CHAPTER 4

DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

1
LECTURE CONTENTS
4.1 Logic Gates
4.2 Digital Instruments
4.3 Analog to Digital Converter
4.4 Electronic Counter
4.6 Digital Multimeters

2
4.1 Logic Gates

3
AND Gate

• The AND operation is the basic Boolean Operation.

• The truth table in Figure 6.1 shows what happen when two logic inputs A and B combined using
the AND operation to produce output x.
• The table shows that x is a logic 1 only when both A and B are at the logic level 1.
• For any case where one of the inputs is 0, the output is 0.
• The Boolean expression for the AND operation is
X = A.B

4
 AND

A B x=AB
A x=AB 0 0 0
B
0 1 0
AND GATE
1 0 0
1 1 1
(a) (b)
Figure 4.1: AND Gate

5
OR Gate
• The OR operation is also the basic Boolean Operation.
• The truth table in Figure 6.2 shows what happen when two logic inputs A and B are combined
using OR operation to produce the output x.
• The table shows that x is logic 1 for every combination of input levels where one or more input are
1.
• The only case where x is 0 is when both inputs are 0.
• The Boolean expression for the OR operation is
X=A+B

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 OR

A B x=A+B
A x=AB 0 0 0
B
0 1 1
OR GATE
1 0 1
1 1 1
(a) (b)

Figure 4.2: OR Gate

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NOT Gate
• The NOT operation is unlike the OR and AND operations in that it can
be performed on a single input variable.
• For example, if the variable A is subjected to the NOT operation, the
result x can be expressed as

xA

8
 NOT

A x=A
A x=A 0 0
1 0
NOT Gate

(a) (b)

Figure 4.3 : NOT Gate

9
NOR and NAND gates

• Two other types of logic gates, NOR gates and NAND gates are used
extensively in digital circuitry.
• These gates actually combine the basic operations AND, OR and NOT,
which make it relatively easy to describe them using the Boolean
algebra operations learned previously.

10
NOR gate
• The symbol for two input NOR gate is shown in Figure 6.4.
• It is the same as the OR gate symbol except that it has a small circle on the output.
• The small circle represents the inversion operation. Thus, the NOR gate operates
like an OR gate followed by an INVERTER, so that the circuits is Figure 6.4 are
equivalent, and the output expression for the NOR gate is

x  A B

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 OR NOR

A B A+B A+B
A x=A+B 0 0 1
B 0
0 1 1 0
OR GATE
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
A x=A+B
B
(b)
(a)

Figure 4.4: NOR Gate

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NAND Gate
• The symbol for a two input NAND gate is shown in Figure 6.5.
• It is the same as the AND gate symbol except for the small circle on its output.
• Once again this small circle denotes the inversion operation. Thus the NAND
operates like an AND gate followed by the inverter, so that the circuits of Figure
6.5 are equivalent, and the output expression for the NAND gate is

x  AB

13
 AND NAND

A B A+B A+B
A x=AB 0 0 1
B 0
0 1 0 1
OR GATE
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
A x=AB
B
(a) (b)

Figure 4.5: NAND Gate

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4.2 Digital Instruments

15
Digital Instruments

• Digital instruments offer several very attractive

advantages over analog instruments including 1)
greater speed, 2) increased accuracy and
resolution, 3) reduction in user errors and 4)
the ability to provide automatic measurement
in system applications.

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Digital instruments versus digital
readout instruments
• A digital readout instrument is one in which the
measuring circuitry is of analog design while
only the indicating device is of digital design - no
more accurate than the same analog instrument
with analog readout.
• A digital instrument is one in which the circuitry
required to obtain a measurement is of digital
design - unambiguous and can be read more
quickly.

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 Digital Digital
Display Display

Analog to
Digital Logic
Digital
Circuitry
Converter

Analog Input Analog to

Signal Analog Signal
Digital
Conditioning Circuitry Conditioning
Converter

Analog Input
Digital Readout Instrument Digital Instrument

Figure 4.6: Block Diagram of Digital Instrument and Digital Readout Instrument

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Comparison of digital and analog meters
• Digital instruments use logic circuits and techniques to
carry out measurements or to process data.
• Digital instruments may be viewed as an arrangement of
logic gates that change states at very high speeds in the
process of making a measurement.
• Because of the rapidly expanding use of digital techniques
in measuring instruments, a comparison of factors affecting
error in measurement when using analog and digital
instruments is made.

