.10 Chaos
• Functions with Unstable Orbits

xn 1  axn 1  xn  ; n  1,2, , a is constant
Used as a model for population growth with no predators.
x1 has to lie between 0 and 1, otherwise the process diverges to -∞

x1 has maximum value of a/4 at xn=0.5 i.e. a<4
If a<1, xn+1 converges to zero
The system is a chaotic one. Small changes in the deterministic

equation can lead to unpredictable results.

13.10 Chaos

13.10 Chaos
Strange Attractors
Attractors associated with chaotic systems are more complex than

rest points and limit cycles
The geometric points in state space to which chaotic trajectories are

attracted are called strange attractors

13.10 Chaos
• Chaotic Behavior of Duffing’s Equation Without the Forcing

Term
Duffing’s equation x  x  x  x 3  F0 cos t
Free, undamped vibration with α=β=0.5, x  0.5 x  0.5 x 3  0
Static positions at x=0,+1,-1
1 2 1 4 1 2
x=0 is unstable (saddle point)
x=1 and -1 are stable (centres).
 x   x  x  C
2 8 4
Kinetic Potential energy

13.10 Chaos

Term
Free, damped vibration
Boundary conditions:
x  x  0.5 x  0.5 x 3  0
x t  0   x0 , x  t  0   x 0
x=+1 and -1 are unstable

13.10 Chaos

Term

13.10 Chaos

Term

13.10 Chaos

Term

13.10 Chaos

Term

13.10 Chaos
• Chaotic Behavior of Duffing’s Equation With the Forcing

Term
Consider Duffing’s equation with μ=0.2, α=β=1
When ω is changed, the response can be periodic or chaotic,

depending on the value of 3ω.
x  0.2 x  x  x  0.3 cos1.4t (periodic)
x  0.2 x  x  x 3  0.3 cos1.29t (chaotic)

13.10 Chaos

Term

13.10 Chaos
• Chaotic Behavior of Duffing’s Equation With the Forcing Term
When F0 is changed,
x  0.168 x  0.5 x  0.5 x 3  F0 sin t  F0 sin t
When F0 is small, the response is a simple harmonic motion about
x=+1
When F0 is increased, phase plane distorted from a simple ellipse
For F0=0.178, the response is a 2 period motion

As F0 is increased further, period motions occure and finally chaos is
observed with no apparent periodicity

13.10 Chaos

Term

13.11
Numerical Methods
13.11
13.11 Numerical Methods
• Runge-Kutta method is directly applicable for nonlinear systems.
• Central difference, Houbolt, Wilson and Newmark methods can also

be used with slight modifications
 
 m x t    c x  t   P x  t    F  t 
 
 
 m xi 1   c xi 1  P  Fi 1
 
   
Pi 1  Pi   ki  x  Pi   ki  xi 1  xi 
 
ˆ  
 m xi 1   c xi 1   ki  xi 1  Fi 1  Fi 1  Pi   ki  xi
   

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Mechanical Vibrations

Fifth Edition in SI Units

3 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

4 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Real systems are more often nonlinear

6 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

ml 2  mgl sin   0

8 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

A better solution is obtained by approximating sinθ ≈ θ – θ3/6 for small

9 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Similar to equation of motion of spring-mass system with nonlinear

Let f(x) be restoring force of the spring.

Equation of motion: mx  f  x   0

If df/dx(x) is constant, the spring is linear.

If df/dx(x) is increasing, the spring is hard.

10 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

If df/dx(x) is decreasing, the spring is soft.

Pendulum with large amplitudes is considered as a system with

11 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Mechanical Chatter, Belt Friction System

 Kinetic coefficient (μk) due to force needed to maintain body in

12 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Mechanical Chatter, Belt Friction System

Equation of motion: mx  F  x   kx  0

Damping force is negative for small.

Nonlinear self-excited system (mechanical chatter).

13 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Mechanical Chatter, Belt Friction System

14 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Single DOF system with general spring force F(x):

16 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• If F(x) is an odd function, F(-x) = -F(x)

• For illustration, let F(x)=xn.

18 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• For approximate solutions, analytical methods more desirable than

• Once analytical solution is obtained, any desired numerical values can

20 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

21 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Assume solution in series form:

As α ∞ the equation reduces to exact solution of linear equations

22 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Solution of Pendulum Equations

x  02 x  x 3  0 where x   , 0   g l  ,    02 6

Assuming weak nonlinearity (i.e. α small)

Use a 2-term approximation

Ignoring terms in α2, α3 and α4, equation will be satisfied if the

25 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

26 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Lindstedt’s Perturbation Method

Assumes angular frequency varies as a function of amplitude

Using only linear terms in α:

• Lindstedt’s Perturbation Method

Substitute into solution of pendulum equation:

Neglect terms in α2, α3 and α4:

• Lindstedt’s Perturbation Method

x1   2 x1   A0 sin  t     3  1  A0 sin  t    

• Lindstedt’s Perturbation Method

Initial conditions: x 0   A  A0 sin  t   

30 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Lindstedt’s Perturbation Method

Solution of the Undamped Equation

x  02  x 3  F cost or x  02 x x 3  F cost

Substitute back into Duffing’s equation: