Vibration Chapter10

Mechanical Vibrations
Fifth Edition in SI Units

Singiresu S. Rao
Chapter 10
Vibration Measurement and Applications
3 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

10
Chapter Outline
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Transducers
10.3 Vibration Pickups
10.4 Frequency-Measuring Instruments
10.5 Vibration Exciters
10.6 Signal Analysis
10.7 Dynamic Testing of Machines and Structure
10.8 Experimental Modal Analysis
10.9 Machine-Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis

10.1
Introduction
5
10.1
© 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
10.1 Introduction
• Why we need to measure vibrations:

– To detect shifts in ωn which indicates possible failure
– To select operational speeds to avoid resonance
– Measured values may be different from theoretical values
– To design active vibration isolation systems
– To identify mass, stiffness and damping of a system
– To verify the approximated model

10.1 Introduction
• Type of vibration measuring instrument used will depend on:

– Expected range of frequencies and amplitudes
– Size of machine/structure involved
– Conditions of operation of the machine/structure
– Type of data processing used

10.2
Transducers
8
10.2
© 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
10.2 Transducers
• A device that transforms values of physical variables into electrical

signals
• Following slides show some common transducers for measuring

vibration

10.2 Transducers
• Variable Resistance Transducers
Mechanical motion changes electrical resistance, which cause a

change in voltage or current
Strain gage is a fine wire bonded to surface where strain is to be

measured.

10.2 Transducers
Surface and wire both undergo same strain.
R / R r L
Resulting change in wire resistance: K   1  2v   1  2v
L / L r L
where K = Gage factor of the wire

R = Initial resistance
ΔR = Change in resistance
L = Initial length of wire
ΔL = Change in length of wire
v = Poisson’s ratio of the wire
r = Resistivity of the wire
Δr = Change in resistivity of the wire ≈ 0 for Advance

10.2 Transducers

L R
Strain:   
L RK
The following figure shows a vibration pickup:

10.2 Transducers
ΔR can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge as shown:
 R1 R3  R2 R4 
E V
  R1  R2  R3  R4  

10.2 Transducers
Initially, resistances are adjusted so that E=0
R1R3 = R2R4
When Ri change by ΔRi,
 R1 R2 R3 R4  R1 R2 R3 R4

E  Vr0      where r0  
 R1 R2 R3 R4   R1  R2  2  R3  R4  2

10.2 Transducers
If the leads are connected between pts a and b, R1=Rg, ΔR1,= ΔRg,
ΔR2= ΔR3= ΔR4=0
Rg E
  K or E  KVr0
Rg Vr0
where Rg is the initial resistance of the gauge.
Hence E can be calibrated to read ε directly.

10.2 Transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducers
Certain materials generate electrical charge when subjected to deformation

or stress.
Charge generated due to force:
Qx  kFx  kAp x
where k =piezoelectric constant
A =area on which Fx acts
px =pressure due to Fx.

10.2 Transducers
• Piezoelectric Transducers
E=vtpx
v = voltage sensitivity
t = thickness of crystal
A piezoelectric accelerometer is shown.
Output voltage proportional to acceleration

10.2 Transducers
Example 10.1
Output Voltage of a Piezoelectric Transducer
A quartz crystal having a thickness of 2.5mm is subjected to a

pressure of 50psi. Find the output voltage if the voltage sensitivity is
0.055 V-m/N.

10.2 Transducers
Example 10.1
Output Voltage of a Piezoelectric Transducer
Solution
E = vtpx =(0.055)(0.00254)(344738) = 47.4015V

10.2 Transducers
• Electrodynamic Transducers
Voltage E is generated when the coil moves in a magnetic field as

shown.
E = Dlv
E F
Dl  
v I
where D = magnetic flux density
l = length of conductor
v = velocity of conductor
relative to magnetic field

10.2 Transducers
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer Transducer
Output voltage depends on the axial displacement of the core.
Insensitive to temp and high output.

