Full Report for Experiment Nr.

2:
REACTIVE COMPONENTS,
RESONANCE AND FILTERS

Summary
Filters are very important circuits used in signal processing. This experiment shows
what properties on the signal has L-R low pass filter and the analyzed behavior on
signals with different frequencies. The prediction was that it should not change low
frequency signals and block those with high frequency. On the contrary, the C-R
circuit should block all low frequencies and let the high ones pass. The third circuit
connected with L-R-C components should let to go through some small range of
frequencies.

CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. The C-R Circuit analysis
2.1 Analysed C-R circuit and the transfer functions
2.2 Representation of gathered data
2.3 Cutoff frequency
3. The L-R Circuit analysis
3.1 Analysed L-R circuit and the transfer functions
3.2 Representation of gathered data
3.3 Cutoff frequency
4. The L-R-C Circuit analysis
4.1 Analysed L-R-C circuit and the transfer functions
4.2 Representation of gathered data
4.3 Cutoff frequency
5. Conclusions
6. Theory
7. References

1 INTRODUCTION
This experiment purpose was to analyze the behavior of L-R circuit (low pass filter)
and to find out what effect it has on signals of different frequency. During

experiment the measurements were taken using oscilloscope, input signal were
supplied by waveform generator and all the components that were used in the
circuit were tested with LCR Bridge to find out their real resistance or inductance
values.

2 THE C-R CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

2.1

Figure 1: The C-R circuit

The circuit
14.08 nF
voltage

was set up with 1466 resistor and

capacitor. Input Peak-to-Peak
value was kept around 4 V and
measurements of output voltage
while varying the frequency from
20 kHz. The total impedance of the

were taken
200 Hz to
circuit is:

Z =R +

1
C

R2 + Derived transfer function for the L-R circuit in

V^i
=
^I

1
j
=R
jC
C

the frequency domain:

H=

V0
=
Vi

R
R+

1
jC

R
R

j
C

R
RC
RCj
=
=
RC j RC j RCj+ 1
C

Derived transfer function for the L-R circuit in the Laplace domain:

H=

V0
Vi

RC

1
R+
sC

1
RC+
s

R Cs
R Cs+1

Equation for phase of a transfer function:

1

= tan ( CR)
2

2.2 Representation of gathered data

Graph of the phase shift of a transfer function. The blue line in the graph shows
theoretical curve and the red line depicts measured values:

Figure 2: The C-R circuit phase

of H(f) graph
Graph of the amplitude of a transfer function. The blue line in the graph shows
theoretical curve and the red line depicts measured values:

Figure 3: The L-R circuit module of H(f)

graph
As it can be seen from the graph only low frequency signals are at almost the same
voltage level as the input and the amplitude of transfer function is close to one.

2.3 CUTOFF

FREQUENCY
Cutoff frequency is given by

f c=

1
2 CR

This frequency is shown by a red circle on the graphs.

For our circuit this was:

f c =7,0736 kHz
For our circuit the measured value was:

f c = 8.2523 KHz

3 THEL-R CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

3.1

Figure 4: The L-R circuit graph

The circuit was set up with 98.49 resistance and 0.9481 mH. Input Peak-to-Peak
voltage value was kept around 4 V and measurements of output voltage were taken
while varying the frequency from 50 Hz to 50 kHz. The total impedance of the circuit
is:

Z =R + jL

V^i
= R2 +( L)2 Derived transfer function for the L-R circuit in
^I

frequency domain:

H=

V0
R
=
V i (R+ jL)

Derived transfer function in Laplace domain:

H=

V0
R
=
V i ( R+s L)

Equation for phase of a transfer function:

=tan

L
R

3.2 Representation of gathered data

Graph of the phase shift of a transfer function. The blue line in the graph shows
theoretical curve and the red line depicts measured values:

Figure 5: The L-R circuit phase

of H(f) graph
Graph of the amplitude of a transfer function. The blue line in the graph shows
theoretical curve and the red line depicts measured values:

Figure 6: The L-R circuit module of

H(f) graph
As it can be seen from the graph only low frequency signals are at almost the same
voltage level as the input and the amplitude of transfer function is close to one.

3.3 CUTOFF

FREQUENCY

Inspection of transfer function shows that, when

L R

V^0
1
V^i
And the cutoff frequency is given by

f c=

R
2 L

This frequency is shown by a red circle on the graphs.

For our circuit this was expected to be

f c =16.541 Hz And the measured value was

f c =18.436 Hz

4 THE L-R-C CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

4.1

Figure 7: The L-R-C circuit

The circuit was set up with 54.88 resistance and 0.968 mH and 44.05 nF. Input
Peak-to-Peak voltage value was kept around 4 V and measurements of output
voltage were taken while varying the frequency from 5k Hz to 60 kHz. The total
impedance of the circuit is:

Z =R + jL+

1
Cj

Derived transfer function for the L-R-C circuit in frequency domain:

H=

V0
=
Vi

R
(R+ jL+

1
)
Cj

Derived transfer function for the L-R-C circuit in the Laplace domain:

RC

H= ( R+ s L+ 1 )

Cs

R Cs
2
1
( R C+ sL C+ ) (R Cs+s L C+ 1)
s
=

RCs
(s LC + RC s +1)
2

Equation for phase of a transfer function:

(L
=tan1

1
)
C

4.2 Representation of gathered data

Graph of the phase shift of a transfer function. The blue line in the graph shows
theoretical curve and the red line depicts measured values:

Figure 8: The L-R-C circuit phase of

H(f) graph

Graph of the amplitude of a transfer function. The blue line in the graph shows
theoretical curve and the red line depicts measured values:

Figure 9 : The L-R-C circuit module of

H(f) graph
As it can be seen from the graph only low frequency signals are at almost the same
voltage level as the input and the amplitude of transfer function is close to one.

4.3 CUTOFF

FREQUENCY

And the cutoff frequency is given by

f c=

2 LC

This frequency is shown by a red circle on the graphs.

The expected cut off frequency for our circuit was:

f c = 23.215 kHz
And the measured value was:

f c = 25.012 kHz

5 CONCLUSION
As it can be seen from the graphs the theoretical curve and the one obtained by
measurements are very similar. Low pass filter acts as predicted, it passes through
low frequency signals without significantly changing their amplitude, controversially
high frequency signals are diminished and they cannot pass through this L-R circuit.
All the theory also can be seen to hold when analyzing R-C circuit, only the high
frequency signals can pass and the low frequency signals cannot get through. The LR-C circuit a.k.a. Band pass filter only approximately 20-25 kHz signals.

6 THEORY

To analyze our circuits we used phasors. In physics and engineering, a phasor,

is a complex number representing a sinusoidal function whose amplitude (A),
frequency (), and phase () are time-invariant. It is a special case of a more
general concept called analytic representation. Phasors separate the
dependencies on A, , and into three independent factors. This can be
particularly useful because the frequency factor (which includes the timedependence of the sinusoid) is often common to all the components of a linear
combination of sinusoids. In those situations, phasors allow this common feature
to be factored out, leaving just the A and features. A phasor may also be
called a complex amplitude andin older textsa phasor is also called a sinor
or even complexor.

With phasors, the techniques for solving DC circuits can be applied to solve AC
circuits. A list of the basic laws is given below. Ohm's law for resistors: a
resistor has no time delays and therefore doesn't change the phase of a signal
therefore V=IR remains valid. Ohm's law for resistors, inductors, and
capacitors: V = IZ where Z is the complex impedance.

REFERENCES
This report used a lot of information from Electrical and electronic Engineering
Linear Circuits laboratory handbook