CHAPTER 3

MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
APPLICATION

1
Content
• Position and displacement measurement
• Acceleration measurement
• Velocity measurement
• Force measurement

2
Position and displacement

• Sensing methods
• Potentiometers
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Synchro systems
• Resolvers
• Optical encoder
• Proximity sensor
• Photoelectric sensors
• Additional: Accelerometer and Gyroscope

3
Position and displacement
Already covered in
previous slides

Linear Rotary
Potentiometer Potentiometer
Capacitive Capacitive
Inductive Inductive
Linear Variable-Differential Rotary Variable-Differential
Transformer (LVDT) Transformer (RVDT)
Synchro systems
Resolvers
Optical encoder
Photoelectric sensors Add in
Proximity sensor
Accelerometers Gyroscope

4
Position and displacement:
Synchro and Resolver

5
 Position and displacement:
Synchro

• Synchro act as a “transmitter” and “receiver”.

• “transmitter” to control the rotary position of “receiver
Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in openbookproject.net/electricCircuits

6
 Position and displacement:
Synchro

• AC voltmeter registers voltage if the “receiver” rotor is not

rotated exactly 90 or 270 degrees from the “transmitter” rotor.

Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in openbookproject.net/electricCircuits

7
 Position and displacement:
Resolver

• two stator winding placed at 90° to each other, and a single

rotor winding driven by alternating current.
• polar to rectangular conversion.
• angle (rotor) co-ordinates sin and cosine (stator)
• proportional voltages on the stator windings.
Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in openbookproject.net/electricCircuits
8
 Position and displacement:
Resolver

• The coordinates (X, Y) are available on the resolver stator coils:

• 𝑋 = 𝑉 cos ∠𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
• 𝑌 = 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∠𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in openbookproject.net/electricCircuits

9
 Position and displacement:
Applying Synhros as Resolver

Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in openbookproject.net/electricCircuits

10
Position and displacement:
Applying Synhros as Resolver
• A TDX, torque differential transmitter, sums an electrical angle input with a shaft
angle
• input producing an electrical angle output
• A TDR, torque differential receiver, sums two electrical angle inputs producing a
shaft
• angle output
• A CT, control transformer, detects a null when the rotor is positioned at a right
angle to the stator angle input. A CT is typically a component of a servo– feedback
system.

Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in

openbookproject.net/electricCircuits 11
Position and displacement:
Applying Synhros as Resolver
• A Resolver outputs a quadrature sin and cosine(theta) representation of the shaft
angle
• input instead of a three-phase output.
• The three-phase output of a TX is converted to a resolver style output by a Scott-T
transformer.

Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in

openbookproject.net/electricCircuits 12
 Position and displacement:
Synchro and Resolver Stator winding fixed
at 90° to each other
Stator winding fixed at
120° to each other

Both act as rotary position sensor

Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in openbookproject.net/electricCircuits
13
 Position and displacement:
Synchro in linear displacement

• Modify synchro to resolver to measure linear displacement

• Inductsyn: product brand. Also known as linear encoder

Source: Lessons In Electric Circuits, Volume II – AC. By Tony R. Kuphaldt in openbookproject.net/electricCircuits

14
Position and displacement:
Optical encoder

15
Concepts related to encoders
• What is an encoder?
A rotary encoder is a sensor for converting
rotary motion or position to a series of
electronic pulses

16
Basic architectures of encoders
• Linear architecture
Linear encoders, which consist of a long linear read track
(analogous to the code disk of a rotary encoder),
together with a compact read head, address these
concerns. We offer three grades of linear encoders, to
suit a variety of application requirements.

17
 Introduction
• Encoders and sensors allow control and feedback loops to be
established

• Without the knowledge of position and/or speed it is impossible to

maintain accuracy and control

• Information provided by encoders and sensors is limited by various

things including data transmission frequency and also by the physical
limits of the system being controlled
 Encoders - Introduction

• Incremental encoders emit pulses which determine how far the device
has rotated (if a rotary encoder), or moved (if a linear encoder).

• Incremental encoders may be rotary or linear. The first key

specification is the number of pulses per revolution (PPR) or pulses
per inch (or centimeter). PPR of 250, 512, 1000, 1024, or even up to
100,000 pulses per revolution are available.
Encoders - Introduction

• Absolute encoders are used to determine the absolute or actual rotary or linear
position of part of a machine.

• Absolute encoders have multiple slit, photo-transistor, LED sets -- most

commonly 10 or 12

• Resolutions of up to 1 part in 23 bits (0.00034 degrees) are available in some

rotary encoders. Other rotary encoders offer multiple turn capability, with the
ability to determine 1 part in 4096 per revolution over a total of 4096 revolutions.

• Some linear encoders can measure movements as small as 10µm to 10nm

Incremental
Rotary Encoders
• rotary motion
• linear motion: used in conjunction with mechanical
measuring standards such as lead screws, and convert
rotary motion (incremental or absolute) into electrical
signals.
• effective and low cost feedback devices.
• In high-accuracy applications,
• error sources (lead screw cumulative and periodic error,
thermal expansion, and nut backlash, for example)

21
Absolute Rotary Encoders
• Absolute encoders have a unique code that can be
detected for each angular position
• Absolute encoders are much more complex and
expensive than incremental encoders

22
 Incremental encoders
• Pulses from LEDS are counted to provide rotary position
• Two detectors are used to determine direction (quadrature)
• Index pulse used to denote start point

23
The applications
• Positioning

• a lead screw or rack-and-pinion converts rotary motion to linear

motion
• an encoder converts the same motion into electronic pulses. The
pulses typically are used as input signals for counters, PLCs, or
numerical-control equipment

24
 The applications
• Length measurement

• Roll or sheet materials

• cut-to-length machinery.
• An encoder + a measuring wheel or coupled to a roller
• electronic pulses == units of length
• very precise operation is possible

25
The applications

Encoders are wildly used in industry

• machine tools
• textile machinery
• printing presses
• wood working machines
• handling technology
• conveying and storage technology
• robotics
26
27
Anatomy of Rotary Optical Absolute Encoder

trelectronic.com
 Encoders – Types (Rotary)

• Absolute optical
• robots
• Incremental Hollow shaft
• Modular
• Panel mount optical
• medical devices, audio equipment
• Magnetoresistive
• cranes, dirty environments
 Application of Rotary Encoders
• Painting Robots (automotive)
• CAT Scan machines
• Precision machining equipment
• Microscopes
• Aerospace
Applications Continued

Vtech
 Vendors

• Omega
• Renishaw
• TRElectronic
• RENCO
• ServoTek
• AMCI
• DuraCoder
Vendors

• Heidenhain
• Renco
• Renishaw
• autonics
• Stegmann
• Pepperl+Fuchs

33
 Key Encoder Specs
You must know the following information to specify an encoder:

• Absolute or Incremental Encoder

• Rotary or Linear Encoder
• Resolution required
• Uni-directional or Bi-directional motion
• Operating voltage, very commonly 5 volts, also 12 and 24 volts available

• Mechanical requirements
• Shaft diameter and length
• Mounting holes and spacing
• Overall length and diameter
• Environmental considerations
• Dust, moisture, etc.
• Shock, Vibration, etc.
• Operating temperature
• RPM, duty cycle
How to integrate

35
Application examples
Model 716 (Cube Encoder) made by ECP were equipped
on the lumber devices to produce up to 15% more
lumber from each log

36
Application examples
The Company of Ground Force mounts EPC encoder on
the trucks used at mining operations to measure the
rotation of pump shafts and of augers. The pumps
deliver wet ingredients, while the augers deliver the dry
ingredients.

37
Example
Given an incremental encoder of 50 pulses/rev, determine:
a) The resolution
b) What is the rotational angle if 15 pulses are recorded?
c) 500 pulses are recorded in 4 seconds. What is the
rotational speed (rpm)?