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Comparison of digital and analog
meters
1. Readability – digital meter easy to read.
2. Accuracy – digital meter more accurate.
3. Resolution – digital meter provide more
resolution.
4. Sample Speed – more faster to get stable
reading.
5. Digits displayed and overranging – allow
the user to read beyond full scale.

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4.3 Analog to Digital Converter

21
 Analog to Digital Converter
• Digital instruments, particularly digital multimeters are used to
measure analog parameter, therefore it is necessary to convert
the analog signal to an equivalent digital signal.
• The three conversion techniques generally used are 1) single-
slope, 2) dual-slope and 3) voltage-to-frequency conversion.
• Most of the laboratory-quality digital multimeters use dual-
slope conversion

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 Single-slope converter

• Low cost instruments.

• To make a linear conversion of unknown voltage to time.
• Conversion to time is chosen because a digital counting
circuit be used to display the time in digital format.

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VC VC

t t

R R

Constant
Constant
Current C VC
Voltage C VC
Source
Source

(b)
(a)
Figure 4.7: Voltage time relationship for a charging capacitor
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 Single-slope converter
• use an operational amplifier integrator circuit.
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7
C
Vin

R
0
Vin - t
VO
+

(a)
0
t

V0

(b)

Figure 4.8: Op amp Integrator and Associated Waveform: (a) Schematic, (b) Input Squarewave to Output with Linear Voltage Time Relationship
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 Single-slope converter

1
S Driver S Open
Main Gate
Control

1
S Closed
S
Digital Readout
C 1
VX

R 3
Comparator

Vin +
-

Binary Counter
0 2

2
Integrator
0 3
4 5

0 4

Clock
VX
5
0
(a)
(b)

Figure 4.9: Circuit and Timing Diagram for a Single Slope A to D Converter
26
 Single-slope converter
• It can measure voltages of only one polarity.
• Additional circuitry is required for overrange conditions.
• The circuit is susceptible to oscillator frequency shift.
• The circuit is susceptible to drift in the constant current source.
• Accuracy depends on the stability of the capacitor.
• Accuracy depends on the stability of the different voltage that
trips the comparator.
• The converter is very susceptible to noise on the analog voltage.

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 Dual-slope A/D Converter
• Overcome most of the limitations of single-slope converters
in particular, improved long term accuracy.
• Also uses a capacitor charged by a constant current source
to provide a voltage to time conversion.
• This charge/discharge cycle tends to reduce significantly
the long term drift and stability problems associated with
single-slope converter.

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 Dual-slope A/D Converter
Logic Control
CIrcuit
S2

C
Vref
ref

R
B
Vinin -
- -
A + Counter
S1 +
Integrator

Vi

Clock

Figure 4.10: Basic Dual- Slope A/D Converter

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Dual-slope A/D Converter
• When switch S1 at the position A, the integrator
is connected to the input and the voltage of the
output integrator is;
VA  1 /( RC ) Vi dt

• With S1 in position B, the reference voltage

Vref is connected to the input of the
integrator, which cause the integrator
capacitor C to discharge at the constant
rate. During the period of discharge from t2
to t3 the voltage VA at the output of the
comparator is given by;
VA  1 /( RC )  Vref dt 30
 Dual-slope A/D Converter

Integrator Output

t1 t2 t3

Comparator
Output

Figure 4.11: Integrator and Comparator Output Waveform for the Circuit in Figure 4.10
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 Dual-slope A/D Converter
• When the output of the integrator reaches zero at t3, the
comparator changes states setting its output “low” which
disables the counter.
• The count registered by the counter at this time is directly
proportional to the ratio of the input voltage to the reference
voltage.
• This proportional relationship can be developed mathematically;

VA  1 /( RC ) Vi dt
• If the capacitor charges linearly, can be written as,

VA  Vi (T / RC )  Vi (t2  t1 ) /( RC ) 32
 Dual-slope A/D Converter
• If the capacitor discharge at a linear rate then equation (4.2) can be
expressed as;
VA  Vref (T / RC )  Vref (t3  t 2 ) /( RC )

• Since the right sides of the both equation (4.4) and (4.5)
are equal to VA they can be set equal to each other. Thus

Vi (t2  t1 ) /( RC )  Vref (t3  t 2 ) /( RC )

• Hence,

t3  t2  (t 2  t1 )Vi / Vref
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Example 6.1
An integrator contains 100kΩ resistor and a 1μF capacitor. If the
voltage applied to the integrator input is 1V, what voltage will be
present at the output of the integrator after 1 sec?