10.3
Vibration Pickups
10.3
• Most common pickups are seismic instruments as shown
• Bottom ends of spring and dashpot have same motion as the cage
• Vibration will excite the suspended mass
• Displacement of mass relative to cage: z = x – y

• Y(t) = Ysinωt
• Equation of motion of mass m:
mx  c x  y   k  x  y   0 or
mz  cz  kz  my
 mz  cz  kz  m 2Y sin t
• Steady-state solution:
z  t   Z sin  t   

Y 2 r 2Y
Z 
 k  m  2 2
c  2 2
1  r    2r 
2 2 2
 c  1  2 r 
  tan  1
2 
 tan  2 
 k  m  1 r 
 c
r , 
n 2mn

• Vibrometer
Measures displacement of a vibrating body
Z/Y ≈ 1 when ω/ωn ≥ 3 (range II)

r2
z  t   Y sin  t    if 1
1  r    2r 
2 2 2
In practice Z may not be equal to Y as r may not be large, to

prevent the equipment from getting bulky

Example 10.2
Amplitude by Vibrometer
A vibrometer having a natural frequency of 4 rad/s and ζ = 0.2 is

attached to a structure that performs a harmonic motion. If the
difference between the mximum and the minimum recorded values is
8 mm, find the amplitude of motion of the vibrating structure when its
frequency is 40 rad/s.

Example 10.2
Amplitude by Vibrometer
Solution
Amplitude of recorded motion:

Y 10
2
Z  1.0093Y  4 mm
1  10    2 0.210 
2 2 2
Amplitude of vibration of structure:

Y = Z/1.0093 = 3.9631 mm

• Vibrometer
Measures acceleration of a vibrating body.
 Y 2 sin  t   
 z  t n2 
1  r    2r 
2 2 2
1
If  1,
1  r    2r 
2 2 2
  z  t n2  Y 2 sin  t   

• Vibrometer
1
If 0.65< ζ < 0.7, 0.96   1.04 for 0  r  0.6
1  r    2r 
2 2 2
Accelerometers are preferred due their small size.

Example 10.3
Design of an Accelerometer
An accelerometer has a suspended mass of 0.01 kg with a damped

natural frequency of vibration of 150 Hz. When mounted on an engine
undergoing an acceleration of 1 g at an operating speed of 6000 rpm,
the acceleration is recorded as 9.5 m/s2 by the instrument. Find the
damping constant and the spring stiffness of the accelerometer.

Example 10.3
Solution 1 Measured value 9.5
   0.9684
1  r    2r 
2 2 True value
2 9.81
or 1  r    2r   1 / 0.9684  1.0663

2 2 2 2
(E.1)
6000 2 
Operating speed    628.32 rad/s
60
d  1   2 n  150 2   942.48 rad/s
  r 628.32
Thus     0.6667
d 1   n
2
1  2 942.48
 r  0.6667 1   2 or r 2  0.4444 1   2   (E.2)

Example 10.3
Solution
Substitute (E.2) into (E.1): 1.5801ζ4 – 2.2714ζ2 + 0.7576 = 0
Solution gives ζ2 = 0.7253, 0.9547

d 942.48
n    1368.8889 rad/s
Choosing ζ= 0.7253 arbitrarily, 1  2
1  0.7253 2
k  m n2   0.011368.8889  18738.5628 N/m

2
Damping constant
c  2m n  2 0.011368.8889  0.7253
 19.8571 N - s/m
Example 10.3
Solution
Measures velocity of vibrating body: y  t   Y cos t

r 2Y
Velocity: z  t   cos t   
1  r    2r 
2 2 2
r2
If  1, then
1  r    2r 
2 2 2
z  t   Y cos t   
Example 10.4
Design of a Velometer
Design a velometer if the maximum error is to be limited to 1% of the

true velocity. The natural frequency of the velometer is to be 80Hz
and the suspended mass is to be 0.05 kg.

Example 10.4
Solution
r 2Y
We have z  t   cos t   
1  r    2r 
2 2 2
r2 Recorded velocity
R  (E.1)
1  r    2r 
2 2 2 True velocity
 1
Maximum r  r  (E.2)
1  2 2

Example 10.4
Solution
Substitute (E.2) into (E.1),
 1 
 
2 
 1  2  R
2
  1  2 1 
1     4 
2 

2 
  1  2   1  2 
1
 R
4  4
2 4

Example 10.4
Solution
R = 1.01 or 0.99 for 1% error
ζ4 – ζ2 + 0.245075 = 0 and ζ4 – ζ2+ 0.255075=0

ζ2 = 0.570178, 0.429821 or
ζ = 0.755101, 0.655607

Example 10.4
Solution
Choosing ζ = 0.755101 arbitrarily,

n  80 2   502.656 rad/s
k  mn2   0.05 502.656  12633.1527 N/m
2
c  2 n m  2 0.755101 502.656 0.05

 37.9556 N - s/m

• Phase Distortion
All vibrating-measuring instruments have phase lag.
If the vibration consists of 2 or more harmonic components, the

recorded graph will not give an accurate picture – phase distortion
Consider vibration signal of the form as shown:

Let phase shift = 90° for first harmonic

Let phase shift = 180° for third harmonic
Corresponding time lags: t1= 90°/ω, t2 = 180°/ω
Output signal is as shown:

In general, let the complex wave be

y(t) = a1sinωt + a2sin2ωt + …
Output of vibrometer becomes:

z(t) = a1sin(ωt – Φ1) + a2sin(2ωt – Φ2) + …
where   
2  j 
 n 
tan  j  2
, j  1,2,...
  
1   j 
 n 
Φj ≈ π since ω/ωn is large.

z(t) ≈ – [a1sinωt + a2sin2ωt + …] ≈ -y(t)
Thus the output record can be easily corrected.
Similarly we can show that output of velometer is z  t    y  t 
Accelerometer: Let the acceleration curve be

y  t   a1 2 sin t  a2  2  2 sin 2t  
Output of accelerometer:
z t    a1 2 sin  t  1   a2  2  2 sin  2t  2   
Since Φ varies almost linearly from 0° to 90° for ζ = 0.7, Φ ≈ αr =

α(ω/ωn) = βω where α and β are constants.
 
Time lag t      is independent of frequency.
 
  2 z t   a1 2 sin  t     a2  2  sin  2t  2   
2
 a1 2 sin   a2  2  sin 2   where   t  

2
Thus output of accelerometer represents the true acceleration being

measured.

10.4
Frequency-Measuring Instruments
10.4
• Single-reed instrument or Fullarton Tachometer
 Clamped end pressed against vibrating body

 Adjust l until free end shows largest amplitude of vibration
 Read off frequency

• Multi-reed Instrument or Frahm Tachometer
 Clamped end pressed against vibrating body

 Frequency read directly off strip whose free end shows largest
amplitude of vibration

• Stroboscope
 Produces light pulses

 A vibrating object viewed with it will appear stationary when
frequency of pulse is equal to vibration frequency

10.5
Vibration Exciters
10.5
• Used to determine dynamic characteristics of machines and

structures and fatigue testing of materials
• Can be mechanical, electromagnetic, electrodynamic or hydraulic

type

• Mechanical Exciters
Force can be applied as an inertia force
Force can be applied as an elastic spring force

for frequency <30 Hz and loads <700N

• Mechanical Exciters
The unbalance created by two masses rotating at the same speed

in opposite directions can be used as a mechanical exciter.

• Electrodynamic Shaker
The electrodynamic shaker can be considered as the reverse of an

electrodynamic transducer.
2 resonant frequencies are shown below.
F  DIl

10.6
Signal Analysis
10.6
• Acceleration-time history of a frame subjected to excessive

vibration:
• Transformed to frequency domain:

• Spectrum Analyzers
Separates energy of signal into various frequency bands
Real-time analyzers useful for machine health monitoring
2 types of real-time analysis procedures: digital filtering method

and Fast Fourier Transform method
Basic component of spectrum analyzer: Bandpass filter

• Bandpass Filter
Permits passage of frequencies over a band and rejects all other

frequency components
Response of a filter:

• Bandpass Filter
fu and fl are upper and lower cutoff frequencies respectively

fc is centre (tuned) frequency
Ripples within band is minimum for a good bandpass filter
2 types of bandpass filters: constant percent bandwidth filters and

constant bandwidth filters
Constant percent: (fu – fl)/fc is a constant

E.g. octave, one-half-octave filters
Constant bandwidth: fu – fl is independent of fc

• Constant Percent Bandwidth and Constant Bandwidth

Analyzers
Spectrum analyzer with a set of octave and 1/3-octave band filters

can be use for signal analysis
Lower cutoff freq of a filter = upper cutoff freq of previous filter.

Filter characteristics as shown

• Constant Percent Bandwidth and Constant Bandwidth

Analyzers
Constant bandwidth analyzer used to obtain more detailed analysis

than constant percent bandwidth analyzer
Wave or heterodyne analyzer is a constant bandwidth analyzer with

a continuously varying centre frequency

10.7
Dynamic Testing of Machines and Structures
10.7
10.7 Dynamic Testing of Machines and Structures
• Involves finding the deformation of machines/structures at a critical

frequency
• Approaches:
 Operational Deflection Shape measurements
 Modal Testing

• Using Operational Deflection Shape Measurements
Forced dynamic deflection shape measured under steady-state

frequency of system.
Valid only for forces/frequency associated with operating

conditions.
If a particular location has excessive deflection, we can stiffen that

location.

