ME2134E: Fluid Mechanics I

Part 2

C. Shu
E-mail: mpeshuc@nus.edu.sg
Office: E2-03-14
Tel. 6516 6476
1
 Table of Contents
Chapter 5 Review of Some Basic Concepts and
Fluids in Rigid-body Motion

5.1 Some Basic Knowledge in Mathematics

5.2 Some Basic Knowledge in Fluid Mechanics
5.3 Fluids in Rigid-body Motion

2
Chapter 6 Momentum Equation for A Fluid
System and Its Applications

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Newton’s Laws
6.3 Analyzing Fluid Systems by Method of
Control Volume
6.4 Momentum Equation
6.5 Applications of the Momentum Equation
6.6 Principle of Moment of Momentum or
Angular Momentum

3
 Chapter 7 Dimensional Analysis and
Physical Similarity

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Dimensions and Units
7.3 Dimensional Homogeneity
7.4 Dimensional Analysis
7.5 Common Dimensionless Parameters in Fluid
Mechanics
7.6 Physical Similarity
7.7 Distorted Models

4
 Chapter 8 Analysis of Pipe Flow

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flows
8.3 Entrance Region
8.4 Energy Loss and Friction in A Circular Pipe
8.5 Laminar Flow in a Circular Pipe
8.6 Turbulent Flow Through A Smooth Pipe
8.7 Turbulent Flow Through A Rough Pipe
8.8 Minor Losses in Pipes
8.9 Multiple Pipe System
5
 Tutorial Schedule
• There are two tutorials. Tutorial
classes will be conducted on November
8, 2018 from 6pm to 9:30pm.
• Venue for Group 1: Seminar Room 8
(ERC-SR8).
• Venue for Group 2: Seminar Room 10
(ERC-SR10).

6
Reference Books:
• Fluid Mechanics: Fundamental and Applications, 3rd Edition
by Y.A. Cengel and J.M. Cimbala, McGraw-Hill, 2014.

• Fluid Mechanics, 8th Edition by F.M. White, McGraw-Hill,

2016.

• Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 7th Edition by B.R.

Munson, D.F. Young, T.H. Okiishi, W.W. Huebsch and A.P.
Rothmayers, John Wiley & Sons, 2013.

• Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 8th edition by R.W. Fox,

A.T. McDonald and P.J. Pritchard, John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

There are many other books available for

Fluid Mechanics
7
How to get the most from lectures

• Pre-class reading and post-class review;

• More on understanding and thinking process;
• Able to know how to apply principles to solve
problems;
• Reading textbooks to enhance your
understanding;
• Try all tutorial problems before attending
tutorial class;
• Welcome to give feedback and suggestions

8
 Grading

Continual Assessment: 20%

2 Lab Reports: 20%

Final Examination: 80%

4 compulsory questions

9
 CHAPTER 5: REVIEW OF SOME BASIC
CONCEPTS AND FLUIDS IN RIGID-BODY
MOTION
The study of fluid mechanics requires some basic knowledge
in mathematics and physics.

5.1 Some Basic Knowledge in Mathematics

• Continuous (smooth) function

The solution of governing equations in fluid mechanics is

usually smooth/continuous. Thus, it can be differentiated
in time and space to get derivatives.

10
• Derivatives
The flow variables can be differentiated with respect to
time and space coordinate to get derivatives. Derivatives
will be used in Taylor series approximation and governing
equations.
• Scalar and Vector
Scalar only has magnitude. In fluid mechanics, density,
pressure, temperature, energy are scalars.
Vector has magnitude as well as direction. In fluid
mechanics, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force are
vectors. For the vector, we have to consider its
components in the x-, y- and z-directions.

11
• Integrals
Integrals of continuous function over a flow domain.
Integrals are applied in the integral forms of physical
conservation laws. Physical meaning:
area under the curve

1D  f ( x)dx


f(x,y) is same within dS

f(x, y)
Physical
2D
 f ( x, y )dS
S
meaning: volume
under the surface

3D  f ( x, y, z )dV
V
f(x,y, z) is same within dV 12
• Taylor series approximation
For a smooth function, Taylor series expansion is a
powerful tool to approximate functional value at a point by
using values of the function and its derivatives at another
point. Consider a 1D case. Suppose that the functional
value and its derivatives at point x0 are known. Then the
functional value at point x0 + ∆x is
x0 x0 + ∆x
 df  1 d2 f 
f ( x0  x)  f ( x0 )    x   2   x   ...
2

 dx 0 2  dx 0

 df 
f ( x0  x )  f ( x0 )    x (5.1)
 dx 0

The above formulation will be used in our analysis 13

Similarly, for the 2D case, if we know the functional value
and its derivatives at point (x0, y0 ) , then the functional
value at point (x0 + ∆x, y0 + ∆y) is

f ( x0  x, y0  y )  f ( x0 , y0 ) (5.2)
 f   f 
   x    y
 x 0  y 0 Can be used to
derive material
And for the 3D case, we have acceleration

f ( x0  x, y0  y , z0  z )  f ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
 f   f   f  (5.3)
   x     y    z
 x 0  y 0  z 0

14
• Differential Chain Rule
Consider a two-dimensional case. Equation (5.2) (Taylor
series approximation) at a position (x, y) gives
f  f ( x  x , y   y )  f ( x , y )
(5.4)
f f
  x  y
x y
When ∆x and ∆y are very small, they can be denoted by dx
and dy, and ∆f is represented by df. Then equation (5.4) is
written as
f f (5.5)
df  dx  dy
x y

f f f
Extension to 3D: df  dx  dy  dz (5.6)
x y z
15
• Linear Interpolation
y2
In a curve or a table, if we know
the functional values y1 at T1 and y2 y
at T2, and we want to find the y1
functional value y at T, the
following linear interpolation form T1 T T2
can be used.
y y (5.7)
y  y1  2 1 (T  T1 )
T2  T1

Some f2 T2 (=0.004)
Applications
f1
T1 (=0.002)

T1 y1
=0.003
T2 y2
f =?
T=210, y=?
Re 16
5.2 Some Basic Knowledge in Fluid Mechanics
5.2.1 Physical Conservation Laws

 Mass Conservation → Continuity Equation

 Momentum Conservation → Momentum Equation
 Energy Conservation → Energy Equation
Applications in solid mechanics: Single object; System

Free body Diagram System (collision of 2 balls)17

The mass conservation (continuity equation) and energy
conservation (Bernoulli equation) in fluid mechanics have been
discussed in the first part of this module. In the second part,
momentum equation in fluid mechanics will be discussed.
Momentum conservation is based on Newton’s 2nd law.

F  ma (5.8)

Net force Mass Acceleration

In solid mechanics, Newton’s second law is usually applied to

an object. In fluid mechanics, Newton’s second law is applied
to the control volume. It will be discussed later.

18
5.2.2 Some Concepts Learnt in the 1st Part of ME2134

 Continuum Assumption
Fluid particle exists anywhere in the flow domain.
Continuous distribution of fluid property (density,
velocity, pressure, etc) in the flow domain.
 Control Volume
Control volume can be a small element of fluid or a fluid
system (open or closed).
In fluid mechanics, the physical conservation laws (mass,
momentum and energy) are applied to the control volume.
The boundary of control volume is called control surface.

19
 Pa
 Static Pressure
Stationary Tank z

p= pa + gz

 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions

Lagrangian description: It follows the path of individual

fluid particle. This method requires us to track the position
and velocity of each individual fluid particle.
Eulerian description: we do not care what happens to
individual fluid particles. Instead, we are concerned with
the pressure, velocity, acceleration, etc., of whichever
fluid particle happens to be at the location of interest and
at the time of interest. 20
 Continuity Equation and Bernoulli Equation

Continuity equation for the control volume

dmCV
 m in   m out 
in out dt

Bernoulli equation along a streamline

1
Energy form: p  V 2  gz  constant (along a streamline)
2
Flow energy Kinetic energy Potential energy
2
Head form: p V
  z  constant (along a streamline)
g 2 g
Elevation head
Pressure head Velocity head
21
5.2.3 Acceleration of A Fluid Particle in Eulerian Description

Consider a fluid particle. z 

At time t, it is located at A V ( x  x , y  y , z  z , t  t )
(x, y, z), and its velocity is A’
   
V ( x, y , z , t )  u i  vj  wk x
where u, v, w are velocity  A
V ( x, y , z , t )
components in the x-, y- y
and z-directions.
At time t+∆t, the fluid particle moves to a new position A’
(x+∆x, y+∆y, z+∆z), where the velocity is

V ( x  x , y  y , z   z , t  t )

and x  ut ; y  vt ; z  wt (5.9)

22
Using Taylor series approximation, we have
 
V ( x  x , y   y , z   z , t   t )  V ( x , y , z , t )
   
V V V V
 t  x  y  z
t x y z
Substituting Eq. (5.9) into above equation gives
  
V  V ( x  x, y  y, z  z , t  t )  V ( x, y, z , t )
   
 V V V V 
 u v w  t
 t x y z  It is only applied in
Eulerian description
So, acceleration of the fluid particle is
    
 V V V V V (5.10)
a  u v w
t t x y z

23
Material Acceleration
 Example 5.1
The velocity field of a two-dimensional flow is given by
  
V  u i  vj
where u  10tx 2  yt , v  2t y  x t
2 2

Compute its material acceleration.

Solution:
u u u
ax  u v (x-component of material acceleration)
t x y
v v v (y-component of material acceleration)
ay  u v
t x y
We need to u u u
 10 x  y ,
2
 20tx, t
compute t x y
derivatives v v v
of u, v first  4ty  x 2
,  2 xt ,  2t 2
t x y 24
Substituting derivatives of u, v into the expressions of ax
and ay gives
u u u
ax  u v
t x y
 10 x 2  y  20tx (10tx 2  yt )  t (2t 2 y  x 2t )

v v v
ay  u v
t x y
 4ty  x 2  2 xt (10tx 2  yt )  2t 2 (2t 2 y  x 2t )

25
5.2.4 Momentum Equation for A Control Volume

Forces on control
surface
Forces on control
surface

Body force

Consider the above control volume. Newton’s second law gives

 
F  ma (5.11)
Net force on control Material acceleration
surfaces + body force Mass of control
26
volume
Forces on control surfaces:
 They include pressure force and viscous force (shear
stress).
 If control surface is a solid boundary, they represent
effect of solid boundary on the control volume
(reaction force from solid boundary).
 If control surface is an internal surface, they represent
effect of surrounding fluids on the control volume.

Mass of control volume:

m   dx  dy  dz

Material acceleration:
It is given by equation (5.10).

27
Navier-Stokes Equations:
 By using constitution relationship to link shear stress
and strain rate, Navier-Stokes equations can be derived.
 They are highly nonlinear partial differential equations.
 Derivation of Navier-Strokes equation is beyond the
scope of this module.
Rigid-Body Motion:
 There is no relative motion between fluid particles.
Thus, there is no friction between fluid particles.
 There is no viscous force/shear stress.
 The acceleration is given from the motion of container.
 It will be discussed in this chapter.

28
5.3 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion

Consider pressure at a point in the tank

Pa

Stationary Tank z

p
From 1st part of ME2134
p= pa + gz

Pa

p= ?
z
Moving Tank p V=Constant

29
A container moving with a Constant Velocity has zero
acceleration. Thus, the net force acting on the fluid element
is zero.

Pa

z V=Constant

p= pa + gz

When the entire continuum is in uniform Rectilinear

motion, the governing principle of the statics of a fluid in
the gravity field remains the same.

30
Consider a tank moving with a constant acceleration

Pa

Accelerating z a=Constant
Tank acceleration
p

Questions:

p= ?
What does the fluid/air interface look like ?

The answers to these questions will be discussed in

this section
31
Some features of fluids in rigid-body motion:
 All fluid particles have no relative motion and the entire
fluid moves like a rigid body.
 No shear stress exists within the fluid body. Thus, only
pressure and body forces are considered.
 Fluid acceleration is given from the motion of container.
 Momentum equation is applied to a small control volume
(fluid element).
 Two cases will be considered: uniform rectilinear
acceleration and rotation in cylindrical container.

32
 5.3.1 Uniform Rectilinear Acceleration

Consider an elemental fluid particle of dimension

dx×dz×1 under constant acceleration in a tank

Control Volume

z az acceleration
1.0 a

dz x ax
dz
dx
dx
Small elemental
volume

33
Taylor series p dz
p
approximation has z 2 Fluid element has
a unit depth
been used
B C
az
p dx p dx
p dz p ax p
x 2 x 2
wt
dx
A D
z Taylor series
approximation has
x p dz
p been used
z 2

Pressure on the control surface of fluid element

(control volume)
34
 Consider forces along x-
direction
Along AB:
Area: dz  1
p dx
Pressure: p 
Fluid element x 2
has unit depth
Force:  p 
p dx 
  dz  1
Along CD:  x 2 
Area: dz  1 Force direction: Positive x
p dx
Pressure: p
x 2
 p dx 
Force: p    dz  1
 x 2 
Force direction: Negative x 35
Application of Newton’s Second Law along x-direction gives

 p dx   p dx 
 p  dz   p   dz    dx  dz  1 ax (5.12)
 x 2   x 2 

Since fluids are in rigid body motion, there is no shear stress.