Solution
Using equation (4.4), compute the integrator output as

VA  Vi (t2  t1 ) /( RC )

VA  1 V  1  0sec / 110  1F  10 V
5

34
Example 6.2
If the reference voltage applied to the integrator at time t2 in Example
1 is 5V in amplitude, what is the time interval form t2 to t3?

Solution
Using equation (6.7), the time interval can be computed as

t3  t 2  (t 2  t1 )Vi / Vref
t3  t 2  1sec 1 V / 5 V  0.2 sec

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 Voltage to Frequency Converters

• A voltage to frequency converters converts an input voltage to a periodic waveform whose

frequency is directly proportional to the input voltage.
• Voltage to frequency converter is very linear, wide range and voltage controller oscillator
(VCO).
• The basic concept of voltage to frequency conversion is demonstrated in Figure 4.12.
• The output signal from the VCO is applied to one input of a two AND gate.
• The second input to the AND gate is identical to the VCO output.
• If there is linear relationship between the VCO input voltage and output frequency, the
AND gate output can be applied to a digital counter to provide an indication of the VCO
input voltage.

36
 Voltage to Frequency Converters

Vi VCO
To digital counter
Gating Pulses

Gate Pulse
Generator

Figure 4.12: Block Diagram of a Basic Voltage to Frequency Converter

37
Example 6.3
The relationship between the input voltage Vi and the output frequency f for the
VCO in figure 7 is given as
Vi = f /50
If 530 pulses are passes by the AND gate during a 0.1 sec gating pulse, what is the
amplitude of Vi?

Solution
The VCO output frequency is
f = pulse/gate duration = 530 pulses/0.1 sec = 5300 Hz
the voltage is,
Vi = f/50 = 106 V

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 Voltage to Frequency Converters

• The basic circuit of Figure 4.12 has limited usefulness primarily because of the
nonlinearly of the VCO.
• The block diagram show in Figure 4.13 is more useful voltage to frequency converter.
• This basic circuit consists of an integrator, a voltage comparator, a pulse generator and
voltage reference source.
• When the unknown voltage is applied to the integrator, its output voltage begins to
increase at a rate proportional to the magnitude of the input voltage.
• When the amplitude of the voltage of the integrator exceeds to the amplitude of the
reference voltage the comparator output change states.

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 Voltage to Frequency Converters

• This voltage change at the output of the comparator causes a pulse out of
the pulse generator and will discharge the integrator capacitor and resets the
comparator, after which a new ramp is initiated.
• A short duration pulse appears at the comparator output which appears at
the frequency that is proportional at the input signal level. The number of
pulses per-unit of time can be counted with a digital counter, thereby
completing the analog to digital conversion.

40
 Voltage to Frequency Converters
C

R
Dc Comparator
Volts -
In - -
+ To Counter
+

R
Reference
Voltage
Pulse Generator

Figure 4.13: Voltage to Frequency Converter that Uses an Integrator

41
 Voltage to Frequency Converters
The primary advantages and limitations of the voltage to frequency converter are as follows;
Advantages,
1) Good 50Hz noise rejection without noise filters, which would reduce sampling
period.
2) Circuit is easily adapted to a digital counter.
3) Circuit requires no special overranging circuit.
Limitations, Accuracy is limited by,
1) stability of the integrating time constant.
2) Stability and accuracy of the comparator switching point.
3) Stability and accuracy of the reference voltage source.

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4.4 Electronic Counter

43
 Electronic Counter
• Most of the commercial electronic counters are capable of
performing the following measurement, totalize, frequency,
period, ratio, time interval and averaging. Several mode of
electronic counters,
a) Totalizing mode
b) Frequency mode
c) Period Mode
d) Ratio Mode
e) Time interval mode
f) Averaging Mode

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 a) Totalizing mode

• In the totalizing mode, input pulses are totalized (counted) by the decade
counting units as long as switch S1 is closed (see Figure 4.14).
• If the pulse count exceeds the capability of the decade counters, the
overflow indicator is activated and the counter starts counting again from
zero.
• If the overflow indicator is “on” the indicated count is ignored since it is
incorrect.

45
 a) Totalizing mode

Input Signal
Gate Pulse VCO
Generator

AND Gate
S1

Figure 4.14: Block Diagram of the Totaling Mode of an Electronic Counter

46
 b) Frequency mode

• If the time interval in which pulses are being totalized is accurately controlled,
the counter is operating in the frequency mode.
• Accurate control of time interval is achieved by applying a rectangular pulse of
known duration to the AND gate in Figure 4.14 in place of the dc voltage source.
• This technique is referred to as “gating the counter”.
• A block diagram of the electronic counter operating in the frequency mode is
shown in Figure 4.15. commercial electronic counters use a more stable clock
than an astable multivibrator.

47
 b) Frequency mode

Gate Decade Counter Digital Readout

Pulse
1μs AND Gate

10μs 1s

100ms
100μs
10ms
1ms

Clock
(Astable MV) 1/10 1/10 1/10 1/10 1/10 1/10
f= 1MHz

Decade Dividers

Figure 4.15: Block Diagram of the Frequency Mode of an Electronic Counter

48
 c) Period Mode

• Measurement of period can easily be accomplished by using the input

signal as a gating pulse and count the clock pulse as shown in Figure
4.16.
• The period of the input signal is determined from the number of pulses of
known frequency or known time duration, which are stored in the counter
during one cycle of the input signal.

49
 c) Period Mode

T
Flip Flop T
Decade Counter Digital Readout

AND Gate

Clock
f= 1 MHz

Figure 4.16: Block Diagram of the Period Mode of an Electronic Counter

50
 d) Ratio Mode

• The ratio mode of operation simply displays the numerical value of the ratio of
the frequency of two signals.
• The lower frequency signal is used in place of the click to provide a gate pulse.
• The number of cycles of the higher frequency signal, which are stored in the
decade counter during the presence of the externally generated gate pulse, is
read directly as the ratio of the frequencies.
• A basic circuit for the ratio mode of operation is shown in Figure 4.17.

51
 d) Ratio Mode

Input A
Decade Counter Digital Readout
EXT
Input B AND Gate

INT

Clock

Figure 4.17: Block Diagram of the Ratio Mode of an Electronic Counter

52
 e) Time interval mode

• The time interval mode operation provides a measurement of elapsed

time between two events.
• The measurement can be accomplished using circuit of Figure 4.18. as
can been seen in the circuit, the gate is controlled by two independent
inputs which are the START input which open the gate and STOP input
which close the gate.
• During the time interval between the START signal and STOP signal,
clock pulses accumulate in the register thus providing an indication of the
time interval between the start and completion of an event.

53
 e) Time interval mode

START
Decade Counter Digital Readout
STOP

AND Gate

Decade Dividers

Clock

Figure 4.18: Block Diagram of the Time Interval Mode of an Electronic Counter
54
 f) Averaging Mode

• It is sometimes desirable when making measurements of frequency,

period, or time interval to obtain average measurements over several
cycles, periods or time intervals to increase accuracy and resolution. This
is often referred to a simple period averaging.

55
 f) Averaging Mode

• It is sometimes desirable when making measurements of frequency, period,

or time interval to obtain average measurements over several cycles,
periods or time intervals to increase accuracy and resolution. This is often
referred to a simple period averaging.

56
 Averaging
• The primary source of measurement error for an electronic counter are
generally categorize as

± count error
Time base error
Trigger error
Systematic error

57
4.7 Digital Multimeters

58
 Digital Multimeters

• A basic digital multimeter (DMM) is made up of several types of

analog to digital converters, including the three types described
and circuitry for counting. Figure 4.19 shows a block diagram of
a basic digital multimeter.

59
 DCV

ACV
S1B
DCMA
OHMS

A/D Converter
Attenuator DCV
ACV

S1C
OHMS DCMA

Compensated Decade Counter

Rectifier
Attenuator

DCV

S1A
ACV
Current to Digital Readout
Test OHMS DCMA
Probes Voltage
Converter

Constant Current
Source

Figure 4.19: Block Diagram of a Basic Digital Multimeter

60