Measurement 

of Displacement
 Measurement of Displacement

Displacement is the Vector representing  a change in position of a body or 
a Point with respect to a reference point .

It may be linear or rotational motion, expressed in absolute or relative 
terms.

Being a fundamental quantity, the basic sensing device is widely adapted 
with suitable linkages for the measurement of many derived quantities 
such as Force, Stress, Pressure, Velocity and Acceleration……

The magnitude of measurement may ranges from few microns to few 
centimeters in the case of linear displacement  and few seconds to 
3600
 Measurement of Displacement
Transducer:
Is a device which when actuated by one form of energy 
is capable of converting it into another form.
Mechanical
Displacement Electrical
Input or output
Primary Sensor Electromechanical
Strain transducer
Physical variable

Advantages of getting Electrical Signal as Output:

§  Inertia and friction effects are absent unlike in
    transducers with mechanical output

§  Amplification can be obtained with relative ease.

§  Indication are recording , especially at a distance is
    greatly facilitated.
 Classification of Displacement measuring 
instruments
 Digital
Analog
An analogue sensor produces continuously varying output signals  A  digital  sensor  produces  discrete 
over  a  range  of  values.  Usually  the  output  signal  is  voltage  and  digital  signals.  The  output  of  a  digital 
this  output  signal  is  proportional  to  the  measurand.    Example:    sensor has only two states, namely ‘ON’ 
speed,  temperature,  pressure,  strain,  etc.  are  all  continuous  in  and ‘OFF’.  A push button switch is the 
nature and hence they are analogue quantities best example of a digital sensor. 

1. Electromechanical type:
       a)Variable Resistance    1. Frequency generating 
   Resistance Potentiometers type and
Resistance Strain Gauges  
       b) Variable Inductance 2. Digital Encoders
       c) Variable Capacitance
       d) Piezo-Electric 
       e) Ionization
2. Opto –Electrical Transducers
a)  Photo Emissive
b) Photo Conductive and
              c) Photo Voltaic  types
 a)Variable Resistance

üResistance Potentiometers

Resistance Strain Gauges

Stress Strain Measurement

a)Variable Resistance 
Resistance Potentiometer

(POT)

Any movement of the wiper on the potentiometer will change the resistance in the 
circuit.
Potentiometer
A potentiometer  consists  of  a  wire  wound  resistor  with  removable  slide  attached  to  it. 
Moving  the  slide  will  change  the  amount  of  resistance  of  the  potentiometer. When  the 
potentiometer  is  connected  in  an  electronic  circuit  any  movement  of  the  slide  on  the 
potentiometer will change the resistance in the circuit.
Potentiometer
 Potentiometer
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Potentiometers
Advantages :
•  Inexpensive and simple to set up.
•  Large displacements can be measured.
•   Sufficient output to drive control
    circuits.
•   Frequency response and resolution
     limited for wire-wound, but Unlimited
      for others.
Disadvantages :
•   Mechanical loading owing to wiper  
     friction.
•   Electrical noise from the sliding 
     contact.
•   Wear and misalignment owing to 
     friction.
•   Quick manipulation generates heat 
     and associated problems.
 b)Variable Inductance Transducers:
I.  Variation in Self-Inductance
II. Variation in Mutual Inductance
III.Variation in Reluctance or Permeance
(a) Inductance Pick-up with flag
I. Variation in Self-Inductance (b)Inductance Pick-up with core

These are based on a change in the magnetic characteristics of an electrical circuit in response to a 
measurand which may be displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.
Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance change due to any 
appreciable change in the quantity to be measured i.e. measurand.
Inductive transducers work on the principle of inductance change due to any
appreciable change in the quantity to be measured i.e. measurand.

Voltage is generated because of the relative motion between a conductor and

a magnetic field

AC Bridge (Two coils

forms the adjacent arms)
Excited with 2.5 V
at 5 kHz frequency
(from an oscillator
housed inside the
bridge-cum-
amplifier unit)
(b)Inductance Pick-up with core

Z1 Z2

2 1 3
Impedance Z1 & Z2

Range ± 450mm
II. Variation in Mutual Inductance
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

S1  P  S2 
x i

S1 and S2 are the secondary 
coils and P is the Primary coil 

eo
eo1 – eo2
 with frequency 2 –
20 k Hz

e0 = eo1 – eo2 = ( M1 - M2 ) dip / dt

Phase opposition
M1  M2 are Mutual Inductances
Characteristics of LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer or RVDT
The  design  and  construction  of  RVDT is  similar  to  LVDT. The  only  difference  is  the 
shape of the core in transformer windings. LVDT uses the soft iron core to measure the 
linear  displacement  whereas  RVDT  uses  the  Cam-shaped  core  (Rotating  core)  for 
measuring the angular displacement
Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT
Advantages
•   The output voltage of these transducers is practically linear for displacements up to 20 mm. 
•   They have infinite resolution.
•   This transducers possess a high sensitivity.
•   These transducers can usually tolerate a high degree of shock and vibration without any 
      adverse effects.
•   They are simple, light in weight, and easy to align and maintain.
•    These transducers have low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all 
     conditions.
Disadvantages
•  Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
•  They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields but shielding is possible.
•  They are inherently low in power output.

Temperature affects the performance of the transducer. Temperature also causes

phase shifting effects which may be minimized by using a capacitor across one of
the secondary windings.
III.  Variation in Reluctance or Permeance

Microsyn Used to measure small angular motions

Pick –up
Magnetic  lines  are  induced  into  the  Excitation
coils
poles  by  the  excitation  coils  with  the 
supply voltage es

The voltage induced in coils 1 and 3

is opposed by that of voltage
induced in 2and 4

Peak

Valley
Microsyn Magnetic
Rotor
Four Poles
Excitation
Pick –up
Magnetic lines are  coils
induced into the 
poles by the  The voltage induced
excitation coils with  in coils 1 and 3 is
the supply voltage  opposed by that of
es voltage induced in
2and 4

Variable Reluctance pickup 
c)Variable Capacitance
Parallel plate Capacitors

C = 0.00886εA / d
C = 0.00886εA / d
 Advantages of Capacitive Transducers

(1) Requires extremely small forces to operate and are highly sensitive
(2) They have good frequency response and hence useful for dynamic 
      measurements.
(3) High resolution can be obtained.
(4) They have high input impedance & hence loading effects are minimum.
(5) These transducers can be used for applications where stray magnetic fields 
       render  the inductive transducers useless.
d) Piezo-Electric
Natural : Quartz, Rochelli salt, Tourmaline

Synthetic materials: Lithium Sulphate, Ammonium dihydrogen –Posphate,

Polarised ferro electric ceramics (Barium titanate)

The natural shape of the Quartz is a

Hexagonal prism with pyramids at the
ends.

Flow of current is maximum at resonant 
frequency 
i
i

“fundamental frequency” f = K/t

 e) Ionization

Magnitudeof Voltage developed

depends on Electrode Spacing
and State of balance
2.  Opto –Electrical Transducers
A Photo electric transducer converts light beam into
a usable electric signal.
(a)Photo Emissive
(b)Photo Conductive        and
         (c)Photo Voltaic  types
2.  Opto –Electrical Transducers

(a)Photo Emissive
Evacuvated OR filled with inert gas

Oxidised and 
Covered with layer of 
Alkali material like 
Cesium     or  
Antimony

High gains are  (Silver)
obtained from 
Photomultiplier
(b)Photo Conductive 

PbS  or InSb

(c)Photo Voltaic 

Selenium
  Digital Transducers

1. Frequency generating type and 
2. Digital Encoders

Physical Analog Analog A/D Digital

Variable transducer Signal Converter

Output Signal

1. Frequency generating type:  
The output is in the form of Pulses or Sinusoidal wave forms, 
the frequency of which is  a measure of the magnitude of the 
Physical variable. 

Electro magnetic    Frequency domain transducer and 
Opt-Electrical        Frequency domain transducer
Electro Magnetic  Frequency domain transducer 

      Frequency domain transducer

Opto - Electrical Frequency domain transducer 

The slit width is such that a motion equal to the pitch of the
grating produces one complete cycle of light and darkness at
the photo diode.
Digital Encoders These convert analog motion (rotary or linear)   
directly to a digital output form .

Basic Encoder Disc
Optical Encoder