Thus, only the pressure force is considered in the above
equation.

Simplifying the above equation gives

p
 ax
x (5.13)

36
 Consider forces along z-
direction

Along AD:
Area: dx  1
p dz
Pressure: p 
Fluid element z 2
has unit depth

Force:  p 
 p dz 
  dx  1
Along BC:  z 2 
Area: dx  1 Force direction: Positive z
p dz
Pressure: p
z 2
 p dz 
Force: p    dx  1
 z 2 
Force direction: Negative z 37
Application of Newton’s Second Law along z-direction gives

 p dz   p dz 
 p  dx   p   dx
 z 2   z 2  (5.14)
g  dx  dz  1    dx  dz  1 az

In the above equation, no shear stress is considered as fluids

encounter rigid body motion. The body force (gravity force
in negative z-direction) has been considered.
Simplifying the above equation gives
p p
    az  g   ax
(5.15)
z x

We will use differential chain rule to solve Eqs. (5.13)

and (5.15) 38
Using differential chain rule (or Taylor series
approximation), we have
p p
dp  dx  dz (5.16)
x z
Substituting Eqs. (5.13) and (5.15) into Eq. (5.16), we get

dp  (a x )dx  (a z  g )dz

Integrating the above equation from origin (x=0, z=0, p=po.)
to local position (x, z) gives
po z
0
p  p0  a x x    a z  g  z x

 p   a x x    a z  g  z   po (5.17)
39
To find the slope of the free surface, we substitute p=po into
equation (5.17) which leads to
p   a x x    a z  g  z   po
dz ax
tan    (5.18)
dx az  g
It can be shown that the lines of constant pressure, also
called Isobars, are parallel to the free surface.

Po
IS
OB a Po a
AR
S
 IS
OB 
AR
S

A Large Open Cylinder A Small Closed Cylinder

40
For a simple case of acceleration along the x-axis only,
substitute ax=a, az=0 into equation (5.17)

p   a x x    a z  g  z   po (5.17)

ax = a

we obtain
p   ax  gz   po (5.19a)

and the inclination of the free surface to the direction of

the acceleration is given by
a
tan    (5.19b)
g
41
 Applications: This type of
analysis is important in the
Tank truck design of the tank-truck
Acknowledgement: Wikimedia where brakes may be applied
abruptly or a tank car for a
railway. It is also important
in the design of a fuel system
of an airplane

Tank car of railway 42

Acknowledgement: China Railway
5.3.2 Rotation in Cylindrical Container

Equilibrium of Fluid in Rotation

43
 T=0 T>T1

When a body of fluid rotates uniformly without relative motion

between different elements of the fluid in a container, each
particle moves in a circle. Under this condition, the fluid is said
to undergo a Solid-body Rotation. Once steady conditions are
established, there is no relative motion between fluid particles
and thus no shear forces exist, even in a real fluid.
44
 (r+dr)d
rd
z
Consider a small  Small
element of fluid dz elemental
volume
in container d
r dr

p dz
p .
z 2
Side-view zo r dz
dr
z z p dr p p dr
r dz p  . p .
r 2 dr/2 r 2
o Wt

p dz
u p .
z 2
r
Top-view p

r dr p dr
p .
d
p r 2
p dr
p . p
r 2
45
The velocity of a typical rd
(r+dr)d
element of dimension r, z  r
r, dz at a radial distance r Small
elemental
r
dz
from the axis of rotation is volume
d dr
u=u=r. The acceleration r
of the same element is given p
D
by r2 in a radially inward
A d p dr
direction. p .
d r r 2
Forces along r-direction: p dr
p .
AB r 2 B
CD
p C
 p dr   p dr 
 p  rd dz   p    r  dr )(d   dz
 r 2   r 2  (5.20)
 d   d 
 pdr  dz  sin    pdr  dz  sin  
 2   2 
46
AD BC
 Note that
 d  d
sin   
 2  2
So, equation (5.20) can be simplified to

 p dr  p dr p dr  
 pr  r 2 r   pr  pdr  r 2 r  r 2 dr   pdr  dz  d 
   

 p p dr 
   r  dr  dr  dz  d 
 r r 2 

p dr is very small. It can be ignored.

  r  dr  dz  d 
r

Total force along r-direction

47
 Mass of element: rd×dr×dz

Acceleration of element: -r2

Newton’s second law gives

p
 r  dr  dz  d    rd  dz  dr   (2 r )
r

Simplifying the above equation leads to

p
 2 r (5.21)
r

48
Similarly, along z-direction, application of Newton’s
second law to the fluid element (control volume) gives
p
  g (5.22)
z
Note that in equation(5.22), the body force (gravity force)
has been considered.

Using differential chain rule, we have

p p
dp  dr  dz (5.23)
r z

Substituting Eqs. (5.21) and (5.22) into Eq. (5.23), we get

dp  2 rdr  gdz (5.24)

49
 

As shown in the figure,

integrating equation (5.24) from po
reference position (r=0, z=z0,
p=po.) to local position (r, z) zo
gives z
r
o
1 2 2
p  p0   r  g ( z  z0 )
2

1 2 2
 p  p0  g ( z  z0 )   r (5.25)
2

50
 To find the equation of the free surface, we let p=po.
Therefore, equation (5.25) becomes
1 2 2
1 2 2 p  g  z  zo    r  po
0  g  z  zo    r 2
2
1 2 2
z  r  zo (5.26)
2g
which is a Paraboloid of Revolution (see figure below)

ISOBARS Original fluid level

before rotation

Zmax
Z1
Zo (i.e. Zmin)

R
Isobars in Rotating Cylinder with Liquid 51
The slope of the liquid level at any radius r is given by

dz 2r 2 r 2
   tan 
dr 2g g

z

r
1 2 2
 z  r  zo (5.26)
2g

r
R
52
Application: A centrifugal pump and a centrifuge make use
of this principle. Here, an enclosed mass of water is whirled
rapidly to create the pressure difference between the inlet and
outlet.

Acknowledgement: Encyclopedia Acknowledgement: ITT Corporation

Britannica

Centrifugal pump
53
 

Rotation
stops 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Initial Increasing Rotational Speed (Open Container)

State
Tall Cylinder: No spillage of fluid

54
 

Rotation
stops 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Increasing Rotational Speed (Open Container)

Initial
State Short cylinder: Spillage of fluid

55
 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Initial Increasing Rotational Speed (Closed Container)

State Short cylinder: Spillage of fluid

56
 Example 5.2

(a) A tank weighing 80 N and containing 0.35 m3 of water is

acted upon by a force F of 100 N. What is  when the free
surface of the water assumes a fixed orientation?

F=100N

57
Solution:
(a) From Newton’s Second Law, the acceleration of the tank
is given by
F 100
ax    0.279m/s 2
M 80  1000  (0.35)
g
From equation (5.18), we have
dz ax
tan θ  
dx az  g
0.279
  0.0284
0  9.8
Therefore
θ  1.63o
58
(b) A tank of water is rotating at an angular speed of  radian/sec.
At what speed must the cylinder be rotating before the water
spills over the top?

300mm
200mm
r
500mm
59
From equation (5.26), the equation of the free surface is
1 2 2
z ω r  zo
2g

Boundary Condition: r=0.25 m, z=0.3 m

1 2 (E5.1)
0.3  ω (0.25) 2  z o
2g
Conservation of mass: volume of water does not change.

z z Paraboloid
=0 

300mm 300mm
Vol A 200mm = Vol B
r zo
500mm r
500mm
(A) (B) 60
 Volume A=Volume B

Volume A  π(0.25) 2 (0.2)  0.0393m 3

Volume B  π(0.25) 2 (0.3)  volume of paraboloid

1
 π(0.25) (0.3)  (Area of base)  height
2

2
1
 
 π(0.25) 2 (0.3)  π  0.25   0.3  z o 
2
2

61
Therefore
1
 
0.0393  π(.25) (0.3)  π  0.25   0.3  z o 
2

2
2

0.0393  0.0589  0.0295  0.0982zo

zo  0.0098 / 0.0982  0.1

Substituting it into equation (E5.1), we get

1 2
0.3  ω (0.25) 2  0.1
2g

ω  7.92 rad / sec

62