• Modal Testing
Any dynamic response of a machine/structure can be obtained as a

combination of its modes.
Knowledge of the mode shapes, modal frequencies and modal

damping ratio will describe completely the machine dynamics.

10.8
Experimental Modal Analysis
10.8
• When a system is excited, its response exhibits a sharp peak at

resonance
• Phase of response changes by 180°as forcing frequency crosses the

natural frequency
• Equipment needed:
 Exciter to apply known input force
 Transducer to convert physical motion into electrical signal
 Signal conditioning amplifier
 Analyzer with suitable software

• Necessary Equipment
Exciter
Can be an electromagnetic shaker or impact hammer
Shaker is attached to the structure through a stringer, to control the

direction of the force
Impact hammer is a hammer with built-in force transducer in its head
Portable, inexpensive and much faster to use than a shaker
But often cannot impart sufficient energy and difficult to control direction of
applied force

Transducer
Piezoelectric transducers most popular
Strain gauges can also be used
Signal conditioner
Outgoing impedance of tranducers not suitable for direct input into
analyzers.
Charge or voltage amplifiers are used to match and amplify the

signals before analysis

Analyzer
FFT analyzer commonly used
Analyzed signals used to find natural frequencies, damping ratios

and mode shapes

General arrangement for experimental modal analysis:

• Digital Signal Processing
x(t) represents analog signal, xi = x(ti) represents corresponding

digital record.

• Digital Signal Processing

a0 N / 2  2it j 2it j 
We have x j  x t j      ai cos  bi sin ; j  1,2,, N
2 i 1  T T 
1 N 1 N 2it j 1 N 2it j
where a0   x j , ai   x j cos , bi   x j sin
N j 1 N j 1 T N j 1 T
N is fixed for a given analyzer and equations can be expressed as

  
d   A X where X   x1 x2  x N  ,
1 T

d   a0 a1a2  a N / 2b1b1 bN / 2 
T

• Analysis of Random Signals
Input and output data usually contain random noise.
If x(t) is random signal, its average is

1 T
x  t   lim  x t  dt
T  T
0
For digital signal, x  lim  x  t j 

1 N
N  N j 1

Define a new variable x(t) as x t   y  t   y  t 
Mean square value

1
x  t   lim x 2  t  dt
T

2
T  T
0
 x t 
N
1
For digital signal, x 2  lim j
N  N j 1
Root mean square value xRMS  x 2

Autocorrelation function
1
R t   x  lim  x    x    t  d
T
2
T  T 0
1 N n
For digital signal, R n, t    x j x jn
N  n j 0
If x(t) is purely random, R(t)  0 as T  ∞

If x(t) is periodic, R(t) will also be periodic.

Power spectral density (PSD):

1 
S     R  e i d
2 
x  
2
Digital form : S    
Nt
Cross-correlation function:
1
Rxf  t   lim  x    f    t  d
T
T  T 0
Cross-PSD:
1 
S xf      Rxf   e i d
2 

If f(τ+t) is replaced by x(τ+t), we get Rxx(t) which leads to Sxx(ω).
Frequency response function H(iω) is related to PSD as
S xx     H    S ff   
2
S fx     H  i  S ff   
S xx     H  i  S xf   

Coherence function:
 S fx     S xf     S xf   
2
      
 S     S     S    S   
 ff  xx  xx ff
β = 0 if x and f are pure noises.

β = 1 if x and f are not contaminated at all.
Typical coherence function:

• Determination of Modal Data from Observed Peaks
Let the graph of H(iω) be as shown below.
4 peaks suggesting a 4-DOF system.

• Determination of Modal Data from Observed Peaks
Partition into several frequency ranges.

Each range is consider a 1-DOF system
Damping ratio corresponding to peak j:

 j2    j1
j  where  j1 and  j2  satisfy
2 j
H  i j 
H  i j  1
  H  i  
 2
j
2
When damping is small, ωj ≈ ωn

Example 10.5
Determination of Damping Ratio from Bode Diagram
The graphs showing the variations of the magnitude of the response

and its phase angle with the frequency of a single DOF system
provides the frequency response of the system.
Instead of dealing with the magnitude curves directly, if the

logarithms of the magnitude ratios (in decibels) are used, the
resulting plots are called Bode diagrams. Find the natural frequency
and damping ratio of a system whose Bode diagram is as shown.

