Combined Lectures

Computer Aided Instrumentation
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Sensors’ Technologies
Operating Principles & Applications
(Electrical)
Lecture No 7-9
2
Learning Objective
To develop understanding of:-
 What are Sensors?
 Concept of Primary & Secondary Sensors
 Classification of 1st Stage Devices (Sensors)
 Electical Primary Sensors

 Operating Principles
 Applications
3
Sequence
 Electrical Primary Detector Transducers & Working Principles
 Resistance Variable length, Resistivity, Dimension
 Inductance Self Inductance, Mutual Inductance, Reluctance
 Capacitance Changing air gap, dielectric constant, plate.
 Hall Effect, Piezoelectric, Optical Sensor, Ultrasonic
 Few Problems on Sensors’ Technologies
4
Electrical Primary Detector-Transducers
Detector-Transducer Example Operation
A. Resistance:- (R = ρL/A)
1. Contacting Limiting switch Disp > R zero or

infinity
2. Variable Length Sliding contact devices & -//-

conductor Potentiometer
3. Variable Area conductor Strain gages strain > change in R
4. Variable Resistivity of Thermistor (a semi temp > change in R

conductor conductor material) device
5. Variable dimension of Strain gages strain > change in R

conductor
5
Operating Principle--- Variable Resistance Sensors
 Resistance of an electrical conductor varies according to following
relation:-
R = ρL/A;
(Where ‘R’ is resistance, ‘L’ is length of conductor, ‘A’ is cross-
sectional area of conductor, ‘ρ’ is resistivity of material.)
 Variable Resistance sensors are based on changes in factors as

mentioned in above relation.
 Contacting These are limiting switches which make (R

zero) or break (R infinity) the electrical circuit upon displacement of
measurand towards or away from the limiting switch e.g Limiting
switch in CNC machines to limit the motion in particular axis,
L/Gears extension/retraction indication system, ordinary electrical
switches, pressure limit switch (switch actuated by bellow),
temperature limit switch (switch actuated by bimetallic strip) etc.
6
Operating Principle---Variable Resistance Sensors
 Variable Length of Conductor Measurand displacement alters

the length of conductor and thus conductor’s resistance varies
which is subsequently measured e.g sliding contact devices,
potentiometers etc
 Variable Resistivity of Conductor Here sensor is a semi

conductor material which changes its resistivity with change in
temperature i-e the measurand e.g thermistor.
 Variable dimension of Conductor Here dimension (length,

cross-sectional area) of the conductor (strain gauge wire) changes
in response to a deformation/ strain which in turn varies resistance
of the gauge. Variation in resistance can subsequently be
measured e.g resistance strain gauges etc
7
Resistance Sensors
8
B. Inductive:-
1. Variable Inductance
(Self & Mutual Inductance)
i. Variable Air Gap Displacement Sensors, displac > change in

ii. Changing Core LVDT, Vibrometer, Eddy Inductance
Position Current displacement
sensor, flowmeter
2. Variable Reluctance
i. Moving Permanent
Magnet Velocity Sensor, Velocity > change in
ii. Moving Coil Vibrometers, reluctance
iii. Changing flux path Proximity pickups,
permeance anemometer, flowmeter
9
Operating Principle---Variable Inductive Sensors
 Inductive Sensors primarily utilize variation in Inductance
(denoted by ‘L’ with units as ‘Henry’) which is function of a number
of factors like number of turns in the inductor coil, the coil size, and
especially permeability of the flux path. Here flux path refers to
core material which allows flow of magnetic flux as per material
permeability.
 Magnetic flux Permeability of material varies due to many factors
like:-
 Change in Air gap between inductor and Armature
 Varying core cross sectional area--- tapered cores
 Movement of core etc
 Core material
 Classification of Inductive Sensors Based on the operating
principle discussed above, Inductive sensors can be classified as:-
 Self Inductance Sensors
 Mutual Inductance Sensors
10  Variable Reluctance Sensors (permanent magnet inductance)
Recap ---- Inductive Sensors
Variable Self Variable Mutual Variable
Inductance Inductance Reluctance
Make use of Make use of Make use of

-Variable permeance (air -Secondary 2 or 3 coils -Moving magnet
gap b/w coil & armature) inductance -Moving coil
-Variable permeance (cross -Displacement of magnetic -Moving iron/magnet
section varying core) material core (LVDT) target material
-Eddy Current phenomenon -Variable permeance (air Permanent magnet is
Excitation current is gap b/w coil & armature) used instead of
used for self Inductance Excitation current is Excitation current
used for Mutual
Inductance
Examples Examples Examples
-Displacement Sensors -Displacement Sensors (LVDT) -Velocity Sensors (turbines in
-Eddy currents based displacement -Vibrometer (displacement anemometer & flow meter)
sensors, coating thickness sensors, function) -Vibrometer (velocity function)
metal detectors, NDI testers -Proximity pickups (turbines)
-Vibrometer (displacement -Microphones
11
function)

 Self Inductance Sensors a single coil is used as the transducer
which is excited by external power supply.
 The coil induces magnetic flux by virtue of change in current in
it. The flux changes upon change in current & thus causes an
induced voltage in coil which is opposite in direction of the
exciting current.
 When air gap between coil and core varies by virtue of core
displacement, the flux varies due to air permeance variation.
Thus, Inductance of the coil ie Induced voltage changes.
 Net effect of excitation voltage & opposite Induced voltage is
measured as a function of core displacement.
 Mutual Inductance Sensors
 Variable Reluctance Sensors
12
Operating Principle---Self Inductance Sensors
Tapered core
13
Operating Principle---Self Inductance Sensors
Turbine type Flow Meter

with Inductive Pickup
14
 Self Inductance Sensors
 Mutual Inductance Sensors Here 2 or 3 coils are arranged in
the transducer. One primary coil is excited by external power supply
and other(s) act as secondary pickup coils. A magnetic material core
when displaces due to mechanical measurand, the core alters
magnetic flux of coils due to its permeance. In 3 coils transducer, Two
secondary coils are utilized to differentiate the direction of
displacement.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) The most commonly
used displacement transducer. It utilizes one primary coil excited by AC
current and two secondary pickup coils. When a ferrite core is in centre of
the three, an equal voltage is induced in each secondary pickup coils
which cancels output of each pickup coil by virtue of their opposite
position. As armature/core moves in one direction, the differential
magnetic flux sum (output) of the two pickups is available to be measured
with direction of displacement.
15  Variable Reluctance Sensors
Operating Principle---Mutual Inductance Sensors
Two Coil Mutual Inductance
16
Operating Principle---Mutual Inductance Sensors
Three Coils Mutual Inductance
17 An LVDT Transformer
Operating Principle---Eddy Current Sensors
 A non-contact type displacement measurement is provided by Eddy
current sensor for the target objects made of conductive materials.
 The conventional eddy current displacement probe consists of a sensing
coil supplied from an alternating source.
 This will produce an alternating magnetic field around the sensing coil
which induces small eddy currents in the target object whose
displacement is to be measured. The surface area of the target is
required to be three times greater than the eddy current probe diameter.
 The induced eddy current in the target material induces a magnetic field
which opposes the magnetic field produced by the sensing coil.
 The interaction between these two magnetic fields is dependent on the
separation between the sensing coil and the target object.
 With change in position of the target object, the variation in interaction
between these magnetic fields is detected (in terms of current variation)
and taken as the measure of the target displacement with respect to
sensing probe.
 Eddy currents phenomenon is used in many ways e.g displacement
sensor, coating thickness, NDI tester etc.
18
Operating Principle---Eddy Current Sensors
19
B. Inductive:-
i. Changing coil
position Displacement Sensors, displac > change in
ii. Variable Air Gap LVDT, Vibrometer, Eddy Inductance
iii. Changing Core Current displacement
Position sensor, flowmeter
i. Moving Permanent
Magnet Velocity Sensor, Vibrometer, Velocity > change in
ii. Moving Coil Proximity pickups, reluctance
iii. Moving Core anemometer, flowmeter
20
Variable Reluctance Sensors
 A permanent magnet is used to generate a uniform steady
magnetic field.
 A coil is wound around the magnet. The magnetic flux lines are cut
by turns of the coil which induce magnetic flux.
 The flux in the coil varies when flux path permeance is changed
due to nearby measurand ie core (ferromagnetic or magnetic
material) displacement OR Coil displacement OR Magnet
Displacement.
 Flux in the coil is measured in terms of generated Pulse rate
through some frequency meter.
 Such arrangement is used in measuring RPM, angular
displacement, flow rate e.g Techogenerator, turbine flow meter,
anemometer, vibrometer (as secondary transducer in seismic mass
sensors) etc.
21
Applications of Variable Reluctance Sensors
Reluctance Variation Source Application

Core (Ferromagnetic/Magnetic Flow meters, Anemometers,
Measurand) displacement Angular displacement,
Magnet displacement Techogenerator (RPM
measurement), Vibrometer
(Seismic mass based)
Coil displacement Techogenerator, vibrometer
(seldom used due to handling of
induced voltage)
22
Variable Reluctance Sensors
Anemometers
Turbine Flow meter with Microphone

23 Reluctance Pickup
Inductor & Inductance
 Inductor/ Coil Whenever a length of conductor wire is formed
into a coil, it becomes a basic inductor.
 Current through the coil produces an electromagnetic field.
 The magnetic lines around each loop in the coil winding effectively
add to the lines of adjoining loops, thus forming overall a strong
electromagnetic field around the coil.
 We can say that an Inductor is a storage device

for storing magnetic flux.
24
 Self Inductance When there is current through inductor, an

electromagnetic field is established.
 When current changes, the electromagnetic fields also changes in
response.
 Change in current produces changing electromagnetic field around
the inductor.
 In turn, this changing electromagnetic field causes an induced
voltage across the coil in opposite direction of the current flowing
through the coil & called as ‘Induced Voltage’. This property is
called as “Self Inductance or usually Inductance (L)”.
 Inductance Thus Inductance is measure of a
Coil/Inductor’s ability to establish an induced voltage as a result of
change in its current & induced voltage is in opposite direction to its
changing current. Its units are Hentry ‘H’.
Vinduced = L (di/dt)
25
Physical Characteristics of Inductance ‘L’ Following
parameters are important in establishing Inductance of a Coil:-
 Core Material each material has different permeance, hence
with change of core material, inductance changes depending upon
permeance of the material. Soft iron core has greater permeance
(almost 1000 times) than air coil; thus inductor with soft iron core
will have greater Inductance.
 Core Length Inductance ∝ 1/core length & directly
proportional to its cross sectional area e.g tapered cores.
 Coil No of turns Inductance ∝ Square of number of turns.

 Coil Diameter Inductance ∝ coil diameter.
 Coil Length Inductance ∝ coil length; coil turns etc constant
26
Definitions---Variable Inductive Sensors
 Magnetic Flux The total number of magnetic lines of force of
a magnet is called as magnetic flux ‘Φ’ & its units are Webber.
 Magnetic Flux Density Magnetic flux per unit area is called
magnetic flux density ‘B = Φ/A’ & units are Weber/m2
 Faraday’s Law of Magnetic Induction Whenever a conductor
is placed in a varying magnetic field, emf is induced in it OR
Whenever a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, emf is induced
which is called as Induced emf.
 Permeability measure of flow of magnetic flux from a
material.
 Reluctancemeasure of opposition to flow of magnetic flux in a
material.
Air has more Reluctance than that of iron ie magnetic flux propagation
in air core is less as compare to iron.
Magnetic flux easily propagates in iron due to low Reluctance (high
permeability) thus iron core increases flux density.
27
Recap ---- Inductive Sensors
Variable Self Variable Mutual Variable
Inductance Inductance Reluctance
Make use of Make use of Make use of

-Variable permeance (air -Secondary 2 or 3 coils -Moving magnet
gap b/w coil & armature) inductance -Moving coil
-Variable permeance (cross -Displacement of magnetic -Moving iron/magnet
section varying core) material core (LVDT) target material
-Eddy Current phenomenon -Variable permeance (air Permanent magnet is
Excitation current is gap b/w coil & armature) used instead of
used for self Inductance Excitation current is Excitation current
used for Mutual
Inductance
Examples Examples Examples
-Displacement Sensors -Displacement Sensors (LVDT) -Velocity Sensors (turbines in
-Eddy currents based displacement -Vibrometer (displacement anemometer & flow meter)
sensors (coating thickness tester, function) -Vibrometer (velocity function)
metal detector) -Proximity pickups (turbines)
-Vibrometer (disp function) -Microphones
28
C. Capacitive:-
1. Changing plate Displacement sensors, displacement > change in C

separation Microphones, Touch
screens/pads,
pressure switches,
pressure
measurement
2. Changing plates Displacement -//-
area
3. Changing Level, humidity -//-

dielectric constant sensors
29
Operating Principle---Variable Capacitance Sensors
 Capacitance The ability of a system to store electric charge in it.

 When two conductor plates are placed parallel to each other with a
dielectric (air or any dielectric material) in between and connected
to a voltage potential; they store charge in this system.
 Capacitance of a set of equally spaced parallel plates depends on
following factors:-
 Dielectric Constant ‘K’ between the plates
 Area of one side of one plate ‘A’
 Number of plates ‘N’;
 Separation of 2 plate surfaces ‘d’ in inches
 Capacitive Transducers operate on the principle of change in
Capacitance due to variation in any of mentioned factors:-
 Changing Dielectric Constant Transducer
 Changing Plate Area Transducer
 Changing Distance b/w plates Transducer
30
Operating Principle--- Variable Capacitance Sensors
31
Microphone Sensor
Differential pressure
32 Sensor
Liquid Level
33
D. Hall effect Position sensors displacement > voltage
E. Piezoelectric Accelerometers, displacement > voltage & vice

ultrasound versa
F. Ultrasonic Fluid level, linear Wave travel time > displacement
(>20KHz) displacement
change in freq or phase > metal
NDI equipment flaw detection
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
LEDs, Laser diodes Displacement,
etc Pressure,
Light Detectors:- Temperature,
1. Photo voltaic Acceleration, light intensity > voltage
2. Photo conductive Vibration etc light intensity > resistance change
3. Photo diods light intensity > current
34
Operating Principle…..Hall Effect Sensors
Hall Effect
 It is a property exhibited in a conductor (semi conductor) influenced

by magnetic field. Hall voltage is developed across the conductor
transverse to current flowing through the semi conductor.
In other words:-
 If current flows (through a semi conductor) perpendicular to a
magnetic field, the magnetic field will produce a voltage (o/p)
parallel to magnetic field & transverse to applied current; this
voltage is called as Hall voltage.
 Any disturbance in the magnetic field will be transduced into

change in output (o/p) voltage.
35
Hall Effect Sensors
36
Operating Principle…..Hall Effect Sensors
Operating Principle of Hall Effect Sensors
 Once any ferromagnetic or magnetic material comes in proximity of

this sensor, it will alter its magnetic field and thus output voltage
will change.
 This phenomenon is used as “Position Sensor” in automotive vehicles,

metal detectors etc.
 Once any electric field interfere with this sensor, it will alter
sensor’s magnetic field and thus output voltage will change.
 This phenomenon is used for measuring current flowing through a

conductor without contacting the conductor.
37
Hall Effect Sensors
38

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
39
Operating Principle---Piezoelectric Sensors
 Piezoelectric materials produce an output voltage when a force is

applied to them.
 They can also operate in reverse mode where an applied voltage

can produces an output force by developing deformation in result
of the applied voltage.
 They are frequently used as ultrasonic transmitters & receivers by

making use of “applied voltage” in transmitters & “applied force”
mode in receivers.
 They are also used as secondary transducers in many applications

e.g pressure sensors, acoustic sensors (microphones),
acceleration & vibration sensors etc.
40

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
41
Operating Principle---Ultrasonic Sensors
 Ultrasound is a band of frequencies above 20KHz (i-e above sonic
range that a human ear can hear).
 Ultrasonic sensors consist of transmitter & receiver. Common form

of ultrasonic receiver & transmitter is Piezoelectric material.
 Changes in measurand are determined in two ways:-
 Time taken by ultrasonic wave in transmission & reception as a

function of displacement. This phenomenon can be used for
measuring linear displacement or fluid level etc.
 Measuring change in frequency or phase. This phenomenon can be

used in ‘Non Destructive Inspection’ NDI equipment for detecting flaws
of materials.
42
43
 Ultrasonic displacement sensors are developed based on the pulse
echo method.
 In this technique, ultrasonic pulse wave from a transmitter is sent
towards the target object whose displacement is to be measured.
 The transmitted pulse wave is totally or partially reflected from the
object and is received by the receiver unit placed at suitable
location close to the transmitter unit. Or both the units can be
enclosed in single transducer.
 The elapsed time between the instant of transmission of the pulse
signal and the instant of receiving of the reflected pulse is
measured, which depends on the sound velocity and object
distance.
 If sound velocity ‘c’ is known, the time ‘t’ elapsed between the
transmitted signal and its echo is proportional to the distance ‘d’ of
the object producing the echo given by the expression
d=ct/2
44
 ‘

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
45
Operating Principle---Optical Sensors
 Optical Sensors are based on transmission of light between a light
source & a light detector.
 The transmitted light can travel along either an air path or a fiber optic
cable.
 Fiber optic medium gives multiple advantages over air medium and is
widely used.
 Optical sensors have many applications e.g Temperature, Pressure,
Flow, Position, Vibration, Rotation, Acceleration, Force, Strain,
Displacement etc.
 Light Detectors
 Photoconductors they are also called as photoresistors. They convert
changes in incident light into changes in resistance.
 Photovoltaic they are also called as photocells. They generate output
voltage whose magnitude is a function of magnitude of incident light.
 Photodiodes they give output current as a function of amount of
incident light.
46
Operating Principle---Optical Sensors
 Optical Sensors ------ Few Examples
 Temperature Optical fiber Refractive index is a function of

temperature change; this principle is utilized for measuring
temperature as a function of light intensity variation.
 Force/ Pressure Force/ Pressure exerted on an optical fiber

will cause a change in emitted light intensity & refractive index of the
fiber optic which is then measured by suitable light detectors.
 Acceleration/ Vibration By placing a mass subject to acceleration/

vibration; the rate & amplitude of force exerted on fiber optic can be
measured as a function of light intensity, wavelength, frequency etc.
 Displacement The amount of Reflected light varies with

displacement of the object; thus displacement is measured as a
function of reflected light.
47

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
48
Few Problems
 A computer aided instrument has to be designed

for measuring vertical displacement of test
specimen on a Universal Tensile testing machine.
 Based on your knowledge of various Sensor
technologies including Mechanical, Electrical etc,
list down all possible primary detector transducers
which can be explored for final selection/
utilization in the computer aided instrument.
49
Few Problems

for measuring varying pressure of a fluid.
list down all possible primary & secondary
transducers for capturing varying pressure of the
fluid.
50
Few Problems
 Consider an acoustic measurement system which

has its 1st stage device (sensor) as a Microphone.
list down all possible primary & secondary
transducers which can be utilized to form 1st stage
device i-e microphone for Acoustic measurement
system.
51
Few Problems

for measuring exhaust gas temperature of a Jet
engine.
list down all possible primary detector transducers
which can be explored for final selection in
designing a temperature measurement computer
aided instrument.
52
Few Problems
 A computer aided instrument (weighing machine)

has to be designed for measuring human weight.
list down a primary detector transducer.
 Recommend a secondary transducer which can
be augmented with primary detector transducer
 Do we require some variable conversion unit for
your recommended primary and secondary
transducers? If yes, then name the variable
conversion unit along with brief explanation of its
working principle.
53
Few Problems

for measuring fluid pressure input.
technologies, list down possible Mechanical as
well as Electrical primary detector transducers.
 Recommend possible secondary transducers
which can be augmented with Mechanical primary
detector transducers.
54
Few Problems
 Briefly explain working principle of a Capacitance

type fluid level sensor.
 Draw sketch of such transducer.
55
Few Problems
 Briefly explain working principle of a non contact

Ampere meter
 Draw sketch of the working principle of such
transducer.
56
Few Problems

for flow rate input.
technologies, list down possible Mechanical as
well as Electrical primary detector transducers.
 Recommend possible secondary transducers
which can be augmented with Mechanical primary
detector transducers.
57
Few Problems

for measuring vibration as a function of velocity.
technologies, recommend a primary detector
transducer.
 And also recommend possible secondary
transducer which can provide output quantity as a
function of velocity.
 Name at least two secondary transducers which
can be used to give output quantity as a function
of displacement instead of velocity.
58
Recap Elastic Members & Mass
A. Contacting pins Linkages in bourdon disp > disp
tube type indicator
B. Elastic Members:-
1. Load Cells
a. Tension/ compression Force measurement force > linear disp
columns
b. Bending beam -//- Force > linear disp
c. Torsion -//- torque > angular disp
2. Proving Ring Pressure Indicators pressure > displacement
3. Bourdon Tube -//- -//-
4. Bellows -//- -//-
5. Diaphragms -//- -//-
6. Helical Spring Spring balance force > linear disp
C. Mass:-
1. Seismic Mass accelerometer forcing function > disp
59 2. Liquid Column Manometer pressure > displacement
Mechanical Primary Detector-Transducers
D. Thermal
1. Thermocouples temperature ind temp > voltage potential
2. Bi-material Thermostats temp > displacement
3. Mercury in glass Thermometers temp > displacement
4. Thermistor Temperature ind temp > change in resistance
5. Pressure Thermo Temperature bulb temp > change in pressure
60
Recap Hydro-Pneumatic Sensors
E. Hydro-Pneumatic
1. Static
a. Float fluid level ind fluid level > disp
b. Hydrometer specific gravity meter Spec gravity > disp
2. Dynamic
a. Orifice Flow meters fluid velocity > change in
Pressure
b. Venturi -//- -//-
c. Pitot tube ASI, altitude -//-
d. Turbines flow meters Linear > angular velocity
e. Hydro Load Cell Weight measuring Force > Pressure variation
f. Pneumatic Load -//- -//-
Cell
61
A. Resistance:- (R = ρL/A)
1. Contacting Limiting switch Disp > R zero or

infinity
2. Variable Length Sliding contact devices & -//-

conductor Potentiometer
3. Variable Area conductor Strain gages strain > change in R
4. Variable Resistivity of Thermistor (a semi temp > change in R

conductor conductor material) device
5. Variable dimension of Strain gages strain > change in R

conductor
62
B. Inductive:-
i. Changing coil
position Displacement Sensors, displac > change in
ii. Variable Air Gap LVDT, Vibrometer, Eddy Inductance
iii. Changing Core Current displacement
Position sensor, flowmeter
i. Moving Permanent
Magnet Velocity Sensor, Vibrometer, Velocity > change in
ii. Moving Coil Proximity pickups, reluctance
iii. Moving Core anemometer, flowmeter
63
C. Capacitive:-
1. Changing plate Displacement sensors, displacement > change in C

separation Microphones, Touch
screens/pads,
pressure switches,
pressure
measurement
2. Changing plates Displacement -//-
area
3. Changing Level, humidity -//-

dielectric constant sensors
64

ultrasound versa
G. Optical Sensors
Light Sources:-
etc Pressure,
65
Summary
 Concept of Primary & Secondary Detector Transducers
 Classification of 1st Stage Devices
 Mechanical Primary Detector Transducers & Working Principles
 Contacting Pins
 Elastic Members Load Cells, Proving Ring, Bourdon Tube,

Bellows, Diaphragms, Helical Spring.
 Mass Seismic Mass, Liquid Column.
 Thermal Thermocouple, Bimetallic Stip, Mercury in
glass, Pressure Thermometer, Thermistor.
 Hydro-Pneumatic Float, Hydrometer, Orifice, Venturi,
Turbine, Pitot tube, Hydro Load Cell, Pneumatic Load Cell.
 Electrical Primary Detector Transducers & Working Principles
 Resistance Variable length, Resistivity, Dimension
 Inductance Self Inductance, Mutual Inductance, Reluctance
 Capacitance Changing air gap, dielectric constant, plate.
 Hall Effect, Piezoelectric, Optical Sensors, Ultrasonic
66 Few Problems on Sensors’ Technologies

IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Computer Aided Data Acquisition
System (DAS)
Lecture No 10 & 11
2
Learning Objective
Students will be able to
 Interpret A to D converter characteristics/

features for subsequent selection of hardware.
 Employ analog to digital conversion of input

analog signals.
 Workout storage memory requirements.
3
Sequence
 Introduction to DAS
 Two important features in A to D Conversion

 Sampling Errors
 Quantization Errors
 Features of an A to D Converter
 Storage memory requirement for digital data
4
Introduction
 A data-acquisition system is the portion of a
measurement system that quantifies and stores data.
 There are many ways to do this. The engineer who reads

a transducer dial, associates a number with the dial
position, and records the number in a log book, performs
all of the tasks similar to a data acquisition system.
 This lecture focuses on microprocessor-based data-

acquisition systems, which are used to perform
automated data quantification and storage.
5
Introduction
 For analysis of measurement quantities, we need to acquire
measurement data in computers.
 For this purpose, the data which is in form of electrical signals, is
needed to be made compatible for acceptance by computers …….
this process is called “Interfacing”.
 We know, this data is generally extracted from sensors in form of
Analog Signal & this signal is not compatible for acceptance by
computer.
When a signal is recorded in computer, only discrete points are
stored.
 So we need to change analog signal into digital signal.
 For this purpose, Analog to Digital Converters are used.
 While converting signal from analog to Digital, main aim is to
represent analog signal in digital form with no distortion in it.
6
A to D Converter
 In broader sense, A to D converters are used to act as interface
between the sensors & computers.
 A to D converters, as name suggests converts analog signals to
digital.
An ADC converts a continuous time & continuous Amplitude

“Analog Signal” into a discrete time & discrete amplitude “digital
Signal”.
 A typical A to D converter can also:-

 Convert digital signal to analog.
 Condition the analog signal & can give output in form of

analog signal for controlling a device or for display on an
analog Indicator.
7
A to D Converter
 An ADC converts an analog voltage value into a binary number
through a process called quantization.
 The ADC is a hybrid device having both an analog side and a
digital side.
 The analog side of ADC is specified in terms of a full-scale voltage
range EFSR. The EFSR defines the voltage range over which the
device operates.
 The digital side is specified in terms of the number of bits of its
register.
 An N-bit ADC outputs N-digits binary numbers. It can represent 2N
different binary numbers (ie 2N combination of zeros & ones).
 Example: a 2 bit ADC will output 2-digits binary numbers having 2N
(4) binary combinations ie 00, 01, 11, 10.
 Each of this binary combination represents a voltage value which is
assigned to discrete data points during quantization process.
8
A to D Converter
Analog Side
9 Digital Side
A to D Converter
 For example, a typical 8-bit A/D converter with an EFSR =10 V

would be able to represent input analog voltages in the range
between 0 and 10 V with 28 = 256 digit binary numbers of different
binary values.
 Thus 8 bit ADC will divide 10 V amplitude into 256 binary levels &
voltage at each level will be represented by a unique binary
number.
 (10v/256binary codes = 39 mv b/w each binary number.
10
A to D Converter
 Principle considerations in selecting a type of A/D converter include

ADC resolution, voltage range (EFSR), and conversion speed.
 Primary sources of error intrinsic to an ADC are:-

 Conversion speed & associated Signal Aliasing
 Resolution & associated Quantization error
 Saturation error associated to ADC voltage range EFSR Vs input signal
range.
 Conversion errors due to ADC settling time, signal noise during analog
signal sampling, temperature effects, excitation power sampling
(Errors are discussed later in the slides)
11
A to D Converter
 ADC Resolution ‘Q’ is defined in terms of the smallest

voltage increment that causes a bit change. Resolution is specified
in volts and is determined by Q = EFSR / 2N
 ADC Voltage Range ‘EFSR’ is the voltage range over

which the ADC device operates.
 Any variation in this voltage due to unstable power supply can cause
fluctuation of ADC resolution which will result in erroneous output of
ADC
 Conversion Speed is the ability of ADC to sample a data

point in time domain ie the Sampling Interval Δt.
12
Two Important Features in A to D Conversion
1. Sampling Rate or Sampling Interval Time domain
2. Bit Size or ADC Resolution Amplitude domain
13
1. Conversion Speed/Sampling Interval The smallest interval
of time taken by ADC in sampling analog signal into discrete data
points in time domain is called ADC conversion speed/ sampling
rate or sampling interval (Δt).
 ADC Sampling Frequency ‘fs’ is inverse of sampling interval ie
fs =1/Δt
 Signal Aliasing While taking discrete samples (w.r.t time) of
an analog signal, we come across Signal Aliasing. Here analog
signal gets distorted due to less number of samples taken during
discrete sampling.
 In discrete sampling, sampling rate or sampling interval plays a role
in correctly representing actual measured analog signal into
computer. i-e
Less sampling frequency - - - a distorted output signal from ADC
 Figure…..
14
 Signal Aliasing Remedy
 Ensure Nyquist-Shannon’s Sampling Theorem.
 Theorem states that a faithful reproduction of the original

signal is only possible if the sampling rate is higher than twice
the highest frequency of the analog signal.
 i-e to ensure no signal aliasing, the A to D converter must
satisfy following equation:-
fs ≥ 2 fmax ;
Where fs is sampling frequency & fmax is input Signal maximum
frequency
 fs sampling frequency or sampling interval (Δt) is a hardware
set feature & cannot be changed. However, few OEM gives
provision of setting fs but it cannot be increased above
specified maximum sampling frequency.
 An analog Low Pass filter is often used before an A to D
converter, so that input fmax frequency satisfies the Shanon’s
15 theorem.
 Signal Aliasing ----- Few Points ------
 Thus, for avoiding Signal Aliasing error, we must know input
signal frequency (i-e Time-dependent characteristics of
Measurand) as well as fs of A to D converter.
 Typical fmax of few signals
 IC Engines vibration Signal 5000Hz

 Audio Signal 20000Hz
 Ultrasonic Signal 2 MHz
 Temperature Signal Low Freq - - almost constant
 For a DC signal, whatsoever, sampling interval (Δt) we select,
that is not going to distort output signal
 Figure --- (Discrete Sampling of a DC Signal)
 So, for a room temp signal (which is almost constant), we

don’t require any Low Pass anti-aliasing filter.
16
2. ADC Resolution/Amplitude Quantization in amplitude domain
Here, analog amplitude values are quantized to discrete amplitude
values for assignment to sampled data point in time domain.
 Figure….
 In quantization of analog amplitudes, ADC Bit Size (N) decides

following:-
No of amplitude levels an ADC can produce over its entire
amplitude range
 What amplitude value is assigned to each data point sampled in
time domain?
 This value can be determined in terms of amplitude gap between two
consecutive levels in amplitude domain which is known as “ADC
resolution”:-
ADC Resolution = Amplitude Gap = ADC Range / 2N; N is Bit size
17
Two Important Factors in A to D Conversion
 Quantization Error While quantizing analog amplitude

values to discrete amplitude values, we come across Quantization
error. Here, sampled discrete values may omit taking account of
few amplitude values present in the analog signal.
18
 Quantization Error Explanation
 Consider a signal being quantized by a 3 Bit & 10 volts A to D
converter (i-e 23 8 data points).
 ADC Resolution = ADC Range/ 2N = 10v/ 23 = 1.25 V
 i-e entire ADC amplitude range will contain 8 levels with a gap of
1.25 v (i-e 8 levels will be having voltage values of 0, 1.25, 2.50v
& so on).
 Such ADC will not be able to capture any amplitude value of
input signal which lies between these gaps (eg 3.0v cannot be
captured with such ADC; ADC will assign either lower level value
ie 2.50 v or upper level value 3.75v to analog input of 3.0v).
 Incapability of registering amplitude values between this gap is
called “Quantization Error” (denoted by Qerror).
 Max Quantization error Qerror is thus, equal to ADC resolution &
can be expressed in terms of error bound of ± 1/2Q.
19
 Quantization Error Cont’d

 Resolution It is the smallest amount of an input signal that an A to D
converter can detect
 “OR” the gap between two consecutive levels in amplitude domain - - -
is called as A to D converter’s Resolution.
 Higher the Bit Size, finer will be the Resolution.
 Quantization Error Remedy
 Increase Resolution of ADC by
(i) By increasing Bit Size
(ii) By increasing Signal Range (amplitude magnitude) through

incorporating some amplifier. Amplifying the input signal will reduce the
error.
20
 Quantization Error Remedy
How we can reduce Quantization Error by increasing Input Signal
Range?
 e.g consider a 12 bit ADC with full scale range of 10V. It will have
Resolution of 2.4 mv & thus its Qerror is also 2.4 mv which can be
represented with error bound of ± 1.2 mv.
 Now consider an input signal with sensitivity of 1 mv/C. this
signal will have estimated error of ± 1.2 mv (ie quantized value
could be 1 mv ± 1.2 mv). Here error value is not at all
acceptable.
 Now if same input signal is amplified with a gain of 1000; its
sensitivity will be 1V/C. Now this signal will have estimated error
of ± 1.2 mv (ie quantized value could be 1 V ± 1.2 mv). Here,
error value is quite negligible against 1V
21
 Summing Up
 Two most important features in A to D Converters are
 Sampling Frequency
 Resolution
 Wrong Sampling frequency of ADC will result in Signal Aliasing
 Inadequate Resolution of ADC will result in Quantization Error in
amplitude domain.
 Higher the Bit Size, finer will be the Resolution.
22
Primary Sources of Errors in ADC Output
 Conversion speed & associated Signal Aliasing discussed
 Resolution & associated Quantization error discussed
range.
 Saturation Error The Voltage Range of an A/D converter limits
the minimum and maximum analog voltage input. If either Limit
(min or max input voltage) is exceeded, the A/D converter output
saturates and does not change with a subsequent increase in input
level.
 Remedy for Saturation Error It can be avoided by
conditioning signals (amplify or attenuate analog voltage input
range) to remain within the limits of the A/D converter.
 Conversion Errors
23
Primary Sources of Errors in ADC Output

 Conversion speed & associated Signal Aliasing discussed
 Resolution & associated Quantization error discussed
range. discussed
 Conversion Errors Factors that contribute to conversion errors

include A/D converter settling time, signal noise during the analog
sampling, temperature effects, and excitation power fluctuations.
24
Features of A to D Converters
 Input Range (EFSR) generally 0 – 5 v or 0 to 10v DC
 Polarity
 Either Unipolar i-e 0 to 5 v
 Or Bipolar i-e +5 to -5 v
 Gain gain of the input signal must match with input range of
ADC
 Analog Output (D to A conversion) for controlling a device
 Digital input – output
 Counter/ timer/ clock for communicating with computers
25
Features of A to D Converters
 Number of Input Data Channels typically 16 channels for having
multiple data
 Single Ended (measurement) Input here for each signal, only one
input channel is available (for taking +ve volt value) & for –ve volt
value, common “Ground” of ADC is used.
 This option induces noise due to common ground for all inputs.
 Differential Ended (measurement) Input here, for each signal, 2

channels are dedicated; one for +ve & one for -ve volt values of
inputs.
 Multiplexing/ Switching (Sample & hold) Circuit

 here effective sampling frequency reduces due to sampling of multiple
inputs simultaneously.
 effective “fs “ = (fs )/(No of channels)

26
Onboard Memory
Digital Data Recording
Storage Memory Requirement for Sampled Digital Data
 Storage memory requirement can be worked out by knowing total

data points over desired period & space required by each data point
(i-e 2 bytes).
 Every data point requires 16 bits (2 bytes) of memory space.
 No. of total data points “N” can be obtained through relation
 T = N . Δt ; where T is cycle time i-e 1 sec, Δt is sampling interval & can
be obtained by relation
 fs = 1 / Δt ; where fs is sampling frequency (a hardware set)
 Now, we can obtain data points “Ntime” over a period of time “T” by
substituting required time in 1st relation & subsequently, we can
determine “total data points for the required period”.
 In digital recording, the most limiting factor is “Sampling Frequency
fs”.
27
Few Problems
 Determine storage memory required for recording 10 minutes of

data which has been acquired through 10 KHz sampling frequency.
28
Few Problems
 A thrust measurement system is being designed. As a
measurement system designer, you are required to select an A to D
converter & a data recorder hardware. Based on following
information, select mentioned hardware with appropriate
specifications:-
 Thrust is required to be measured at 3 different pints (throttle settings)
where thrust pulses variations are of no more than 15 Hz.
 Thrust data is required to be measured/stored for 1 hour.
 Following specifications are essentially required
 Determine appropriate sampling freq of ADC?
 ADC Resolution if you have used a 3 Bit ADC with 10 V range?
 Minimum memory storage required for 1 hour data recording?
 Comment, how can quantization error & input signal aliasing be
avoided in this case?
29
Few Problems
30
Few Problems
 A computer aided temperature measurement system is being

design. The selected temperature sensor has a sensitivity of
100 mv/C.
 Analyze the ADC resolution & input signal amplification effect on
quantization error taking account of following parameters &
comment on results of your analysis:-
(a) quantize a 100-mV analog signal using an 8-bit and then 12-bit
A/D converter, both ADCs’ are having a full-scale range of 0 to 10 V.
(b) Amplify 100mV input analog signal to 1V and then quantize this
amplified input signal using above given 8 & 12 bit converter machines
having FSR of 10 V.
31
Few Problems
 A 16-bit A/D converter has a full-scale range of 10 V. What is the

resolution of this A/D in volts? If this A/D were used to measure
temperature using a sensor having a sensitivity of 0.1 mV/C, what is
the ADC resolution in C?
32
Few Problems
 The output from a temperature sensor is expected to vary from

2.500 mv to 3.500 mv (Note: transducer is generating amplitude
values to the 1000th of a m-volt).
(a) If the signal is fed to a 12 bit A/D converter having a ± 5 v range,
estimate the ADC resolution.
(b) What would be the Quantization error if the temperature sensor
output is fed to ADC without any amplification?
(c) Suggest amplification gain for temperature sensor output which
shall significantly reduce the Quantization error.
33
Few Problems
 A student has designed temperature measurement system by
selecting K type thermocouple and NI DAQ hardware. After
appropriately designing the LabView program the student
encounters a problem ie “The measurement system is showing
temperature variations in steps of 30 C only i-e it is not showing
temperature values between 0-30 C, 30-60 C, 60-90 & so on.
Students of 87 EC have so far identified following facts:-
 (a) Transducer and DAQ card ranges are in cohesion for mutual interface.
 (b) Lab view program is appropriately designed.
 (c) Electrical circuitry is correctly designed and incorporated.
 (d) Thermocouple was found serviceable.
 Questions
 (i) Apply your Instrumentation knowledge and identify the problem. (Hint: ADC
selection).
 (ii) Explain the problem phenomenon in view of topic covered in DAQ selection
topic.
 (iii) Possibly two remedies exist for this problem; please list the remedies.
34
Few Problems
 A A student has designed a thrust measurement system for an engine
test bed by selecting Rduino UNO, an appropriate transducer and
appropriate soft code for the measurement system. The system was
statically calibrated at 3 different values of force (corresponding to
expected thrust values to be measured at 3 desired throttle settings) on a
tensile testing machine prior to employing the system on the test bed.
Once the system was employed on the test bed, the system started giving
erroneous readings (thrust values) at desired throttle settings. A team of
87 EC students started troubleshooting the system and identified
following:-
 (i) The transducer specifications were found in line with the design requirement.
 (ii) System circuitry was correctly designed and there was no problem in the physical
circuit.
 (iii) Rduino UNO was found serviceable.
 (ii) Students finally identified the problem and concluded that while designing the
measurement system, measurand behavior (thrust) was overlooked by the designers.
 Question. Apply your Instrumentation knowledge and briefly explain the
phenomenon of identified problem (Hint: measurand behavior & Rduino).
35
Summary
 Two important factors in A to D Conversion

 Sampling Errors
36
Q&A
37
A to D Converter
Analog Side
38 Digital Side
A to D Converter
Avery fast A/D converter is the parallel or flash converter depicted in Figure 7.11.
These converters are common to high-end stand-alone digital oscilloscopes and
spectral analyzers. An N-bit parallel converter uses 22 - 1 separate voltage
comparators to compare a reference voltage to the applied input voltage. As
indicated in Figure 7.11, the reference voltage applied to each successive
comparator is increased by the equivalent to value of 1 amplitude gap or
resolution (also known as Leas Significant bit LSB) by using a voltage-dividing
resistor ladder. If the input voltage is less than its reference voltage, a
comparator will go LOW; otherwise it will go HIGH. Consider the 2-bit converter
shown in Figure 7.11. If Einput >= 1/2 Eref but Einput < 3/4 Eref Eref , then
comparators 1 and 2 will be HIGH but comparator 3 will be LOW. In this manner,
there can only be 2N = 22 different HIGH/LOW combinations from 22 – 1 =3
comparators, as noted in Table 7.4
39
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Computer Aided Data Acquisition
System (DAS) Problems
Lecture No 12 & 13
2
Learning Objective
Students will be able to
 Interpret A to D converter characteristics/

features for subsequent selection of hardware.
 Employ analog to digital conversion of input

analog signals.
 Workout storage memory requirements.
3
Sequence
 Two important features in A to D Conversion

 Sampling Errors
 DAQ Problems
4
Few Problems
 Determine storage memory required for recording 10 minutes of

data which has been acquired through 10 KHz sampling frequency.
5
Few Problems
 A thrust measurement system is being designed. As a
measurement system designer, you are required to select an A to D
converter & a data recorder hardware. Based on following
information, select mentioned hardware with appropriate
specifications:-
 Thrust is required to be measured at 3 different pints (throttle settings)
where thrust pulses variations are of no more than 15 Hz.
 Thrust data is required to be measured/stored for 1 hour.
 Following specifications are essentially required
 Determine appropriate sampling freq of ADC?
 ADC Resolution if you have used a 3 Bit ADC with 10 V range?
 Minimum memory storage required for 1 hour data recording?
 Comment, how can quantization error & input signal aliasing be
avoided in this case?
6
Few Problems
7
Few Problems
 A computer aided temperature measurement system is being

design. The selected temperature sensor has a sensitivity of
100 mv/C.
 Analyze the ADC resolution & input signal amplification effect on
quantization error taking account of following parameters &
comment on results of your analysis:-
(a) quantize a 100-mV analog signal using an 8-bit and then 12-bit
A/D converter, both ADCs’ are having a full-scale range of 0 to 10 V.
(b) Amplify 100mV input analog signal to 1V and then quantize this
amplified input signal using above given 8 & 12 bit converter machines
having FSR of 10 V.
8
Few Problems
 A 16-bit A/D converter has a full-scale range of 10 V. What is the

resolution of this A/D in volts? If this A/D were used to measure
temperature using a sensor having a sensitivity of 0.1 mV/C, what is
the ADC resolution in C?
9
Few Problems
 The output from a temperature sensor is expected to vary from

2.500 mv to 3.500 mv (Note: transducer is generating amplitude
values to the 1000th of a m-volt).
(a) If the signal is fed to a 12 bit A/D converter having a ± 5 v range,
estimate the ADC resolution.
(b) What would be the Quantization error if the temperature sensor
output is fed to ADC without any amplification?
(c) Suggest amplification gain for temperature sensor output which
shall significantly reduce the Quantization error.
10
Few Problems
 A student has designed temperature measurement system by
selecting K type thermocouple and NI DAQ hardware. After
appropriately designing the LabView program the student
encounters a problem ie “The measurement system is showing
temperature variations in steps of 30 C only i-e it is not showing
temperature values between 0-30 C, 30-60 C, 60-90 & so on.
Students of 87 EC have so far identified following facts:-
 (a) Transducer and DAQ card ranges are in cohesion for mutual interface.
 (b) Lab view program is appropriately designed.
 (c) Electrical circuitry is correctly designed and incorporated.
 (d) Thermocouple was found serviceable.
 Questions
 (i) Apply your Instrumentation knowledge and identify the problem. (Hint: ADC
selection).
 (ii) Explain the problem phenomenon in view of topic covered in DAQ selection
topic.
 (iii) Possibly two remedies exist for this problem; please list the remedies.
11
Few Problems
 A A student has designed a thrust measurement system for an engine
test bed by selecting Rduino UNO, an appropriate transducer and
appropriate soft code for the measurement system. The system was
statically calibrated at 3 different values of force (corresponding to
expected thrust values to be measured at 3 desired throttle settings) on a
tensile testing machine prior to employing the system on the test bed.
Once the system was employed on the test bed, the system started giving
erroneous readings (thrust values) at desired throttle settings. A team of
87 EC students started troubleshooting the system and identified
following:-
 (i) The transducer specifications were found in line with the design requirement.
 (ii) System circuitry was correctly designed and there was no problem in the physical
circuit.
 (iii) Rduino UNO was found serviceable.
 (ii) Students finally identified the problem and concluded that while designing the
measurement system, measurand behavior (thrust) was overlooked by the designers.
 Question. Apply your Instrumentation knowledge and briefly explain the
phenomenon of identified problem (Hint: measurand behavior & Rduino).
12
Q&A
13
A to D Converter
Analog Side
14 Digital Side
A to D Converter
Avery fast A/D converter is the parallel or flash converter depicted in Figure 7.11.
These converters are common to high-end stand-alone digital oscilloscopes and
spectral analyzers. An N-bit parallel converter uses 22 - 1 separate voltage
comparators to compare a reference voltage to the applied input voltage. As
indicated in Figure 7.11, the reference voltage applied to each successive
comparator is increased by the equivalent to value of 1 amplitude gap or
resolution (also known as Leas Significant bit LSB) by using a voltage-dividing
resistor ladder. If the input voltage is less than its reference voltage, a
comparator will go LOW; otherwise it will go HIGH. Consider the 2-bit converter
shown in Figure 7.11. If Einput >= 1/2 Eref but Einput < 3/4 Eref Eref , then
comparators 1 and 2 will be HIGH but comparator 3 will be LOW. In this manner,
there can only be 2N = 22 different HIGH/LOW combinations from 22 – 1 =3
comparators, as noted in Table 7.4
15
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Measuring Units
& Concept of Significance Digits
Lecture No 14
2
Learning Objective
 Dimensional units of Measurement
 Significant figures/ digits in Measurement
 Calculations with Significant Figures
3
Sequence
 Basic definitions of terms
 Dimension
 Dimensional units
 Standards
 Fundamental, Supplementary & Derived Units
 Various system of Units
 Concept of Significant Figures in Measurement
 Calculations with Significant Figures/ digits
 Addition/ Subtraction
 Multiplication/Division
4
Standards & Dimensional Units of
Measurement
 Dimension …… defining characteristics of an entity to
be measured….. “the measurand” e.g. length
 Dimensional unit is the basis for quantification of the
measurand (what quantity it is?) e.g. cm
 Standards which define a dimensional unit are called
dimensional standards
 Systems of Units Various systems of units exist across
the globe e.g for length…. Feet, meter, inches, cm etc
 These systems of units must be in conformance to some
established standard & agreed upon by all systems
5
Dimensional Standards
 Standards are prescribed and defined by a legal

or recognized agency for example
 NIST (National Institute of Standards and
Technology)
 ISO (International Standards Organization)
 ANSI (American National Standard Institute)
 An important characteristic while defining a
standard is that it should be reproducible and
interpreted similarly by all
6
7
Fundamental & Supplementary Units
8
Derived Units
9
Derived Units (Cont’d)
10
Various Systems of Units
11
Concept of Significant Figures/ Digits
12
Significant Digits/ Figures in Measurement
 Measurement results must express precision of the measurement tool
in their representation.
 e.g 1 , 1.0 , 1.00 are these measurement results same? No
 2nd & 3rd figures are measured with more precise tool having precision to
nearest 10th & 100th of measuring units (mm, inches etc) respectively.
 Zero(s) after decimal show that they are the outcome of measurement &
 They have not been put in result arbitrarily as in general terms they mean
nothing.
Thus
 Results’ digits must not over represent precision of the tool.
 e.g If a result is obtained with a standard ruler,
 its result must not be represented in 10th or 100th or above of an ‘mm’
 because a standard ruler precision is to the nearest ‘mm’.
13
 Significant digits in a measurement result express the precision of a

measuring tool.
 Precision of a measuring tool is related to size of its measurement

increments ie Resolution.
 Smaller the measurement increment (finer resolution), the more

precise the tool will be.
 e.g a ruler can measure to nearest “mm” & a caliper can measure to
nearest “0.01mm”.
Thus caliper is more precise because it can measure smaller

differences in length than a ruler.
14
Significant Digits
 Purpose of Significant Digits

“The measured amount is not over representing
the precision of tool”.
 3/7=0.428….
These digits do not represent precision of a measurement
system…these are basically outcome of a division.
“In measurements, knowing, how many digits out of these are
significant w.r.t precision of measuring tool, is essential.”
 Rules for Identifying Significant Digits
 Thumb rule is… digits which are giving info about
“how precise the measuring Instrument is?”
Are Significant Digits.
15
Significant Digits
 Few Examples
(i) 0.00700 Km with measuring tool precision is to
nearest cm
“3 significant digits”…..7, 0 & 0
0 . 0 0 7 0 0 7.00 m
zerors.. shifted as too precision is till unit cm… so tool has obtained
from ‘m’ to ‘Km’ correct measurement till second 0 ie nearest“cm”
otherwise putting right end zeros after decimal are as
such not required.
(ii) 0.052 two significant digits, left zero is outcome of

decimal shifting
(iii) 370. three significant digits… point at the end represent that the
measurement has not been rounded off from 371 or 369….370 is the precision
value measured by the tool.
16
Significant Digits
 Few Examples
(iv) 10.0 3 significant digits… tool precision is to nearest
10th of the measuring units.
(iii) 705.001 6 significant digits…
tool precision is to nearest 1000th of
the measuring units (m, inches etc).
 Rules for Significant Digits Identification

(These Rules are applicable to values which are outcome of a
measurement & representing precision of the measuring tools)
Rule 1 (In-between zeeros’ & Non-zero digits) All non zero &
in-between zero digits in a measurement value are significant digits
e.g 305, 10.01 etc
17
Significant Digits

Rule 1 (In-between zeros & Non-zero digits) All non zero & in-
between zero digits in a measurement value are significant digits
e.g 305, 10.01 etc
Rule 2 (Leading zeros) All leading zeros are non significant
digits
e.g 0.00700 three leading zeros are non significant
Rule 3 (Trailing zeros)…..2 types
(i) If there is decimal in figure…..then trailing zeros are significant
e.g 0.00700, 10.0, 370. etc trailing zeros significant
(ii) If there is no decimal….Then trailing zeros are non significant
e.g 3700, 10000 etc trailing zeros non significant
In case zeros in 3700 value were obtained from a precision tool
then trailing zeros were significant but should have been
2
18 represented in scientific notation. i-e 37x10
Significant Digits

In case, zeros in 3700 value were actually outcome of precision

tool then trailing zeros were significant .
However, non decimal values having trailing zeros as significant,

must have been represented in scientific notation. i-e 37x102
19
Calculations With Significant Digits
 Addition & Subtraction In addition & subtraction, the
result should be rounded off to least precise figure of inputs.
(Note: values below are represented according to Sig digits Rules)
e.g 1 . 2 6 m + 2 . 3 m = 3.56 m
more precise less precise round off to least precise i/p
= 3.6 m (rounded off)
1 . 9 0 1 m + 2 . 0 9m = 3.991 m 3.99 m
 Further example
350 ft (tool precision is 10 ft…. I 2 sig digit …less precise)
+ 8 ft (tool precision is 1 foot…1 Sig digit…….more precise)
= 358 ft (digits showing precision to nearest 1 foot; which is wrong)
“Round off result to least precise figure of inputs”
THUS result is 360 ft (2 sig digits & precision is to nearest 10 ft)
Note: If tool precision was to nearest 100 ft in 350 then we would have rounded off
the result 358 to 400 .
20
 Further example
For whole numbers ending with non zero numbers (358, 3501), the
precision of tool will always be nearest measuring unit (ie a meter, a mili meter, an
inch, a foot etc)
For whole numbers ending with zero(s), the precision of the tool cannot
be to nearest measuring unit (a m, a mm, an inch etc)
350 ft tool precision will be taken as nearest 10 ft instead of 1 ft
21
 Multiplication & Division

 Rule 1: The significant digits in product result or quotient cannot be
more than least number of significant digits of inputs.
e.g 1 . 69 m (3 sig digits) x 2 . 09 m = 3.5321 m2
Thus Round off to least number of to least significant digits i-e 3
3.53 m2
Further example
 Rule 2: Don’t round off the figure till the time all the calculations are
not done.
e.g 12 . 07 ft (4 sig digits) x 10.1 ft (3 sig digits) = 121.907 ft2
121.907 ft2 / 10.07 = 113.93177 ft2

Thus Round off to obtain final result according to least number of significant digits
in input quantities and i-e 3 significant digits.
114 ft2 (3 sig digits)
22
Summary
 Dimension
 Standards
 The SI System of Units
23
Q&A
24
IE-421 Computer Aided Instrumentation (1/2020)
You are logged in as Irfan Mehmood (Logout)
Navigation Troubleshooting FAQ Suggestions Contact us Training Downloads Digital Library September 08, 2020 21:39:59
My home ► IE-421 Section-B ► 23 June - 29 June ► OHT-1
Started on Thursday, 25 June 2020, 12:59 PM

Quiz navigation State Finished
Completed on Thursday, 25 June 2020, 1:49 PM
Time taken 49 mins 53 secs
Grade 52.00 out of a maximum of 100.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Question 1 For measurement of a dynamic input quantity, we are more concerned about its
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Correct
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Mark 3.00 out of Select one:
3.00 a. Magnitude and Linearity
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Flag question
b. Amplitude and Frequency
29 30 31 32 33 34 35
c. Hysteresis effect
36 37 38 39 40 41 42
d. Magnitude and Sensitivity
43 44 45 46 47 48 49
50 The correct answer is: Amplitude and Frequency

Show one page at a time
Finish review
Question 2 A sensor converts measurand from one form of energy to another form.
Incorrect
Mark 0.00 out of Select one:

1.00 a. False
Flag question
b. True
The correct answer is: False
Question 3 When we consider inputs with regards to passing time, the inputs can be divided into
Incorrect

3.00 a. Time varying and Time Constant inputs
Flag question
b. Static and Dynamic inputs
c. None
d. Both a and b
The correct answer is: Both a and b
Question 4 A signal which has a discrete value at each sampling interval is called as discrete
Correct signal.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
Flag question a. True
b. False
The correct answer is: True

Question 5
Smallest increment of change in input value that can be determined from instrument
Correct output i-e readout scale is called as instrument Resolution.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00
Select one:
Flag question
a. False
b. True
Question 6 Span drift is a desirable characteristic.

Correct

1.00 a. False
Flag question
b. True
Question 7 A static input quantity can contain following pertinent information in it

Correct

3.00 a. Frequency
Flag question
b. Magnitude
c. Both a and b
d. Accuracy and Linearity
The correct answer is: Magnitude
Question 8 Metrology is science of Measurement.

Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 9 “Time variation of any magnitude” is not as important as is the “amplitude variation”.
Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 10 A typical mechanical acoustic measuring sensor/ transducer could be

Correct

3.00 a. Bellows
Flag question
b. Diaphragm
c. Bourdon tube
d. None
The correct answer is: Diaphragm
Question 11 Aircraft landing gear extension & retraction can be one of the best examples to
Correct illustrate
Mark 3.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. State Varying inputs
b. Time Constant inputs
c. None of above
d. Time Varying inputs
The correct answer is: State Varying inputs
Question 12 During measurement process, ensuring OEM recommended environmental conditions

Incorrect is important to avoid
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Span drift
b. None
c. Both a and b
d. Sensitivity drift
The correct answer is: Sensitivity drift
Question 13 Bourdon Tube converts detects & converts

Incorrect

3.00 a. Fluid Velocity into Displacement
Flag question
b. Pressure into Displacement
c. Fluid Velocity into Pressure
d. None
The correct answer is: Pressure into Displacement
Question 14 2.5 mv/Cm per 10-degree Charlee mentioned on an instrument datasheet, represents
Correct instrument’s
Mark 3.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Zero drift
b. Hysteresis
c. Sensitivity Drift
d. Sensitivity
The correct answer is: Sensitivity Drift

Question 15
Fidelity is “The degree to which a system faithfully senses, transmits, & presents all
Correct pertinent information included in the measurand (like amplitude, frequency, phase
Mark 1.00 out of etc)”.
1.00
Flag question Select one:

a. True
b. False
Question 16 Time required for system to pass from 10% to 90% of its final response is called as
Incorrect

3.00 a. Delay time
Flag question
b. Both a and c
c. System Slew Rate
d. System Rise Time
The correct answer is: Both a and c
Question 17 Minimum rate of change in input per unit time that a system can handle is called as
Correct Slew Rate
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 18 Pressure Thermometer detects temperature input and works on the basis of linear
Incorrect relation between
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Fluid pressure with input variation
b. Fluid temp with input variation
c. None
d. Both a and b
The correct answer is: Fluid pressure with input variation
Question 19 Time required for system to pass from 10% to 60% of its final response is called as
Correct System Rise Time.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
Flag question a. False
b. True

Question 20
A system Gain is Sum of the gains of all elements of system at desired frequency.
Incorrect

1.00
a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 21 Complex signal cannot be expressed as combination of simple harmonic (sinusoidal)

Incorrect components.
Mark 0.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. True
Question 22 Variation in instrument sensitivity due to environmental effects like temperature etc is
Correct called as “Span drift”.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. True
Question 23 Linearity is computed in

Correct

3.00 a. None
Flag question
b. Negative term
c. Material property term
d. Positive term
The correct answer is: Negative term
Question 24 Every transducer is a sensor.