38
Example Feeder disc

Cut blocks

An automatic cutting machine is designed to cut a continuous

plastic strip into blocks of specific length. It is fed continuously
to a cutter via a pair of feeder discs whose diameter is 200mm.
An incremental encoder of 100 pulses/rev is coupled to the disc.
Determine the number of encoder output pulses, if the block
length is
(a) 30mm
(b) 1000mm
39
 Example
An numerical control (NC) worktable operates by closed-
loop positioning. The system is shown below. The lead
screw has a pitch of 6mm and is coupled to the motor shaft
with a gear ratio of 5:1 (five turns of drive motor for each
turn of the screw). The optical encoder generates 48
pulses/rev of its output shaft. The table is programmed to
move a distance of 250mm at a feed speed rate =
500mm/min. Determine:

Continued next page

40
Example: continued
a) How many pulses should be received by the control
system to verify that the table has moved exactly
250mm. (Ans: 2000 pulses)
b) The pulse rate of the encoder. (Ans: 66.667Hz)
c) The drive motor speed that correspond to the specified
feed rate. (Ans: 416.667 rev/min)

M.P. Groove. (2008). Automation, Production Systems, and

Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Ed: 3, pg184 41
Rotary Encoder: Online ref
• http://www.omron-ap.com.my/application_solutions/main.asp
• http://www.ia.omron.com/products/category/sensors/rotary-
encoders/incremental/index.html
• http://ab.rockwellautomation.com/Motion-Control
• http://www.festo.com/cms/nl-be_be/9733.htm

• More…

42
 Position and displacement

Mechatronics - Foundations and Applications

Position Measurement in Inertial Systems

Accelerometer
Gyroscope

Adopted from:
Title Lecture: Position Measurement in Inertial Systems
Description:Space Shuttle. Lecture: Position Measurement in Inertial Systems. Christian Wimmer ... of surface sensor on launch platform (complementary error
characteristics) ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation
http://powershow.com/view1/210df9-NmE1Y/Lecture_Position_Measurement_in_Inertial_Systems_powerpoint_ppt_presentation
Position and displacement

1. Motivation: applications
2. Basic principles of position measurement
3. Sensor technology
Motivation

Johnnie: A biped walking machine

Orientation
Stabilization
Navigation
Motivation
Automotive Applications:

Drive dynamics Analysis

Analysis of test route topology
Driver assistance systems
Motivation
Aeronautics and Space Industry:

Autopilot systems
Helicopters
Airplane
Space Shuttle
Motivation
Military Applications:

ICBM, CM
Drones (UAV)
Torpedoes
Jets
Motivation
Maritime Systems:

Helicopter Platforms
Naval Navigation
Submarines
Motivation
Industrial robotic Systems:

Maintenance
Production
Basic Principles
Measurement by inertia and integration:
Measurement system with
Acceleration
3 sensitive axes
Velocity
Position
3 Accelerometers
3 Gyroscope

Newton‘s 2. Axiom:

F=mxa
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF DYNAMICS
 Basic Principles
Gimballed Platform Technology:

3 accelerometers
3 gyroscopes
cardanic Platform

ISOLATED FROM ROTATIONAL MOTION

TORQUE MOTORS TO MAINTAINE DIRECTION
ROLL, PITCH AND YAW DEDUCED FROM
RELATIVE GIMBAL POSITION
GEOMETRIC SYSTEM
Basic Principles
Strapdown Technology:

Body fixed
3 Accelerometers
3 Gyroscopes
Basic Principles
Strapdown Technology:

The measurement principle

SENSORS FASTENED DIRECTLY ON THE VEHICLE

BODY FIXED COORDINATE SYSTEM
ANALYTIC SYSTEM
Basic Principles

iee  15.041 / h

Reference Frames:

i-frame
e-frame
n-frame
b-frame

Also normed: WGS 84

Basic Principles
Interlude: relative kinematics Moving system: e
P = CoM
Vehicle‘s acceleration in inertial axes (1.Newton):
d d2
i vp  i rOP  i f  i g  Aie ( e f  e g ) P
dt dt 2
Problem: All quantities are obtained in vehicle’s frame (local) O
Euler Derivatives!
Inertial system: i
Differentiation:

d d2  d2 d 
i vp  r  Aie  2 e rOP  e ie  e rOP  2 e ie  e rOP  e ie  e ie  e rOP 
2 i OP
dt dt  dt dt 

trans rot cor cent

Basic Principles
Frame Mechanisation I: i-Frame

Vehicle‘s velocity (ground speed) and Coriolis Equation:

d
d d
r  r  ie  r abbreviated: r  ve
dt (i ) dt ( e ) dt ( e )

