[Published in: Encyclopedia of Anthropology, 5 Vols.

Edited by James Birx, Thousand

Oaks (CA): Sage Publications, 2005.]
Caste System
Ramdas Lamb
The term Acaste@ comes from the Portugese casta (Abreed,@ Alineage@) and was coined
by Portuguese travelers to India in reference to the social, economic, and religious
system they witnessed. The traditional Hindu term is varna, and its earliest meanings
include Acolor,@ Acovering,@ Atribe,@ and Aspecies.@ The caste system is easily the most
controversial aspect of the Hindu tradition. It is defended as a religious expression of
one=s progression toward liberation or as a formalized division of labor. Alternatively, it
is condemned as a form of systematized oppression and racism. Either way, it
generates emotional and rhetorical assertions on both sides of the discussion.
The first mention of the four-fold division of society that serves as the basis of the
system is found in the Rig Veda, one of the most ancient and sacred of the Hindu holy
writings. The earliest elucidation of the system appears in the Laws of Manu, the
authoritative law book (3rd century BCE - 3rd century CE) that sets forth the duties and
restrictions for members of each varna. For orthodox Hindus, this text remains the
ultimate authority in most caste matters. In addition to varna, there are several
additional sub-categories in the system, especially jati and gotra. Each category
influences aspects of the lives of its members. Taken together, they have traditionally
predetermined, to a large extent, almost every facet of the lives of Hindus in India.
Varna (Acaste@)
It is uncertain as to when one=s varna became determined by birth rather than
occupation and role in the society. However, in early writings claiming to contain the
words and teaching of the Buddha already there are criticisms of the system and of
deciding one=s worth based on birth rather than actions. Nevertheless, once birth
became the primary, or even sole, determinant, and caste became a closed group, it
also came to came determine, for the most part, one=s occupation and possibilities for
economic advancement, one=s sphere of association and access to social involvement,
one=s marriage choices, and finally one=s place in the developing religious hierarchy and
access to religious activities and rituals.
The ancient system divided society into four varnas. The ABrahmin@ was the priestly
and learned caste. The duty of its members was to teach the others knowledge and
wisdom and to oversee and lead the religious life of the community. The warrior and
rule caste was called AKshatriya.@ The duties of its members were to protect and rule, in
order to maintain a safe and stable society. The AVaisya@ were the agriculturalists and
merchants. They grew and provided food and other necessities to the community. The
lowest caste was the AShudra,@ which consisted of the laborers and servants. Their
duty was to serve the other castes by doing all the menial and difficult physical tasks.
Eventually, a fifth caste was added, the APanchama,@ or AAntyaja,@ the Untouchable.
Members of this caste were actually placed outside the system (Aavarna@), either

because of alleged transgressions made against established rules of conduct or

because of the defiling nature of their occupations. Their duties involved cleaning up
after all the other castes and undertaking those tasks that were too impure and polluting
for the others castes to perform.
Thus, of the five castes, only members of the upper four are considered varna Hindu.
Of the four, only the upper three are called Atwice-born.@ This term comes from a rite of
passage ritual available to their male members, which qualifies them to learn Sanskrit,
study the sacred scriptures, and participate in Vedic rituals. T he mark of this status is
the donning of the sacred thread, known as yagyapavitra or janeu. Of the three twiceborn castes, the upper two are called high caste, and some religious rituals and
institutions have been limited to their male members only.
The religious justification for varna is closely tied to the concept of transmigration of the
soul. It is based in the belief that the individual soul experiences countless lifetimes in
its path to enlightenment and that one=s birth in the present life is a direct consequence
of knowledge gained and karma accrued from previous lives. Thus, one who has lived
many lifetimes and has advanced on the path toward wisdom and enlightenment will be
born into a higher caste, while a soul that is not as far along the path or that has
accrued appreciable negative karma from past bad actions will be born into a lower
caste. Therefore, the varna into which one is born reflects the dominant qualities of the
individual, with those born into the higher castes having more positive and refined
qualitites and characteristics while those born into the lower castes having more base,
negative, and unrefined characteristics.
Jati (Asub-caste@)
The true functional unit of the caste system for everyday life in India is the jati, or subcaste, of which there are literally thousands. The development of individual jatis over
the millennia is the result of many factors, including the assimilation of foreign groups
who migrated to India in sufficient numbers to create their own communities, as well as
the development of new religious sects that would also form their own endogamous
communities. Primarily, however, jati formation seems to have been occupational.
When a particular craft was developed, those families whose members focused on
performing the skill would typically come to be identified with it, and eventually a new
sub-caste would form within the larger caste structure. In many ways, this development
mimicked that of the European guild system, in which artisans and craftsman formed
associations based on their specific skills and specializations. Because each craftsman
tended to teach his skill to his offspring, one=s craft was often the result of birth. In a
similar fashion, jati, like varna, apparently began as a division of artisan professions but
ended up a birth determined category. The elaboration of jatis brought with it the
development of reciprocal relationships between the various sub-castes, both within a
particular varna as well as between them. The common Indian term used to refer to the
system of occupational and reciprocal interrelationships is the Ajajmani@ system.
Although there was a great proliferation of jatis, mostly within the merchant and servant
castes, there was very little change in their status within the overall caste hierarchy.

With exceptions, jatis within a caste have generally existed on a horizontal relationship
with each other as opposed to a vertical one.
Although many no longer pursue their traditional crafts, jatis continue to exist with their
own distinctive customs, rules, and internal structural hierarchy. While there has always
been, for various reasons, some degree on intermarriage between jatis in the same
varna, they have tended to remain endogamous, which keeps the relationships of the
members close knit. Jatis are typically controlled by local and regional caste
organizations and boards, or panchayats, and leaders tend to have a great deal of
influence in the internal functioning of the group, and the activities of its members. For
example, when Mahatma Gandhi wished to travel to England to get a law degree, his
local sub-caste leaders forbid him to do so. In his day, there was a religious restriction
against crossing the ocean, since it was believed that one would not be able to adhere
to purity rules on the journey. Gandhi went against the prohibition and was ostracized
from his jati.
Gotra
Each jati is made up of multiple gotras. A gotra (literally, Acowshed@) is a patrilineal clan
group that claims ancestral lineage to famous ancient figures. Brahmin gotras, for
example, trace their ancestry to one of eight sages believed to have been connected to
portions of the Vedas, the ancient Hindu scriptures. Initially, only varna that had gotra
was Brahmin, but eventually all castes, nearly all jatis, and even Jains, adopted the
tradition. Today, gotras number in the thousands, and some jatis have up to a hundred
or more.
Gotras are also important aspects of identity. In some, male members would wear
distinctive garb or hairstyle to distinguish themselves from other gotras. Various
orthodox rituals, especially rites of passage, require both name and gotra identification
of the beneficiary as a part of the preparatory rites. When a jati panchayat meets, a
member or leader of each gotra is supposed to be represented. W hen one has a
dispute with another member of the same jati in a village, it is often the gotra heads who
will be called upon to mediate. In some jatis, decisions by gotra heads carry the weight
of law and are rarely disputed.
Because gotras are viewed as extended families, they are exogamous. Marriage, then,
occurs within one=s jati, but outside one=s gotra. Like last name, a female adopts the
gotra of her husband. Most jatis strictly prohibit marriage within one=s gotra but allow
marriage to a member of any other gotra within the jati. One of the only added
limitations for most jatis is between offspring of a brother and sister, even though the
children are of different gotra.
Caste as Indian, Caste as Hindu
There has been an ongoing debate for several decades on the role of caste in India, as
opposed to caste in Hinduism. This is because caste can be found in non-Hindu
religious traditions in the country as well. Although many will not admit it, caste plays a
role in Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity in India. It is true that it is a holdover from

caste consciousness among Hindus, but it has clearly become a reality in those
traditions. At the same time, Hinduism outside of India is essentially caste free. Thus,
caste as a social hierarchy and ranking has become more endemic to the land than to
the religious tradition. For those who are against caste, this is both positive and
negative. It is positive in that it shows that Hinduism can exist without caste, but it is
negative in that it suggests that India may not be able to exist without it, at least rural
India.
Caste in Modern India
The varna system continues to have its supporters, especially in the rural areas,
especially those at the top of the hierarchy. They see it as necessary for social stability
and for the maintenance of traditional values and institutions. At the same time, those
who defend the system generally acknowledge that the long standing and inherent
prejudice against avarna Hindus should be removed. They envision a system that
returns to one based strictly on a division of labor. The problem here is that
occupational exclusivity of sub-castes has been dying away since the nineteenth
century. Some of the only professions that remain primarily caste or sub-caste
restricted include the work of priests at the top and most avarna occupations at the
bottom. Those at the bottom of the system, on the other hand, see nothing positive in it
at all. While the occupational elements of the system are ending, the inherent social
prejudices connected with it are more resistant to change.
Diaspora Hinduism and Caste
In the early 1800s, the British government began the system of indentured servitude,
whereby it sent more than one million impoverished, primarily rural, Indians to work
British plantations in the Caribbean, Fiji, Mauritius, and South Af rica, creating the Hindu
Diaspora. The vast majority of Hindus who participated were from Shudra or
Untouchable families and did so both for economic as well as social reasons. They
sought to craft a new life for themselves in their new lands and they left caste identity
behind in the process. Consequently, Diaspora Hinduism is essentially caste-free. Not
only has this not hurt the practice of Hinduism in Diaspora lands, but it has benefitted it
in many ways. The inter-caste tension and discrimination that seems natural and
commonplace does not exist, and this allows Hindus in those lands to more freely
interact, intermarry, and work together toward common goals.
Challenges to Caste
Ever since the early days of the development of Buddhism, more than two millennia
ago, there has been criticism or the caste system. Buddha himself is said to have
rejected the system for his followers. Nearly all the founders of new religious
movements since that time, especially devotional movements, have echoed the
Buddha=s call for rejection of caste. Yet, it persists. However, as Indian society is
becoming more urban, adopting western-style education and social values, the caste
system is becoming less and less relevant. In the larger cities, socio-economic class
has become the basis for the hierarchy, and it appears that a similar pattern will
eventually occur in villages as well. Nevertheless, the varna system still has a great
deal of influence in India even though the original purpose of the system has been lost.

For the most part, all that remains is a purposeless hierarchical structure that continues
to keep those on top in power and those at the bottom relatively powerless.

Further Readings and References

Kolenda, Pauline. 1981. Caste, Cult, and Hierarchy. Merrut, India: Folklore Institute.
Sharma, K. L. 1986. Caste, Class and Social Movements. Jaipur, India: Rawat
Publications.
Smith, Brian K. July, 1995. AClassifying the Universe: The Ancient Indian Varna System
and the Origins of Caste.@ In Religious Studies Review. Vol. 21, No. 3.
Wiser, William Henricks. 1936. The Hindu Jajmani System. Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers, Pvt. Ltd.
Zinkin, Taya. 1962. Caste Today. London: Oxford University Press.