Correct

1.00 a. False
Flag question
b. True
Question 25 Spring Balance is a classical example of one of following fundamental methods for
Incorrect measurement
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Indirect Comparison Method
b. Direct Comparison Method
c. Fourier Method
d. Calibration Method
The correct answer is: Indirect Comparison Method
Question 26 Instruments which produce reading output directly being measured are categorized as
Correct Active Instruments.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 27 As time progresses, the magnitude of the measurand either changes (dynamic) or
Correct does not change (static).
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 28 Repeatability is the ability of measurement to be duplicated, either by same person or

Correct by someone else under changed conditions.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 29 Differential pressure can be measured through utilizing following 1st stage devices
Incorrect

3.00 a. None
Flag question
b. Orifice
c. both a and b
d. Venturi
The correct answer is: None
Question 30 A seismic mass type sensor converts

Incorrect

3.00 a. Pressure to displacement
Flag question
b. mass to displacement
c. None
d. velocity to displacement
The correct answer is: None
Question 31 When two or more signals with same frequencies, do not oscillate together, the time
Correct difference (lead or lag) between their motions is expected by angle; which is referred
Mark 1.00 out of
as phase angle Ø.
1.00

a. False
b. True
Question 32 Accuracy is represented in terms of maximum deviation.

Incorrect

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 33 Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different effect while increasing &
Correct decreasing the input magnitude.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 34 For selection of appropriate elements for a measuring system, analysis of measurand
Correct time-defendant characteristics is essential.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 35 Ratio of output to input amplitude is called as amplification or Gain

Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
1st stage devices containing bridge circuits can be classified as

Question 36 Select one:
Incorrect a. Passive Type Instruments
Mark 0.00 out of
b. None
3.00
Flag question c. Active Type instruments
d. Both a and b
The correct answer is: Active Type instruments
Question 37 A generalized measuring system contains following number of main stages

Correct

3.00 a. 02
Flag question
b. 03
c. 04
d. None of above
The correct answer is: 03
Question 38 Closeness of agreement among a set of repeated measurement results of same

Correct quantity is called as
Mark 3.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Sensitivity
b. Precision
c. Accuracy
d. Linearity
The correct answer is: Precision
Question 39 If a single element of a measurement system does not respond properly, it will distort
Correct the signal but is less likely to cause contamination of entire measurement.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 40 An instrument with measuring span of 75 and 6 % Linearity would cause an error of
Not answered
Marked out of 3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. None
b. 4 units above 50% of span
c. 4.5 units at each graduation
d. 4 units at each reading
The correct answer is: 4.5 units at each graduation

Question 41
Phase response of an instrument for a single sine wave i-e pure tone is of no
Incorrect importance.
Mark 0.00 out of
1.00
Select one:
Flag question
a. False
b. True
Question 42 A signal which varies non cyclically with time is called as periodic signal
Incorrect

1.00 a. False
Flag question
b. True
Question 43 A total of 8 measurements were taken during a calibration process of an instrument

Incorrect with measuring span of 75. During post calibration analysis, minimum & maximum
Mark 0.00 out of
deviation from true values were observed as 4 & 6 units, respectively. Percent Linearity
3.00 for such instrument would be
Flag question
Select one:
a. 8 % FSR
b. 6 % FSR
c. 7 % FSR
d. 4 % FSR
The correct answer is: 8 % FSR
Question 44 Accuracy is computed in

Correct

3.00 a. Material property term
Flag question
b. Negative term
c. Positive term
d. None
The correct answer is: Negative term
Question 45 A Manometer type sensor converts

Correct

3.00 a. mass to displacement
Flag question
b. Pressure to displacement
c. force to displacement
d. None
The correct answer is: Pressure to displacement

Question 46 An instrument datasheet mentions 0.1 mv/sec; this data represents following
Incorrect characteristic
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Slew Speed
b. Both b and c
c. Resolution
d. Slew Rate
The correct answer is: Both b and c
Question 47 Primary function of 1st stage device is to

Correct

3.00 a. Detect an input quantity
Flag question
b. Condition an input quantity
c. Both a and b
d. None
The correct answer is: Detect an input quantity
Question 48 Following 1st stage devices cannot be termed as transducers

Incorrect

3.00 a. None of Above
Flag question
b. Static port and Mechanical Pins
c. Spring and Pitot tube
d. Pitot tube and Static port
The correct answer is: Static port and Mechanical Pins
Question 49 Float based fluid level measuring instruments installed in vehicles are typical example
Incorrect of
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Null type instruments
b. None
c. Active type instruments
d. Passive type instruments
The correct answer is: Active type instruments
Question 50 High slew rate is an undesired dynamic characteristic.

Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False

Finish review
IE-421 Section-B
IE-421 Computer Aided Instrumentation (1/2020)
Navigation Troubleshooting FAQ Suggestions Contact us Training Downloads Digital Library September 08, 2020 21:40:15
My home ► IE-421 Section-B ► 14 July - 20 July ► OHT-2
Started on Thursday, 16 July 2020, 8:00 AM

Quiz navigation State Finished
Completed on Thursday, 16 July 2020, 8:44 AM
Time taken 44 mins 28 secs
Grade 57.00 out of a maximum of 100.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Question 1 Eddy current phenomenon of self-inductance is used to measure non magnetic coating
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Correct thickness on ferromagnetic materials.
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31 32 33 34 35
b. False
36 37 38 39 40 41 42
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 The correct answer is: True
50
Show one page at a time Question 2 Optical sensors can be used for
Finish review Correct

3.00 a. Both a and b
Flag question
b. None of above
c. Displacement & Pressure measurement
d. Temperature and Vibration
Question 3 Diaphragm sensor technology is widely used as primary detector transducer in

Correct Microphones fabrication.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 4 Hall effect technology can be used to capture position of ferromagnetic based material
Correct as well as non contact Ampere meter.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Non contact ampere meters use following phenomenon of Hall effect

Question 5 Select one:
Incorrect a. None of above
Mark 0.00 out of
b. Both a and b
3.00
Flag question c. Electric field interference
d. ferromagnetic material interference
The correct answer is: Electric field interference
Question 6 Self-Inductance type primary detector transducer mostly work on change in air gap &
Correct change in core cross section.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 7 Hall voltage can only be produced once a magnetic field influences a current carrying
Incorrect

1.00 a. Conductor material
Flag question
b. Ferromagnetic material
c. Semi-Conductor material
d. Both a and b
The correct answer is: Semi-Conductor material
Question 8 Fluid velocity can be detected by electrical sensors only if we use them as
Correct

3.00 a. Primary detectors
Flag question
b. None of above
c. Inductive detectors
d. Secondary detectors
The correct answer is: Secondary detectors
Question 9 Vibration can be measured as a function of displacement by using seismic mass as

Incorrect primary mechanical detector and following secondary sensor technologies
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Self Inductive pickups
b. Both a and b
c. None of above
d. Reluctance pickups
The correct answer is: Self Inductive pickups

Question 10
Self inductive pickups in turbine flow meters can give following type of outputs
Incorrect

3.00
a. Pulses
Flag question
b. None of above
c. Continuous
d. Mechanical
The correct answer is: Continuous
Question 11 Vibration can be measured as a function of velocity by using seismic mass as primary
Incorrect mechanical detector and following secondary sensor technologies
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Reluctance pickups
b. Self Inductive pickups
c. Both a and b
d. None of above
The correct answer is: Reluctance pickups
Question 12 Ultrasonic and Eddy current sensors once used as NDI equipment, the main difference
Not answered between them lies in detection of depth of crack.
Marked out of 1.00
Select one:
Flag question
a. True
b. False
Question 13 Vertical (large) displacement between upper cross head & moveable cross head
Correct (ie horizontal beams) in Tensile testing machine can be captured using Ultrasonic
Mark 1.00 out of
sensor technology
1.00

a. True
b. False
Question 14 Self-Inductance type primary detector transducer are generally used for pressure
Incorrect measurement.
Mark 0.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. True

Question 15
Environmental humidity level can be detected by employing following technology(ies)
Incorrect

3.00
a. Self Inductance
Flag question
b. Mutual Inductance
c. Capacitance
d. Reluctance
The correct answer is: Capacitance
Question 16 Electrical limiting switches are the simplest resistance based electrical primary detector
Correct transducers.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 17 Sensors based on varying reluctance principle, utilize permanent magnets.

Incorrect

1.00 a. False
Flag question
b. True
Question 18 Fluid level can be detected directly through following electrical primary detector
Incorrect technologies
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Inductive
b. Both b and c
c. Ultrasonic
d. Capacitive
The correct answer is: Both b and c
Question 19 Reluctance based acoustic sensors do not require any mechanical primary detector.
Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 20 Seismic mass based vibrometer can be augmented with inductive secondary
Correct transducers for getting vibration as a function of velocity.
1.00
a. False
Flag question
b. True
Question 21 Strain gauges work on varying resistance principle.

Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 22 Variation in secondary electromagnetic field due to variation in material thickness is

Correct used to detect wall thickness by
Mark 3.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. None of above
b. Inductive sensors
c. Hall effect sensors
d. Eddy current sensors
The correct answer is: Eddy current sensors
Question 23 When two similar metals are joined together and this joined point is subjected to
Correct temperature variation, it generates an emf as a function of temperature variation.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. True
Question 24 Eddy Current technology cannot measure wall thickness of a pipe.

Correct

1.00 a. False
Flag question
b. True
Question 25 Diaphragm sensor technology work on Thermal expansion principle.

Correct

1.00 a. False
Flag question
b. True

Question 26 Reluctance type of pickups in anemometers can give following type of outputs
Correct

3.00 a. Continuous
Flag question
b. Mechanical
c. None of above
d. Pulses
The correct answer is: Pulses
Question 27 Aircraft Rudder directional position including its null position can be detected using
Incorrect following technology(ies)
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Capacitance
b. Reluctance
c. Self Inductance
d. Mutual Inductance
The correct answer is: Mutual Inductance
Question 28 Seismic based vibration meters can employ following secondary transducers
Correct

3.00 a. Both A and B
Flag question
b. Inductive and Reluctance
c. Varying Resistance and Piezoelectric
d. None
The correct answer is: Both A and B
Question 29 Eddy currents are produced due to following phenomenon of the inductor coils
Incorrect

3.00 a. None of above
Flag question
b. Reluctance
c. Self Inductance
d. Mutual Inductance
The correct answer is: Self Inductance
Question 30 Manometer utilizes Liquid in glass column technology.

Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 31 Environmental temperature can be detected by employing following technology(ies)

Incorrect

3.00 a. Resistive and Fiber Optic
Flag question
b. Resistive and Ultrasonic
c. Resistive and Eddy Current
d. Resistive and Capacitive
The correct answer is: Resistive and Fiber Optic
Question 32 Capacitance technology does give us non contacting detectors type advantage.
Correct

1.00 a. False
Remove flag
b. True
Question 33 Class III sensors consists of

Incorrect

3.00 a. None of above
Flag question
b. No primary sensor
c. Class III does not exist
d. 2 primary and 1 secondary sensors
The correct answer is: None of above
Question 34 Vibration can be measured as a function of displacement by using seismic mass as

Incorrect primary mechanical detector and following secondary sensor technologies
Mark 0.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Self Inductive pickups
b. Reluctance pickups
c. Both a and b
d. None of above
Question 35 Pressure Thermometer detects temperature input and works on the basis of linear
Correct relation between
Mark 3.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Fluid temp with input variation
b. None
c. Both a and b
d. Fluid pressure with input variation
The correct answer is: Fluid pressure with input variation
Question 36 A typical mechanical acoustic measuring sensor/ transducer could be

Correct

3.00 a. Bellows
Flag question
b. None
c. Diaphragm
d. Bourdon tube
The correct answer is: Diaphragm
Question 37 Linear Variable Differential Transformer sensor technology work on varying resistance
Correct principle.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. True
Question 38 Capacitance based acoustic sensors do not require any mechanical primary detector.
Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 39 Following type of sensors employ permanent magnets to establish magnetic fields
Incorrect

3.00 a. Self Inductive
Flag question
b. Both a and b
c. Mutual Inductive
d. Reluctance
The correct answer is: Reluctance
Question 40 Hall effect based Proximity sensors use following phenomenon

Correct

3.00 a. Electric field interference
Flag question
b. Both a and b
c. ferromagnetic material interference
d. None of above
The correct answer is: ferromagnetic material interference
Question 41 Variation in dielectric constant can be used in electrical detecting technologies for
Correct detecting
Mark 3.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Varying fluid pressure
b. Both a and b
c. Varying displacement
d. Varying fluid level
The correct answer is: Varying fluid level
Question 42 Electrical Primary Detector Transducers generally converts Resistance,

Correct Capacitance, Inductance into displacement.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. False
Question 43 Fluid level & humidity sensor make use of principle of “changing capacitance due to
Correct capacitance plates’ separation”.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. True
Question 44 A Manometer type primary mechanical sensor converts

Correct

3.00 a. mass to displacement
Flag question
b. Pressure to displacement
c. None
d. force to displacement
The correct answer is: Pressure to displacement
Question 45 Hydrometers are utilized to measure fluid pressure.

Correct

1.00 a. False
Flag question
b. True

Question 46 Varying distance between ferromagnetic material and inductive coil is the phenomenon
Correct used to detect smaller displacements/ proximity by
Mark 3.00 out of
3.00 Select one:
Flag question a. Hall effect sensors
b. Eddy current sensors
c. None of above
d. Inductive sensors
The correct answer is: Eddy current sensors
Question 47 Ultrasonic sensors, generally use Piezoelectric materials for their receiver &
Correct transmitters.
Mark 1.00 out of
1.00 Select one:
b. True
Question 48 Pressure thermometer sensor technology work on Elastic expansion principle.

Correct

1.00 a. True
Flag question
b. False
Question 49 A seismic mass type primary mechanical vibration sensor converts

Correct

3.00 a. forcing function to displacement
Flag question
b. None
c. velocity to displacement
d. Pressure to displacement
The correct answer is: forcing function to displacement
Question 50 Techo-generators can use following technologies for RPM measurement

Incorrect

3.00 a. Both a and b
Flag question
b. Varying resistance
c. Reluctance pickups
d. Inductive pickups

Finish review
IE-421 Section-B
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Measuring Units
& Concept of Significance Digits
Lecture No 14
2
Learning Objective
 Dimensional units of Measurement
 Significant figures/ digits in Measurement
 Calculations with Significant Figures
3
Sequence
 Dimension
 Standards
 Various system of Units
4
Standards & Dimensional Units of
Measurement
 Dimension …… defining characteristics of an entity to
be measured….. “the measurand” e.g. length
 Dimensional unit is the basis for quantification of the
measurand (what quantity it is?) e.g. cm
 Standards which define a dimensional unit are called
dimensional standards
 Systems of Units Various systems of units exist across
the globe e.g for length…. Feet, meter, inches, cm etc
 These systems of units must be in conformance to some
established standard & agreed upon by all systems
5
 Standards are prescribed and defined by a legal

or recognized agency for example
 NIST (National Institute of Standards and
Technology)
 ISO (International Standards Organization)
 ANSI (American National Standard Institute)
 An important characteristic while defining a
standard is that it should be reproducible and
interpreted similarly by all
6
7
Fundamental & Supplementary Units
8
Derived Units
9
Derived Units (Cont’d)
10
Various Systems of Units
11
Concept of Significant Figures/ Digits
12
 Measurement results must express precision of the measurement tool
in their representation.
 e.g 1 , 1.0 , 1.00 are these measurement results same? No
 2nd & 3rd figures are measured with more precise tool having precision to
nearest 10th & 100th of measuring units (mm, inches etc) respectively.
 Zero(s) after decimal show that they are the outcome of measurement &
 They have not been put in result arbitrarily as in general terms they mean
nothing.
Thus
 Results’ digits must not over represent precision of the tool.
 e.g If a result is obtained with a standard ruler,
 its result must not be represented in 10th or 100th or above of an ‘mm’
 because a standard ruler precision is to the nearest ‘mm’.
13
 Significant digits in a measurement result express the precision of a

measuring tool.
 Precision of a measuring tool is related to size of its measurement

increments ie Resolution.
 Smaller the measurement increment (finer resolution), the more

precise the tool will be.
 e.g a ruler can measure to nearest “mm” & a caliper can measure to
nearest “0.01mm”.
Thus caliper is more precise because it can measure smaller

differences in length than a ruler.
14
Significant Digits
 Purpose of Significant Digits

“The measured amount is not over representing
the precision of tool”.
 3/7=0.428….
These digits do not represent precision of a measurement
system…these are basically outcome of a division.
“In measurements, knowing, how many digits out of these are
significant w.r.t precision of measuring tool, is essential.”
 Rules for Identifying Significant Digits
 Thumb rule is… digits which are giving info about
“how precise the measuring Instrument is?”
Are Significant Digits.
15
Significant Digits
 Few Examples
(i) 0.00700 Km with measuring tool precision is to
nearest cm
“3 significant digits”…..7, 0 & 0
0 . 0 0 7 0 0 7.00 m
zerors.. shifted as too precision is till unit cm… so tool has obtained
from ‘m’ to ‘Km’ correct measurement till second 0 ie nearest“cm”
otherwise putting right end zeros after decimal are as
such not required.
(ii) 0.052 two significant digits, left zero is outcome of

decimal shifting
(iii) 370. three significant digits… point at the end represent that the
measurement has not been rounded off from 371 or 369….370 is the precision
value measured by the tool.
16
Significant Digits
 Few Examples
(iv) 10.0 3 significant digits… tool precision is to nearest
10th of the measuring units.
(iii) 705.001 6 significant digits…
tool precision is to nearest 1000th of
the measuring units (m, inches etc).

(These Rules are applicable to values which are outcome of a
measurement & representing precision of the measuring tools)
Rule 1 (In-between zeeros’ & Non-zero digits) All non zero &
in-between zero digits in a measurement value are significant digits
e.g 305, 10.01 etc
17
Significant Digits

Rule 1 (In-between zeros & Non-zero digits) All non zero & in-
between zero digits in a measurement value are significant digits
e.g 305, 10.01 etc
Rule 2 (Leading zeros) All leading zeros are non significant
digits
e.g 0.00700 three leading zeros are non significant
In case zeros in 3700 value were obtained from a precision tool
then trailing zeros were significant but should have been
2
18 represented in scientific notation. i-e 37x10
Significant Digits

In case, zeros in 3700 value were actually outcome of precision

tool then trailing zeros were significant .
However, non decimal values having trailing zeros as significant,

must have been represented in scientific notation. i-e 37x102
19
 Addition & Subtraction In addition & subtraction, the
result should be rounded off to least precise figure of inputs.
e.g 1 . 2 6 m + 2 . 3 m = 3.56 m
more precise less precise round off to least precise i/p
= 3.6 m (rounded off)
1 . 9 0 1 m + 2 . 0 9m = 3.991 m 3.99 m
 Further example
350 ft (tool precision is 10 ft…. I 2 sig digit …less precise)
+ 8 ft (tool precision is 1 foot…1 Sig digit…….more precise)
= 358 ft (digits showing precision to nearest 1 foot; which is wrong)
“Round off result to least precise figure of inputs”
THUS result is 360 ft (2 sig digits & precision is to nearest 10 ft)
20
 Further example
For whole numbers ending with non zero numbers (358, 3501), the
precision of tool will always be nearest measuring unit (ie a meter, a mili meter, an
inch, a foot etc)
For whole numbers ending with zero(s), the precision of the tool cannot
be to nearest measuring unit (a m, a mm, an inch etc)
21
 Multiplication & Division

 Rule 1: The significant digits in product result or quotient cannot be
more than least number of significant digits of inputs.
e.g 1 . 69 m (3 sig digits) x 2 . 09 m = 3.5321 m2
Thus Round off to least number of to least significant digits i-e 3
3.53 m2
Further example
 Rule 2: Don’t round off the figure till the time all the calculations are
not done.
e.g 12 . 07 ft (4 sig digits) x 10.1 ft (3 sig digits) = 121.907 ft2
121.907 ft2 / 10.07 = 113.93177 ft2

Thus Round off to obtain final result according to least number of significant digits
in input quantities and i-e 3 significant digits.
114 ft2 (3 sig digits)
22
Summary
 Dimension
 Standards
 The SI System of Units
23
Q&A
24
IE-421
(Credit hrs 1-1)
Concept of Errors
Lecture No 14
2
Learning Objective
 Concept of Errors in Measurement
 Types of Errors
3
Sequence
 Error in Measurement is Inherent
 Common Types of Errors
 Bias or Systematic Errors
 Random or Precision Errors
 Sources of Errors
 Sources of Errors “Classifications”
 Sources of Bias Errors
 Sources of Random Errors
 Source of Other Errors
 Terms Used in Rating Instrument Performance
 Quantification of Measurement Quality
4
Errors in Measurement is Inherent
 Can True Value be Obtained?
5
Error in Measurement
 What is Measurement? “Measurement of a quantity” is

generally defined as quantitative comparison of this quantity with
another which is homogeneous to the measured one.
 What is Measurement Error “Measurement Error” is defined

as difference between measured & true values of the measurand.
 Why we study Measurement Error? “Error in measurement”

is studied to ascertain the “goodness of measurement data (or
measurement quality)”.
6
 Main Problem… Can the true value of measurand be

obtained/measued?
 Answer… Negative…..
 Why? there are numerous error contributors in a

measurement process which liable the measured value to deviate
from true value. e.g measurand, operator, instrument etc
7
Corollary Error is inherent in all kind of measurements, so we
cannot know the true value &
 thus can never know exact error of a measurement. However, we

can estimate an interval of measurement error.
 This estimate of error interval is also called uncertainty bound (ie

estimate of likelihood that a measuring error will exceed some specific
error value).
8
Error Contributors in a Measurement Process
 The Contributors
 Instrument
 The Operator
 Measurement Method
 Measurement Standard
 s
9
10
 The Measurand it gets modified sometime during measurement or

our knowledge about its behavior is limited etc
 The Instrument It gets affected due to non ideal components

(manufacturing flaws), internal generated noise, its sensitivity to
environmental conditions, lack of calibration, wear & tear due to aging.
 The Operator Operator inability to measure “just in time”, pointer

exact displacement, post processing omissions etc contribute in
overall measurement error.
11
 Measurement Method The measurement methods are based on

some physical phenomenon/ interactions like mechanical,
electromechanical, electromagnetic etc and these interactions may not
produce expected results due to interaction by other phenomenon like
friction in mechanical sys will eat up some of input qty etc.
 Measurement Standard It may not be able to give exact value or a

value to desired accuracy ie less precision standard.
12
13
Common Types of Errors & Their Sources
 Systematic/Bias Errors
 Random/Precision Errors
 Sources of Systematic/Bias Errors
 Error Sources within Instrument
 Error Sources outside Instrument
 Sources of Random/Precision Errors
 Human Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Fluctuating Experimental Conditions
 Sources of Other Errors
 Illegitimate Errors
14
Common Types of Errors
 For setting up of uncertainty bound/ estimate of error interval of a
measurement, the first step would be to identify its possible
causes/contributors/sources (briefly covered in previous slides).
Here we will discuss categories of these errors/ error contributors.
(i) Bias or Systematic Errors
(ii) Precision or Random Errors
 (i) Bias or Systematic Errors “Errors which occur the same

way each time a measurement is made” e.g a scale consistently
reads 5% above true value ie the measurement is biased +5% to
true value.
 OR “Errors in output readings of an instrument that are consistently
on one side of the true value ie either all errors are +ve or -ve”.e.g
bent needle of dial, zero drift of instrument etc.
15
Common Types of Errors (Cont’d)
 (ii) Precision or Random Errors “Errors which are different for
each successive measurement but have an average value of zero”.
e.g vibrations may cause fluctuations in readings about true
value…sometime reading high & sometime low….this will create a
distribution surrounding the true value.
 OR “Errors in output readings which occur at either side of the true

value”. These are caused by random & unpredictable effects. The
+ve & -ve errors occur in approximately equal number for a series
of measurements of same qty.
 OR “Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction)

in the measured data. Random errors can be evaluated through
statistical analysis and can be reduced by averaging over a large
number of observations.

16
 Comments on Bias & Random Errors
 Random errors can be overcome by taking same measurement a
number of times & extracting a value by averaging or other statistical
techniques.
 Bias errors cannot be treated using statistical techniques, because
such errors are fixed & do not show a distribution. However, these
errors are estimated by comparison of more accurate instrument ie
“Calibration”.
 Distinction between Random & Bias error sources is thus essential so
that an appropriate treatment can be applied. Sometime, it is difficult

to differentiate…
e.g An operator may make different reading each time but often this kind
of error is Random & can be treated through Statistical Techniques.
On the other hand, if an operator make a parallax induced error (which is
a Bias error) error value will remain constant for each repetition.
 “
17
18
Sources of Bias Errors
 Sources of Systematic/ Bias Error Following are few Bias
error sources:-
 Error Sources within Instrument
due to defective equipment Play in
linkages, backlash in gears
Meshing of instrument, friction
force in a sliding bar type
instrument, fabrication flaws
& maintenance flaws are the
example of error sources within
Instruments.
 Calibration errors
Zero-offset & scale errors

are called calibration error.
19
Sources of Bias Errors
 Error Sources Outside Instruments
(i) Environmental conditions like Temperature & humidity.
e.g temp variation affects friction, spring stiffness, circuit
resistance & thus cause error in measurement.
(ii) AC Power Lines Cause magnetic field & magnetic fields

may affect electrical coils if present in instrument. Electric coils
induce current from these magnetic fields due to which current/
voltage signals get affected.
(iii) Loading Effects once measuring instruments are

introduced to a measurand, they may slightly alter it by virtue of
their physical interaction/ phenomenon …. its called loading effect.
e.g coupling the RPM gauge to a motor will reduce its
speed, attaching ‘V’ meter will reduce source voltage by consuming
some current in ‘V’ meter circuit
20
Sources of Random Errors
 Human errors when operator is inconsistent in making the readings.
 Errors due to outside disturbances to instrument like temp variation

cause error in instrument itself & result in random error.
Temp---Bias--------- once temp variation occurred between time
when instrument was calibrated & measurement taken.
Temp---Random--- when test duration is too long & temp keeps
varying during the test.
 Error due to mechanical vibrations/ fluctuating experimental

conditions these cause random errors.
Also variation in measurand quantity due to intermittent leakage in
input can cause random errors.
 Errors derived from insufficient measuring sensitivity Low
sensitivity instrument will produce lower deflection in readout scale
& thus can lead to random errors.
21
Sources of Other Errors
 Illegitimate errors e.g blunders/ mistakes during measurement,

computational errors after measurement.
 Errors that are sometime Bias & sometime Random e.g errors due to
temp variation, operator’s skill level etc may be bias or random type of
errors.
22
Remedies For Sources of Errors
 Remedies for Bias Errors

 Static Calibration
 Dynamic Calibration
 Remedies for Random Errors

 Statistical Techniques
23
 Remedies for Bias Errors Such errors are consistent in sign &
magnitude and because of this consistency they may be corrected
by calibration.
 For time-varying input measurand, introducing a correction is more

complicated e.g distortion caused by poor frequency response cannot
be corrected by usual “static calibration” (calibration of an instrument
when input is constant in time).
 For dynamic input we correct these errors by “dynamic calibration”.

Here we measure Op/Ip at range of frequencies of interest ie G(f) &
calibrate them.
24
 Remedies for Random Errors Such errors are

statistical fluctuations (in either direction) & are caused by random
& unpredictable effects.
 The +ve & -ve errors occur in approximately equal number for a
series of measurements of same qty.
 As such, no remedy exists to treat these errors, however, their

behavior can be predicted through Statistical Techniques where we
can estimate an error bout with certain level of confidence.
 Yet, ensuring OEM/ designer recommended experiment/measurement
conditions (like environmental temperature, operators’ skill etc) can
lead to minimize Random effects.
 Statistical techniques are always employed after ensuring
recommended conditions.
25
Distinction between Error Sources
 By now, we have come to know that treatment for both the types of
errors is different ie Calibration for Bias errors & Statistical
techniques for Random errors.
 Distinction between Random & Bias error sources is thus essential

so that an appropriate treatment can be applied.
26
Terms Used in Rating Instrument Performance
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Resolution
 Sensitivity
27
 Following terms are often employed to describe quality of an

Instrument’s readings. They are related to expected errors of the
instruments:-
 Accuracy The difference between Xm &Xt is called as error ….
accuracy. “OEM will specify maximum error as Accuracy”.
OEM often neglect mentioning confidence level i-e the odds that an
error can exceed the specified maximum error.
 Precision The difference between readings during repeated
measurements of same quantity.
Typically Precision of Instrument is determined by Statistical
Analysis of the measurements.
 Resolution The smallest increment of change in input value that can
be determined from instrument output (readout scale).

The resolution is often on same order as precision; sometime it is
smaller.
28
 Sensitivity The change in instrument output per unit change in

measurand input is called instrument sensitivity.
Typically, an instrument with higher sensitivity will also have finer
resolution, better precision & higher accuracy.
- Detection of smaller inputs

Relates with precision &
Resolution.
- High sensitivity…
Output with larger values/
scale deflection relates with
Accuracy.
29
Summary
 Errors in Measurement
 Common Types of Errors
 Bias or Systematic Errors
 Random or Precision Errors
 Sources of Errors
 Sources of Errors “Classifications”
 Sources of Bias Errors
 Sources of Random Errors
 Source of Other Errors
 Terms Used in Rating Instrument Performance
 Quantification of Measurement Quality
30
Sources of Errors
 Without understanding sources of error, we can neither design a
good instrument nor can get less error measurement…… & error
may become so great that measurement become useless/
dangerous.
 Definition “Source of error is one which is of same nature of
signal e.g if signal is displacement, so error source will always be
of same nature….e.g ‘play’ ie empty gap…empty distance where
there is no material…play in joint or linkage etc”.
 Signal: Displacement (“friction cannot be error source for displacement”)
Error Sources: Play------------- play in joints, linkages
Backlash------- play in gears meshing
Deformation--- if a link is deformed, it will carry
error in displacement signal
 Signal: Force (“play cannot be error source for force”)
Error Sources: Friction------- friction in piston-cylinder gage
31 Any resistance/ hindrance

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Computer Aided Instrumentation

To develop understanding of:-

 What are Sensors?

 Concept of Primary & Secondary Sensors

 Classification of 1st Stage Devices (Sensors)

 Electical Primary Sensors

 Resistance Variable length, Resistivity, Dimension

 Inductance Self Inductance, Mutual Inductance, Reluctance

 Capacitance Changing air gap, dielectric constant, plate.

 Hall Effect, Piezoelectric, Optical Sensor, Ultrasonic

 Few Problems on Sensors’ Technologies

1. Contacting Limiting switch Disp > R zero or

2. Variable Length Sliding contact devices & -//-

3. Variable Area conductor Strain gages strain > change in R

4. Variable Resistivity of Thermistor (a semi temp > change in R

5. Variable dimension of Strain gages strain > change in R

 Variable Resistance sensors are based on changes in factors as

 Contacting These are limiting switches which make (R

 Variable Length of Conductor Measurand displacement alters

 Variable Resistivity of Conductor Here sensor is a semi

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Make use of Make use of Make use of

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Turbine type Flow Meter

Two Coil Mutual Inductance

Three Coils Mutual Inductance

Applications of Variable Reluctance Sensors

Reluctance Variation Source Application

Turbine Flow meter with Microphone

 Current through the coil produces an electromagnetic field.

 We can say that an Inductor is a storage device

 Self Inductance When there is current through inductor, an

 Coil No of turns Inductance ∝ Square of number of turns.

Make use of Make use of Make use of

Detector-Transducer Example Operation

1. Changing plate Displacement sensors, displacement > change in C

3. Changing Level, humidity -//-

 Capacitance The ability of a system to store electric charge in it.

D. Hall effect Position sensors displacement > voltage

E. Piezoelectric Accelerometers, displacement > voltage & vice

 It is a property exhibited in a conductor (semi conductor) influenced

 Any disturbance in the magnetic field will be transduced into

 Once any ferromagnetic or magnetic material comes in proximity of

 This phenomenon is used as “Position Sensor” in automotive vehicles,

 This phenomenon is used for measuring current flowing through a

D. Hall effect Position sensors displacement > voltage

E. Piezoelectric Accelerometers, displacement > voltage & vice

 Piezoelectric materials produce an output voltage when a force is

 They can also operate in reverse mode where an applied voltage

 They are frequently used as ultrasonic transmitters & receivers by

 They are also used as secondary transducers in many applications

D. Hall effect Position sensors displacement > voltage

E. Piezoelectric Accelerometers, displacement > voltage & vice

 Ultrasonic sensors consist of transmitter & receiver. Common form

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 Time taken by ultrasonic wave in transmission & reception as a

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E. Piezoelectric Accelerometers, displacement > voltage & vice

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