Example 10.5

Example 10.5
Solution
ωn = 10Hz, ω1 = 9.6 Hz, ω2 = 10.5 Hz, Peak response = -35 dB
Damping ratio:
2  1 10.5  9.6
    0.045
2n 210.0 

• Determination of Modal Data from Nyquist Plot
Real parts of frequency-response function of 1-DOF system plotted

along horizontal axis
Imaginary parts of frequency-response function of 1-DOF system

plotted along vertical axis
1 
Frequency-response function:   i    u  iv where r 
1  r  i 2r
2
n
1 r2  2r
u , v
1  r 
2 2
 4 r
2 2
1  r 
2 2
 4 2 r 2


Properties of Nyquist Circle:

• u and v are large when r=1
• 1-r2 = (1+r)(1-r) ≈ 2(1-r) and 2ζr ≈ 2ζ
1 r 
u

2 1 r 
2 2
 2
 , v

2 1 r 
2 2
 2 
2 2
 1   1 
u 2   v     
 4   4 

Once H(iω) is measured, use least square approach to fit a circle.
Intersection of circle with –ve Im axis corresponds to H(iωn)
Bandwidth is the difference of the frequencies at the 2 horizontal

diametral points
  2     1
Damping ratio:  
2n

• Measurement of Mode Shapes
 
Undamped multi-DOF system:  m x   k  x  f


 
Free harmonic vibration:  k     m yi  0  i
2

Orthogonal relations for mode shapes: Y T  mY   diag M 

Y T  k Y   diag K 
Ki
i2 
Mi

When forcing functions are harmonic,
 
 ~i t 1  ~  ~i t
x  t   Xe   k     m Fe       Fe
 2 i t

     Y   K     M  2
 Y 
1 T
Xp
 pq          pq 
Fq
with F j  0; j 1, 2 ,, N ; j  q
 
N  yi  p  yi  q

i 1 Ki   2M i

Further normalized [Y] as

  

[ ]  1 2  N  Y  M 
1 / 2
N 
 pq      2
  
 
i p i q
i 1  i   2

 
Damped multi-DOF system:  m x   c  x   k  x  f

 
Assume proportional damping:  c   a k   b m
Undamped mode shapes of the system will diagonalize the damping

matrix:
Y T  cY   diag  k 



Frequency-response function when f is harmonic:
N
 
 yi  p  y i  q
 pq          pq  ~
i 1 K i   M i  i Ci
2
When mass-normalized mode shapes are used:
N
 pq      2
  

i
p i q
~
i 1 i    2 i  ii
2

Substituting ω=ωi into the equation, we get:
 pq  i   H pq  i  
  

i p

i q
~
    2 i  ii2
i
2 2
  
 
i p i q
or  pq  i   H pq  i  
2 ii2
  
 
or i p i q  2 ii2 H pq  i 

10.9
Machine-Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis
10.9
• Machine operations will cause misalignments, cracks, unbalances

etc in machine parts
• Vibration level will increase until machine failure occurs

• Vibration Severity Criteria
Vibration severity charts can be used as a guide to determine

machine condition.
RMS value of vibratory velocity is compared against the criteria set

by the standards.
However the overall velocity signal used for comparison may not
give sufficient warning of the imminent damage.

• Machine Maintenance Techniques
Life of machine follows the bathtub curve:

Breakdown maintenance:
Allow the machine to fail and then replace it with a new machine.
This strategy is used when machine is inexpensive and no other

damage is caused by the breakdown.

Preventive maintenance:
Maintenance performed at fixed intervals.
Intervals determined statistically from past experience.
This method is uneconomical.

Condition-based/Predictive maintenance:
Replace fixed-interval overhaul with fixed-interval measurements.
Can extrapolate measured vibration levels to predict when they will

reach unacceptable values.
Maintenance costs are greatly reduced.


• Machine Condition Monitoring Technique
Following methods are used to monitor machine conditions:
Aural and visual – a skilled technician will listen and see the
vibrations produced by the machine
Operational variables monitoring – performance is monitored wrt

intended duty. Deviation denotes a malfunction.