Differentiation: Applying Coriolis Equation (earth‘s turn rate is constant):

d2 d
d2 d d
r  ve  ie  r  r  ve  ie  ve  ie  ie  r 
2
dt (i ) dt (i ) dt (i )
dt 2 (i ) dt (i )

subscipt: with respect to; superscript: denotes the axis set; slash: resolved in axis set
Basic Principles
Frame Mechanisation II: i-Frame

Newton’s 2nd axiom:

d2
ve  f  ie  ve  ie  ie  r   g abbreviated: gl  g  ie  ie  r 
dt 2 (i )

Recombination: i-frame axes: Substitution:

d2
ve  f  ie  ve  gl vei  f i  iei  vei  gli vei  Aib f b  iei  vei  gli
dt 2 (i )

subscipt: with respect to; superscript: denotes the axis set; slash: resolved in axis set
Basic Principles
Basic Principles

Strapdown Attitude Representation:

Direction cosine matrix No singularities, perfect for internal

computations
Quaternions

Euler angles singularities, good physical appreciation

Basic Principles
Strapdown Attitude Representation: Direction Cosine Matrix

 c11 c12 c13  Axis projection: Simple Derivative:

 
Anb   c21 c22 c23 
c Anb  Anb bnb
 31 c32 c33 
With skew symmetric matrix:
For Instance:  0 z  y 
  n b   
nb   z
b
0 x 
c13  cos  n1 ; n 3 
  y x 0 
  
Basic Principles
Strapdown Attitude Representation: Quaternions

Idea: Transformation is single rotation about one axis

a  cos  / 2 
   (  /  ) sin  / 2  Components of angle Vector,
 b  x 
p  defined with respect to reference frame
 c   (  y /  ) sin  / 2 
  
   z
d (  /  ) sin  / 2

 x ,  y , z
p  a  ib  jc  kd 
Magnitude of rotation:

Operations analogous to 2 Parameter Complex number

Basic Principles
Strapdown Attitude Representation: Euler Angles
Rotation about reference z axis through angle 
Rotation about new y axis through angle  Gimbal angle pick-off!
Rotation about new z axis through angle 

 cos  cos  cos  sin  sin  sin  cos sin  sin  cos  sin  cos 
 
Anb   cos  sin cos  sin  sin  sin  sin  sin  cos  cos  sin  sin 
  sin  sin cos  cos  cos  
 

Anb  Abn1  Abn

T
Singularity:   90
Sensor Technology
Accelerometers

Physical principles:

Potentiometric
LVDT (linear voltage differential transformer)
Piezoelectric
Newton’s 2nd axiom: F  ma  mg
gravitational part: Compensation
Sensor Technology
Accelerometers
Potentiometric
-

+
Sensor Technology
Accelerometers

LVDT (linear voltage differential transformer)

Uses Induction
Sensor Technology
Accelerometers
Piezoelectric
 Sensor Technology
Accelerometers

Servo principle (Force Feedback)

Intern closed loop feedback

Better linearity
Null seeking instead of
displacement measurement 1 - seismic mass
2 - position sensing device
3 - servo mechanism
4 - damper
5 - case
Many more different construction of a accelerometer: For more detail, refer to: D. H Titterton, J. L
Weston . Strapdown Inertial Navigation Technology
Sensor Technology
Gyroscopes

Vibratory Gyroscopes
Optical Gyroscopes

Historical definition:
Sensor Technology
Gyroscopes: Vibratory Gyroscopes

Coriolis principle:
1. axis velocity caused by harmonic oscillation
(piezoelectric)
2. axis rotation
3. axis acceleration measurement

Problems:
High noise
Temperature drifts
Translational acceleration
vibration
 Sensor Technology
Gyroscopes: Vibratory Gyroscopes

Many more different construction of a gyroscope: For more detail, refer to: D. H Titterton, J. L Weston . Strapdown
Inertial Navigation Technology