Prof. Stephen A.

Nelson

Geology 211

Tulane University

Mineralogy

Properties of Light: Reflection, Refraction,

Dispersion, and Refractive Indices
This document last updated on 30-Oct-2002

The optical properties of crystals are, next to x-ray diffraction and direct chemical analyses, the
most reliable properties available to distinguish and identify minerals. The optical properties
depend on the manner that visible light is transmitted through the crystal, and thus are
dependent on crystal structure, crystal symmetry, and chemical composition of the mineral.
In order to understand the optical properties of crystals we must first understand something
about light and how it interacts with matter.
Light
Light is electromagnetic radiation that has properties of waves. The electromagnetic spectrum
can be divided into several bands based on the wavelength of the light waves. As we have
discussed before, visible light represents a narrow group of wavelengths between about 380 nm
(1 nm = 10-9 m) and 730 nm.

Our eyes interpret these wavelengths as different colors. If only a single wavelength or limited
range of wavelengths are present and enter our eyes, they are interpreted as a certain color. If a
single wavelength is present we say that we have monochromatic light. If all wavelengths of
visible light are present, our eyes interpret this as white light. If no wavelengths in the visible
range are present, we interpret this as dark.
Interaction of Light with Matter
Velocity of Light and Refractive Index
The energy of light is related to its frequency and velocity as follows:
E = h = hC/
where E = energy
h = Planck's constant, 6.62517 x 10-27 erg.sec
= frequency
C = velocity of light = 2.99793 x 1010 cm/sec
= wavelength
The velocity of light, C, in a vacuum is 2.99793 x 1010cm/sec. Light cannot travel faster than
this, but if it travels through a substance, its velocity will decrease. Note that from the equation
given aboveC =
The frequency of vibration, , remains constant when the light passes through a substance.
Thus, if the velocity, C, is reduced on passage through a substance, the wavelength, , must also
decrease.
We here define refractive index, n, of a material or substance as the ratio of the speed of light in
a vacuum, C, to the speed of light in a material through which it passes, Cm.
n = C/Cm
Note that the value of refractive index will always be greater than 1.0, since Cm can never be
greater than C. In general, Cm depends on the density of the material, with Cm decreasing with
increasing density. Thus, higher density materials will have higher refractive indices.
The refractive index of any material depends on the wavelength of light because different
wavelengths are interfered with to different extents by the atoms that make up the material. In
general refractive index varies linearly with wavelength.
Materials can be divided into 2 classes based on how the velocity of light of a particular

wavelength varies in the material.

1. Materials whose refractive index not depend on the direction that the light travels are
called isotropic materials. In these materials the velocity of light does not depend on the
direction that the light travels. Isotropic materials have a single, constant refractive
index for each wavelength. Minerals that crystallize in the isometric system, by virtue
of their symmetry, are isotropic. Similarly, glass, gases, most liquids and amorphous
solids are isotropic.
2. Materials whose refractive index does depend on the direction that the light travels are
called anisotropic materials. These types of materials will have a range of refractive
indices between two extreme values for each wavelength. Anisotropic materials can be
further divided into two subclasses, although the reasoning behind these subdivisions
will become clear in a later lecture.
a. Minerals that crystallize in the tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems (as well
as some plastics) are uniaxial and are characterized by 2 extreme refractive
indices for each wavelength.
b. Minerals that crystallize in the triclinic, monoclinic, and orthorhombic crystal
systems are biaxial and are characterized by 3 refractive indices, one of which is
intermediate between the other two.
Air, since it is a gas, is isotropic. The refractive index of air is usually taken as 1.0, although its
true value is 1.0003.
Reflection and Refraction of Light
When light strikes an interface between two substances with different refractive indices, two
things occur. An incident ray of light striking the interface at an angle, i, measured between a
line perpendicular to the interface and the propagation direction of the incident ray, will be
reflected off the interface at the same angle, i. In other words the angle of reflection is equal to
the angle of incidence.
If the second substance is transparent to light, then a ray of
light will enter the substance with different refractive index,
and will be refracted, or bent, at an angle r, the angle of
refraction. The angle of refraction is dependent on the angle of
incidence and the refractive index of the materials on either
side of the interface according to Snell's Law:

ni sin (i) = nr sin (r)

Note that if the angle of incidence is 0o (i.e. the light enters
perpendicular to the interface) that some of the light will be
reflected directly back, and the refracted ray will continue

along the same path. This can be seen from Snell's law, since
sin(0o) = 0, making sin (r) = 0, and resulting in r = 0.
There is also an angle, ic, called the critical angle for total internal reflection where the
refracted ray travels along the interface between the two substances.
This occurs when the angle r = 90o. In this case, applying
Snell's law:
ni sin (ic) = nr sin (90o) = nr [since sin (90o) =
1]
sin (ic) = nr/ni

Dispersion of Light
The fact that refractive indices differ for each wavelength of light produces an effect called
dispersion. This can be seen by shining a beam of white light into a triangular prism made of
glass. White light entering such a prism will be refracted in the prism by different angles
depending on the wavelength of the light.
The refractive index for longer wavelengths (red)
are lower than those for shorter wavelengths
(violet). This results in the a greater angle of
refraction for the longer wavelengths than for the
shorter wavelengths. (Shown here are the paths
taken for a wavelength of 800 nm, angle r800 and
for a wavelength of 300 nm, angle r300 ). When the
light exits from the other side of the prism, we see
the different wavelengths dispersed to show the
different colors of the spectrum.
Absorption of Light
When light enters a transparent material some of its energy is dissipated as heat energy, and it
thus looses some of its intensity. When this absorption of energy occurs selectively for different
wavelengths of light, they light that gets transmitted through the material will show only those
wavelengths of light that are not absorbed. The transmitted wavelengths will then be seen as
color, called the absorption color of the material.

For example, if we measure the intensity of

light, Io, for each wavelength before it is
transmitted through a material, and measure
the intensity, I, for each wavelength after it
has passed through the material, and plot I/Io
versus wavelength we obtain the absorption
curve for that material as shown here. The
absorption curve (continuous line) for the
material in this example shows that the light
exiting the material will have a yellow-green
color, called the absorption color. An
opaque substance would have an absorption
curve such as that labeled "Dark", i.e. no
wavelengths would be transmitted.
Sunlight, on passing through the atmosphere has absorption curve as shown, thus we see it as
white light, since all wavelengths are present.
Polarization of Light
Normal light vibrates equally in all direction perpendicular to its path of propagation. If the
light is constrained to vibrate in only on plane, however, we say that it is plane polarized light.
The direction that the light vibrates is called the vibration direction, which for now will be
perpendicular to the direction. There are two common ways that light can become polarized.
The first involves reflection off of a non-metallic
surface, such as glass or paint. An unpolarized beam
of light, vibrating in all directions perpendicular to its
path strikes such a surface and is reflected. The
reflected beam will be polarized with vibration
directions parallel to the reflecting surface
(perpendicular to the page as indicated by the open
circles on the ray path). If some of this light also
enters the material and is refracted at an angle 90o to
the path of the reflected ray, it too will become
partially polarized, with vibration directions again
perpendicular to the path of the refracted ray, but in
the plane perpendicular to the direction of vibration
in the reflected ray (the plane of the paper, as shown
in the drawing).
Polarization can also be achieved by passing the light through a substance that absorbs
light vibrating in all directions except one. Anisotropic crystals have this property in
certain directions, called privileged directions, and we will discuss these properties when
we discuss uniaxial and biaxial crystals. Crystals were used to produce polarized light
in microscopes built before about 1950. The device used to make polarized light in
modern microscopes is a Polaroid, a trade name for a plastic film made by the Polaroid
Corporation. A Polaroid consists of long-chain organic molecules that are aligned in one

direction an placed in a plastic sheet. They are placed close enough to form a closely
spaced linear grid, that allows the passage of light vibrating only in the same direction as
the grid. Light vibrating in all other directions is absorbed. Such a device is also called
a polarizer.

If a beam on non-polarized light encounters a polarizer, only light vibrating parallel to

the polarizing direction of the polarizer will be allowed to pass. The light coming out on
the other side will then be plane polarized, and will be vibrating parallel to the polarizing
direction of the polarizer. If another polarizer with its polarization direction oriented
perpendicular to the first polarizer is placed in front of the beam of now polarized light,
then no light will penetrate the second polarizer. In this case we say that the light has
been extinguished.
Polaroid sunglasses use these same principles. For example, incoming solar radiation is
reflected off of the surface of the ocean or the painted hood of your car. Reflected light coming
off of either of these surfaces will be polarized such that the vibration directions are parallel to
the reflected surface, or approximately horizontal (as in the first method of polarization
discussed above). Polaroid sunglasses contain polarizers with the polarization direction
oriented vertically. Wearing such glasses will cut out all of the horizontally polarized light
reflecting off the water surface or hood of your car.
The Polarizing Microscope
In optical mineralogy we use a microscope called a polarizing microscope. Such a microscope is
equipped with two polarizers that are normally oriented so that their polarization directions are
perpendicular to one another.

Light from a light source located

below the tube and stage of the
microscope is initially unpolarized.
This light first passes through the
lower polarizer (usually just called
the polarizer), where it becomes
polarized such that the light is
vibrating from the users right to left.
These directions are referred to as
East (right and West (left). The light
then passes through a hole in the
rotatable stage of the microscope and
enters the lower lens, called the
objective lens.
Mounted within the microscope tube
is a second polarizer, called the
analyzer, that can be rotated or
pushed so that in can be in the light
path (inserted position) or not in the
light path (analyzer out position).
The analyzer has a polarization
direction exactly perpendicular to
that of the lower polarizer These
directions are usually referred to as
North - South. If the analyzer is in,
then the plane polarized light coming
from the lower polarizer will be
blocked, and no light will be
transmitted though the ocular lens
above.
If the analyzer is out, so that it is not
in the light path, then the polarized
light will be transmitted through the
ocular lens.
Next time we will see how this microscope is used to examine isotropic substances and
determine their refractive indices.

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