• Machine Condition Monitoring Technique
Temperature monitoring – rapid increase in temperature is an

indication of malfunction.
Wear debris found in lubricating oils can be used to assess extent

of damage by observing concentration, size, shape and colour of
the particles.
Available vibration monitoring

techniques.

• Vibration Monitoring Techniques
Time domain analysis

E.g. following is an acceleration waveform of a gearbox. Pinion is
coupled to 2685 rpm motor.
Period of waveform same as period of pinion.

This implies a broken gear tooth on the pinion.

Statistical Methods
Peak level, RMS level and crest factor may be used as indices to
identify damage.
Changes in Lissajous figures can be used to identify faults.

10.9 Machine Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis
Statistical Methods
Waveform corresponding to good components will have bell-shaped
probability density curve
Any deviations can be due to component failure
First 4 moments of the curve are called the mean, standard deviation,
skewness and kurtosis.
1 
Kurtosis is defined as k 4   x  x  4
f  x  dx

Increase in value of kurtosis can be due to machine component failure

Frequency Domain Analysis

Vibration spectrum is unique to that particular machine. Its shape
changes as faults starts developing.
Nature and location of the fault can be detected by comparing the

frequency spectrum of the damaged machine with that of the
machine in good condition.

Frequency Domain Analysis

Each rotating element generates identifiable frequency.
Thus changes in the spectrum at a given freq can be attributed to

the corresponding element.

Quefrency Domain Analysis

Quefrency is the x-axis for cepstrum.
Cepstrum c(τ) is the inverse fourier transform of the log of the

power spectrum SX(ω).
T
1
S X     F  x t  where F  x t    x t  e it dt
2
2
T
T 
2
c   F 1 log S X   
Cepstrum can detect any periodicity in the spectrum caused by

component failure.

2nd gear was at fault although 1st gear was engaged.

• Instrumentation Systems

3 types – basic system, portable system, computer-based system.
Basic system consists of vibration meter, stroboscope and headset.
Portable system consists of portable FFT vibration analyzer based

on battery power.
Computer-based system consists of FFT vibration analyzer coupled

with computer for maintaining centralized database and provide
diagnostic capabilities.
• Instrumentation Systems
Piezoelectric accelerometers are commonly used.
Can choose between acceleration, velocity and displacement to

monitor.
Velocity is commonly used as the parameter for monitoring the

machine conditions because the velocity spectrum is the flattest.
Any change in the amplitude can be observed easily in a flatter

spectrum.

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Mechanical Vibrations

Fifth Edition in SI Units

3 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

4 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Why we need to measure vibrations:

6 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Type of vibration measuring instrument used will depend on:

7 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• A device that transforms values of physical variables into electrical

• Following slides show some common transducers for measuring

9 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Variable Resistance Transducers

Mechanical motion changes electrical resistance, which cause a

Strain gage is a fine wire bonded to surface where strain is to be

10 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Variable Resistance Transducers

Surface and wire both undergo same strain.

where K = Gage factor of the wire

11 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Variable Resistance Transducers

The following figure shows a vibration pickup:

12 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Variable Resistance Transducers

ΔR can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge as shown:

13 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Variable Resistance Transducers

Initially, resistances are adjusted so that E=0

When Ri change by ΔRi,

 R1 R2 R3 R4  R1 R2 R3 R4

14 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Variable Resistance Transducers

Hence E can be calibrated to read ε directly.

15 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Certain materials generate electrical charge when subjected to deformation

Charge generated due to force:

16 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

A piezoelectric accelerometer is shown.

Output voltage proportional to acceleration

17 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

A quartz crystal having a thickness of 2.5mm is subjected to a

18 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

E = vtpx =(0.055)(0.00254)(344738) = 47.4015V

19 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Voltage E is generated when the coil moves in a magnetic field as

20 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Linear Variable Differential Transformer Transducer

Output voltage depends on the axial displacement of the core.

Insensitive to temp and high output.

21 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Most common pickups are seismic instruments as shown

• Vibration will excite the suspended mass

• Displacement of mass relative to cage: z = x – y

23 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

• Equation of motion of mass m:

24 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

25 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Measures displacement of a vibrating body

Z/Y ≈ 1 when ω/ωn ≥ 3 (range II)

In practice Z may not be equal to Y as r may not be large, to

26 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

A vibrometer having a natural frequency of 4 rad/s and ζ = 0.2 is

27 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units

Amplitude of recorded motion: