CONTENTS

1) INTRODUCTION
2) HISTORY
3) IDEAL REQUIREMENTS OF ALLOYS
4) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS AND ALLOYS
5) STRUCTURE & PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF DENTAL ALLOYS
6) CLINICALLY IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF DENTAL ALLOYS
INCLUDING BIOCOMPATIBILITY AND GUIDELINES FOR
SELECTION OF A PROSTHODONTIC ALLOY.
7) CLASSIFICATIONS OF DENTAL ALLOYS
8) ALLOYS FOR ALL-METAL & RESIN VENEER RESTORATION
9) ALLOYS FOR METAL-CERAMIC RESTORATIONS
10) ALLOYS FOR PARTIAL DENTURE
11) WROUGHT ALLOYS
12) DENTAL IMPLANT MATERIALS
13) TRENDS FOR TOMORROW
14) REVIEW OF LITERATURE
15) CONCLUSION
16) REFERENCES

ALLOYS USED IN PROSTHODONTICS

INTRODUCTION
Alloys for prosthodontic restorations have become increasingly complex in last 25
years. There are hundreds of choices from dozens of global companies. Todays alloys
have, as their most abundant element, a number of metals that include gold, palladium,
silver, nickel, cobalt & titanium. The metallurgy of each of these alloys system is
generally complex & demanding of the laboratory and the dentist. The proper selection
and manipulation of these alloys is imperative if dental prosthesis is to perform well with
longevity. Improper selection or manipulation by the laboratory or the dentist may result
in the failure of expensive restorations, possibly leading to litigation by the patient.
BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT METAL AND ALLOYS:

Metals are normally

crystalline solids at room temperature, although there are some exceptions such as
hydrogen (a gas) and gallium and mercury (liquids). Metals are noted for the ease with
which they give up their valance electrons; this accounts for certain characteristics such
as good electrical and thermal conductivity and tendency for metals to form cations
(positive ions) in solution; metals are also strong, lustrous and ductile.
An alloy is defined for dental purpose as a metal containing two or more
elements, at least one of which is metal, and all of which are mutually soluble in the
molten state.
An alloy system is an aggregate of two or more metals in all-possible
combinations. For example, the gold-silver system includes all possible concentrations
of gold and silver, varying from 100% gold to 100% silver.

TERMINOLOGIES
Alloy: two or more metal that are mutually soluble in each other in the molten state

Liquidus: the temperature below which a metal is completely solid (i.e. the temperature
at which it begins to melt)
Solidus: the temperature above which a metal is completely melted.
Grain: a single crystal of metal as seen in the metals microstructure.
Grain refiner: a metal such as iridium that is added to a metal or alloy because of its
high melting temperature. Since it remains solid while the rest of metal is molten, its
small particles act as seeds around which grains of solidifying metal form. This enhances
the physical properties of solid metal.
Sag: Deformation of a metal or alloy; this usually occurs at high temperature such as
during porcelain firing.
Generally, alloys are used in dentistry because alloying strengthens a metal. Pure metals
such as gold are not used because their relatively poor physical properties make them a
poor choice for intraoral use. For e.g. pure cast gold is only 1/5 th as strong and 1/6th as
hard as a typical gold-based casting alloy.
During solidification (i.e., when a metal or alloy goes form liquid to solid), the following
process occurs: random atoms > embryos (temporary nuclei) > nuclei > dendrites >
grains
As grains grow, they contact each other. The border between them is called a grain
boundary.
Generally, a metal to be used under intra-oral condition should have a finegrained structure because it tends to be more resistant to permanent deformation.

HISTORY
The history of dental alloys has influenced by 3 major factors: (1) The technologic
changes of dental prosthesis (2) Metallurgic advancements and (3) Price changes of the
noble metals since 1968.
Taggerts presentation to the New York Odontological Group in 1907 on the
fabrication of cast inlay restorations often has been acknowledged as the first reported
application of the lost wax technique in dentistry. The inlay technique described by

Taggert was an instant success. It soon led to the casting of complex inlays such as
onlays, crowns, fixed partial denture and removable partial denture frameworks. Because
pure gold did not have physical properties required of these dental restorations, existing
jewellery alloys were quickly adopted. These gold alloys were further strengthened with
Cu, Ag or Pt.
In 1932, the dental materials group at the National Bureau of standards surveyed
the alloys being used and roughly classified them as Type I (soft: VHN between 50 & 90)
Type II (medium: VHN between 90 and 120), Type III (Hard: VHN between 120 and
150), and Type IV (Extra hard: VHN >= 150).
At that time, some tarnish tests indicated that alloys with a gold content lower
them 65 to 75% tarnished too readily for dental use.
In the following years, several patients were issued for alloys containing
palladium as a substitute for platinum. By 1948, the composition of dental noble metal
alloys for cast metal restorations had become rather diverse.
In late 1950s, the breakthrough occurred in dental technology that was to
influence significantly the fabrication of dental restorations. This was the successful
veneering of a metal substructure with dental porcelain.
The base metal removable partial denture alloys were introduced in 1930s. Since
that time, both nickel-chromium and cobalt-chromium formulations have become
increasingly popular compared with conventional Type VI gold alloys, which previously
were predominant metals used for such prosthesis. The obvious advantage of these base
metal alloys, are their lighter weight, increased mechanical properties and reduced costs.
For these reasons such Ni & Co based alloys have largely replaced the noble metal alloys
for removable partial denture.
So, over the past 25 years, several major factors have changed the alloys used for
prosthodontic restorations. The first factor has been economic, manifested gradually after
deregulation of the price of gold in 1969 and more recently (1995 2001) by flux in price
of palladium. Although the price of gold has stabilized in more recent years, previous
instability caused manufactures to seek alloys with less gold content. These lower-gold
alloys were less expensive, and their prices were more stable.

A second major factor that has affected the evolution of alloys has been need for
better physical properties. The alloys with higher elastic moduli in removable partial
denture alloys is more desirable because a high modulus alloy will not bend as much
when loaded in flexure and will therefore transmit occlusal forces more efficiently to
remaining teeth or other tissues. Alloys with high elastic modulus are also important in
metal-ceramic fixed partial denture. Any flexure of the metal substructure will cause
fracture of the overlying porcelain because of brittle nature of ceramic.
A third major factor is concern about corrosion and biocompatibility. Public
awareness of the release of metals from alloys into the body has grown over the past 10
to 15 years and has periodically erupted into an irrational panic, as with the palladium
scare in Germany in early 1990s. Although no scientific evidences of serious biological
problems (except allergic reactions for some individuals) with use of palladium in dental
alloys has ever existed, concern about palladium become the focus of the public eye and
consumers demanded palladium free alloys. In response, manufactures developed these
alloys, which are available today on a global scale. Over the past 10 years, some
manufactures have even sought to develop alloys that release less mass than was accepted
previously. This strategy has lead to the use of newer, more complex alloy system.
The development and evolution of alloys for prosthodontics has not been without
technical problems. The introduction of new types of alloys has created problems for both
the laboratory and the dentist. Newer alloys may be more difficult to cast, not cast as
accurately, and be more difficult to solder and finish, or involve esthetic challenges,
among other problems.
The development of alloys is complex and requires a knowledgeable company
with experience in research and development. The ability of that company to provide
reproducible alloy quality and technical assistance is also very important. Even the
highest quality alloy, if abused, may not perform well intra-orally. The dentist and
technician should appreciate these complexities, select quality products that have proven
records and use them exactly as specified by the manufactures.

IDEAL REQUIREMENTS OF DENTAL ALLOYS:

All alloys must first be biocompatible and then exhibit sufficient physical and mechanical
properties to ensure adequate function and structural durability over long periods of time.
Depending on the primary purpose of the prosthesis, such as to restore function, enhance
aesthetics, or maintain occlusion, the choice of casting alloy or metal is made by the
dentist in collaboration with a qualified dental laboratory technician. From a legal
perspective, the dentist is primarily responsible for selecting an appropriate metal and
prosthesis design, discussing the selection and alternative choices with the patient, and
providing sufficient details on the design of the prosthesis to the dental laboratory
technician to ensure clinical success.
From a standpoint of patient safety and to minimize the risk for medico-legal
situations, it is highly important to understand the following clinically important
requirements and properties of dental casting alloys:
Biocompatibility: The material must tolerate oral fluids and not release any harmful
products into the oral environment.
Corrosion Resistance:
Corrosion is the physical dissolution of a material in an environment. Corrosion
resistance is derived from the material components being either too noble to react in the
oral environment (e.g., gold and palladium) or by the ability of one or more of the
metallic elements to form an adherent passivating surface film, which inhibits any
subsurface reaction (e.g., chromium in Ni-Cr and Co-Cr alloys and titanium in commercially pure titanium [CP Ti] and in Ti-6Al-4V alloy).

Tarnish Resistance:
Tarnish is a thin film of a surface deposit or an interaction layer that is adherent to
the metal surface. These films are generally found on gold alloys with relatively high
silver content or on silver alloys.
Allergenic Components in Casting Alloys:
The concern for allergic reactions to dental materials gained momentum in the
1980s. Although some broad-based claims have been unsubstantiated, the subject is

important from materials science and legal standpoints. Allergic reactions, however, are
peculiar to the individual patient, and the practicing dentist has an obligation, morally and
legally, to minimize this risk. The patient's "right-to-know" extends to having some
knowledge of what is being placed into their bodies. Laws in some states are explicit in
this respect. It is wise for the dentist to maintain a record of the material used for each
restoration or prosthesis, as well as an understanding of any known allergies stated by the
patient.

Aesthetics:
Considerable controversy exists over the optimal balance among the properties of
aesthetics, fit, abrasive potential, clinical survivability, and cost of cast metal prostheses
compared with direct-filling restorations, ceramic-based prostheses (all-ceramic and
metal-ceramic), and resin-veneered prostheses.
Thermal Properties:
For metal-ceramic restorations, the alloys or metals must have closely matching
thermal expansion to be compatible with a given porcelain, and they must tolerate high
processing temperatures.
Melting Range:
The melting range of the alloys and metals for cast appliances must be low
enough to form smooth surfaces with the mold wall of the casting investment (gypsumbonded, phosphate-bonded, ethyl silicate-bonded, and other specialty types).
Compensation for Solidification:
To achieve accurately fitting cast inlays, onlays, crowns and more complex
frameworks or prostheses, compensation for casting shrinkage from the solidus
temperature to room temperature must be achieved either through computer-generated
oversized dies or through controlled mold expansion. In addition, the fit of a cemented
prosthesis must be tailored to accommodate the layers of bonding adhesive (if used) and
the luting cement.

Strength Requirements:
The material must have sufficient strength for the application. For the full cast
alloys the strength requirements increase as the number of tooth surfaces being replaced
increases. Likewise, alloys for bridgework require higher strength than alloys for single
crowns. Copings for metal-ceramic prostheses are finished in thin sections and require a
sufficient elastic modulus (stiffness) to prevent excessive elastic deflection from
functional forces, especially when used for long-span frameworks. The elastic moduli of
many base metal alloys are considerably greater than those for other alloys, especially the
gold-based alloys.
Fabrication of Cast Prostheses and Frameworks:
Assuming that a material meets the foregoing requirements, the ease with which a
material is fabricated determines its ultimate commercial success. For example, the use of
cobalt-chromium alloys rather than gold alloys for partial denture applications may
require different casting investment products and casting equipment in order to produce
high-quality restorations consistently. Selection of a suitable casting investment is a
major problem when a dentist decides to use titanium for all-metal prostheses or as a
metal-ceramic restorative material. Titanium is biocompatible and strong enough for
these applications, but the ancillary products that are needed to produce consistent quality
prostheses are limited in their capabilities.
Castability:
To achieve accurate details in a cast framework or prosthesis, the molten metal
must be able to wet the investment mold material very well (demonstrated by a
sufficiently low contact angle) and flow into the most intricate regions of the mold
without any appreciable interaction with the investment and without forming porosity
within the surface or subsurface regions. The castability of some base metals is extremely
challenging in this regard, because these alloys tend to readily form oxides or interact
chemically with the mold wall during the casting process. In addition, these cast alloys
tend to be more difficult to separate from the casting investment after cooling to room
temperature.

Finishing of Cast Metal:

Cutting, grinding, finishing, and polishing of some metals is quite demanding, and
extra time is required to produce a satisfactory surface finish. Hardness, ductility (percent
elongation), and ultimate strength are important properties in this regard. The hardness of
an alloy is a good primary indicator of cutting and grinding difficulty, and this property
varies widely among the current casting metals. For example, Co-Cr and Ni-Cr alloys are
quite hard compared with other metals, as seen in the following listing of Vickers
hardness numbers: Co-Cr; 450 to 650; Ni-Cr, 330 to 400; Ti-6Al-4V, 320; tooth enamel,
300 to 400; Type IV Au alloy, 250; Pd-based alloys, 235 to 400; CPTi, 210 (bulk); Ag-Pd,
143 to 154; dentin, 60; and Type I Au alloy, 55.
Porcelain Bonding:
To achieve a sound chemical bond to ceramic veneering materials, a substrate
metal must be able to form a thin, adherent oxide, preferably one that is light in color so
that it does not interfere with the aesthetic potential of the ceramic. The metal must have
a thermal expansion/contraction coefficient that is closely matched to that of the
porcelain. Stresses that develop in the ceramic adjacent to the metal/ ceramic interface
can enhance the fracture resistance of a metal-ceramic prosthesis (if the stresses are
predominantly compressive in nature), or they can increase the susceptibility to crack
formation (if they are predominantly tensile in nature).
Economic considerations:
The cost of metals used for single-unit prostheses or as frameworks for fixed or
removable partial dentures is a function of the metal density and the cost per unit mass.
For example, compared with a palladium alloy having a density of 11 g/cm3, a gold alloy
with a density of 18-g/ cm3 will cost 64% (18/11 x 100) more for the same volume and
unit cost of metal.
Laboratory costs:
The metal cost is a major concern for the dental laboratory owner who must
guarantee prices of prosthetic work for a certain period of time. Because of the

fluctuating prices of noble metals over the past two decades, the cost of fabricating
prostheses made form noble elements must be adjusted periodically to reflect these
changes.

STRUCTURE OF METALS
General characteristics of metals:

A metal is an element that ionizes positively in solution. During ionizations, metal

release electrons. This ability to exist as free, positively charged, stable ions is a
key factor in behavior of metals and is responsible for many metallic properties
that are important in dentistry.

Metals have certain typical and characteristics properties that distinguish them
from non-metallic elements.
The optical properties metallic luster and high opacity
-

High electrical and thermal conductivity

Metals usually have crystalline structure in solid state

The atoms joining the crystals have a unique packing arrangement in space that is
characteristic of that metal at equilibrium. The smallest division of the crystalline
metal that defines that unique packing is called the unit cell. When the unit cell is
repeated in space, the repeating atomic positions form the crystal lattice structure
of a crystalline solid.

Six different crystal system have been recognized:

a) Cubic
- Simple
- Body-centered
- Face conferred
b) Tetragonal
- Simple
- Body-centered

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- Rhombohedric
c) Orthorhombic
- Simple
- Body-centered
- Face-centered
- Base centered
d) Monoclinic
- Simple
- Base centered
e) Triclinic
f) Hexagonal
Atoms can be arranged in the six crystal systems in only 14 different arrays.
The most common arrays for metal used in dentistry are:
Body centered cubic:
Here atoms are located at each corner, and one atom is located at the centre. This
is the crystal structure of iron and of many alloys used in dentistry.
Face centered cubic:
Here atoms are located at each corner, but no atoms is in the centre, and the atoms
are located in the center of each of the six faces of the cube, this structure is found in
most of the pure metals and alloys used in dentistry including gold, palladium, cobalt and
nickel alloys.
Hexagonal close-packed:
Here the atoms are equidistant from each other in horizontal plane, but not in the
vertical direction.
This more complex hexagonal closed packed array occurs in titanium.
Crystallization
When a molten alloy is cooled, the solidification process is one of crystallization

11

and is initiated at specific sites called nuclei. The nuclei are generally formed from
impurities within the molt mass of the metal.
Characteristically, a metal crystallize in a 3-dimensional tree branch pattern from
a central nucleus. Such crystal formations are called dendrites. The growth starts from the
nuclei of crystallization and the crystal grow towards each other. Two or more crystals
collide in their growth, and the growth is stopped. Finally, the entire space is filled with
crystals. However, each crystal remains a unit in itself. The metal is therefore made up of
thousands of tiny crystals. Such a metal is said to be polycrystalline in nature, and each
crystal is known as a grain.
Grain size:
The size of the grain depends upon the number and location of the nuclei at the
time of solidifications. If the nuclei are equally spaced with reference to each other, the
grains will be approximately equal in size. The solidification can be pictured as
proceeding from the nuclei of in all directions at the same time in the form of a sphere
that is constantly increasing in diameter, when these spheres meet, they are flattened
along various surfaces. The grain tends to be the same diameter in all dimension such a
grain is called equiaxed.
Control of Grain size:
In general, the smaller the grain size of the metal, the better its physical
properties. For example, the yield strength of many types of materials has been found to
vary inversely with square root of the grain size. Consequently, obtaining a small grain
size during casting is an advantage.
Because the grains crystallize from nuclei of crystallization, it follows logically
that number of grains formed is directly related to the number of nuclei of crystallization
present at the time of solidification. This factor can be controlled to a degree by the
amount of supercooling and the rate of cooling. In other words, the more rapidly the
liquid state can be changed to the solid state, the smaller or finer the grains will be.
Another factor of equal importance is the rate of crystallization. If the crystals
form faster then do the nuclei of crystallization, the grains will be larger than if the

12

reverse condition prevails. Conversely, if the nucleus formation occurs faster than rate of
crystallization, a small grain size can be obtained. Consequently, a slow cooling results in
large grains. In a polycrystalline metal, the shape of the mold in which the metal
solidifies may influence the shape of the grain.
Grain Boundaries
The orientation of the space lattice of the various grains is different. The grain
boundary is assumed to be a region of transition between the differently oriented crystal
lattice of two neighboring grains.
DEFORMATION OF METAL
The atoms within each grain are arranged in a regular three dimensional lattice.
There are several possible arrangements such as cubic, body-centered cubic and facecentered cubic etc.
The arrangement adopted by anyone crystal depends on specific factors such as
atomic radius and charge distributions on the atoms, although there is a tendency towards
a perfect crystal structure, occasional defects occur, such defects are called dislocations
and their occurrence has an effect on the ductility of the metal or alloy. When the material
is placed under a sufficiently high stress the dislocation is able to move through the lattice
until it reaches a grain boundary.
The plane along which the dislocation moves is called the slip plane and the stress
required to initiate moment is called the elastic limit.
Application of a stress greater than the elastic limit causes the material to be
permanently deformed as a result of movement of dislocations.
Grain boundaries form natural barriers to the movement of dislocation. The
concentration of grain boundaries increases as the grain size decrease.
It is important to understand that any process that impedes dislocation movement
tends to harden a metal, raise its yield stress and often lower its ductility.
COLD WORKING I WORK HARDENING:

13

A process for hardening the metal. It is the permanent deformation that takes place
on the application of sufficiently high force at room temperature, due to the movements
of dislocations along slip planes.
Any plastic deformation of the metal by hammering, drawing, cold forging or
bending processes, produce many dislocations in the metal that cannot slip through each
other as easily as the lattice becomes more distorted.
Such cold working not only produces a change in microstructure, with dislocation
becoming concentrated at grain boundaries, but also a change in grain shape. The grains
are no longer equiaxed but take up a more fibrous structure.
The properties of the metal are altered. The surface hardness, strength, and
proportional limit are increased, where as ductility and resistance to corrosion are
decreased by strain hardening.
In dentistry, cold working occurs when gold foil is compacted, a denture clasp is
bent, an inlay margin is burnished, or a deformed metal layer forms on a crown during
finishing and polishing.
The temperature below which work hardening is possible is termed as
recrystallization temperature.
Since metals and alloys have finite values of ductility or malleability there is a
limit to the amount of cold working, which can be carried out. Attempts to carry out
further cold working beyond this limit may result in fracture.
ANNEALING:
The effects associated with cold working such as strain hardening, lower ductility and
distorted grain can be reversed by simply heating the metal. The process is called
annealing.
The more severe the cold working, the more readily does annealing occur.
Annealing in general comprises three stages:
Recovery, recrystallization and grain growth:
Annealing is a relative process; the higher the melting point of the metal, the
higher is the temperature needed for annealing. A rule of thumb is to use a temperature

14

approximately one half that is necessary to melt the metal.

Recovery:
It is considered the stage at which the cold work properties begin to disappear
before any significant visible changes are observed under the microscope.
During this period there is very slight decrease in tensile strength and no change in
ductility.
Recrystallization:
When a severely cold worked metal is annealed, than recrystallization occurs after
some recovery. This involves a rather radical change in the microstructure. The old grains
disappear completely and are replaced by a new set of strain-free grains. These
recrystallization grains nucleate in the most severally cold-worked regions in the metal,
usually at grain boundaries, or where the lattice was most severely bent on deformation.
On the completion of recrystallization the material essentially attains its original
soft and ductile condition.
Grain growth:
The recrystallized structure has a certain grain size, depending upon the number
of nuclei. The more severe the cold working, the greater are the number of such nuclei.
Thus, the grain size for the completely recrystallized material can range from rather fine
to fairly coarse.
If now the fine grain form is further annealed, the grains begin to grow. This grain
growth process is simply a boundary energy minimizing process. The effect, the large
grains consume the little grains. It does not progress indefinitely to a single crystal.
Rather, an ultimate coarse grain structure is reached, and then for all practical purposes,
the grain growth stops.
Excessive annealing can lead to large grains. It should be emphasized that the
phenomenon occurs only in wrought material.

15

ALLOYS
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. Mixtures of two metals are called binary
alloys, mixtures of three metals are called ternary alloys.
The term alloy systems refer to all possible compositions of an alloy.
To form an alloy, two or more metals are heated to a homogenous liquid state. However,
a few combinations of metals are not miscible in the liquid state and will not form alloys.
When a combination of two metals is completely miscible in the liquid state, the
two metals are capable of forming an alloy. When such a combination is cooled, one of
three microstructure may form.
a) A solid solution
b) A mixture of intermetallic compound
c) An eutectic mixture
Solid solution:
When two metals are completely miscible in a liquid state, and they remain
completely mixed on solidification, the alloy formed is called a solid solution.
When two metals are soluble in one another in the solid state, the solvent is that
metal whose space lattice persists, and the solute is the other metal. The solvent may be
defined as the metal whose atoms occupy more than one half the total number of
positions in the space lattice.
Eg: The copper and gold combination crystallizes in such a manner that the atoms
of copper are scattered throughout the crystal structure (space lattice) of gold, resulting,
in a single-phase system. Such a combination is called the solid solution because it is a
solid but has the properties of a solution. The configuration of the space lattice of solid
solution may be of several types.
Substitutional, interstitial and ordered.
In substitution type: The atoms of the solute occupy the space lattice positions that
normally are occupied by the solvent atoms in the pure metal.

16

In interstitial type: The solute atoms are present in positions between the solvent atoms.
In ordered type: The solute atoms occupy specific sites within a common crystal lattice.
The extent of solid solubility is determined by at least 4 factors:
1) Atomic size: If the sizes of the two metallic atoms differ by less than 15% they posses
a favorable size factor for solid solubility.
2) Valance: metals of the same valance and size are more likely to form extensive solid
solutions than are metals of different valancies.
3) Chemical affinity: When two metals exhibit a high degree of chemical affinity, they
tend to form an intermetallic compound on solidification rather than a solid solution.
4) Lattice type: Only metals with the same type of crystal lattice can form a complete
series of solid solutions
Physical properties of solid solution:
Whenever a solute atom displaces a solvent atom, the difference in the size of the
solute atom results in a localized distortion or strained condition of the lattice, and slip
becomes more difficult. As a consequence, the strength, proportional limit and surface
hardness are increased. Whereas the ductility is usually decreased.
In other words, the alloying of metals may be a means of strengthening the metal.
The general theory of slip interference in alloys is same as in strain hardening, except that
a different type of lattice distortion is present initially to inhibit slip before the structure is
stressed or worked.
In general, the hardness and strength of any metallic solvent are increased by the
atoms of the solute. The more of the solute is added to the solvent, the greater are the
strength and hardness of the alloy. In two metals that form a continuous series of solid
solutions with one another, the maximal hardness is reached at approx. 50% of each
metal.

17

Intermetallic compounds:
If two metals show a particular affinity for one another they may form intermetallic
compounds with precise chemical formulation. Intermetallic compounds are also formed
on cooling liquid metal solution, in the liquid state they have a tendency to unite and
form definite chemical compounds on solidifying. As far as the space lattice is concerned,
the atom of one metal, instead of appearing randomly in the space lattice of another
metal, occupies a definite position in every space lattice.
Eg: In an alloy of silver and tin containing 73.2% of Ag and 26.8% of Sn by weight is
heated above 500C, it is a single phase liquid system. When the alloy is cooled, it
solidifies to a compound with the formula Ag3Sn, with silver and tin atoms occupying a
definite position in the space lattice. Such alloy is called intermetallic compound and is
used in dental amalgam alloys.
Properties of intermetallic compounds:
The intermetallic compounds formed in some alloy systems are usually hard and
brittle. Their properties rarely resemble those of metals making up the alloy.
Eutectic mixture:
Eutectic mixture occurs when the metals are miscible in the liquid state but
separate into two phases in the solid state. The two phases usually precipitate as
alternating very fine layers of one phase over the other; such a combination is called
eutectic mixture. An example of such a combination is 72% silver and 28% copper - with
this alloy the eutectic is composed of fine, alternating layers of high silver and high
copper phases.
Characteristics of eutectics:

The temperature at which the eutectic occurs is lower than the fusion temperature
of either silver or copper, and is the lowest temperature at which any alloy
composition of silver and copper is entirely liquid.

18

There is no solidification range for this composition. In other words, it solidifies

at a constant temperature, which is characteristic of the particular eutectic.
Liquid - solid solution + - solid solution

It is referred to as an invariant transformation, since it occurs at a single temperature and

composition.
Properties of eutectic alloys:

Eutectic mixtures are usually harder and stronger than the metals used to form the
alloy and are often quite brittle.

Eutectic mixtures have poor corrosion resistance. Galvanic action between the
two phases at a microscopic level can accelerate corrosion.

Peritectic alloys:
Limited solubility of two metals can lead to a transformation referred to as
peritectic

Peritectic systems are not common in dentistry

An example being a silver tin alloy system

Like the eutectic transformation, the Peritectic reaction in an invariant reaction (ie
it occurs at a particular composition and temperature) the reaction can be written
as

Liquid +

CLINICALLY IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF DENTAL ALLOYS

The selection of alloys by the dentist and technician is always a matter of cost.
However, selecting alloys with the best physical, chemical and biological properties for a
specific clinical situation should always be the first priority.
1. GRAIN SIZE:

19

Although knowledge of metallurgy is generally beyond that required by dentists

and technicians, there are several metallurgical concepts that can help the
practitioner select appropriate alloys.

The first concept is that of grain in alloys. When a molten alloy cools to solid
state, crystals form around tiny nuclei (clusters of atoms). As the temperature
drops. These crystals grow until the crystal boundaries meet each other in the
solid state. At this point, each crystal is called a grain and the boundaries between
crystals are grain boundaries.

Grains are important for the physical properties of alloys because grain size
influences other clinical properties. Small grains have been found to improve the
elongation and tensile strength of cast gold alloys (but do not affect hardness or
yield strength)

Grain size is determined by a number of variables, including the cooling rate of

solidifying alloy and the presence of special grain-refining elements in the alloy
composition

Most alloys manufacturers use small amounts (50ppm) of elements such as

iridium or ruthenium as grain refiners in gold-based casting alloys.

A higher weight percentage (0.5-1%), of ruthenium is used as a grain-refining

element in the high palladium casting alloys for metal-ceramic restorations.
Because these elements have high melting points (iridium melts at 2410 c and
ruthenium at 2310c), they remain solid during casting and act as Seeds around
which grains grow as the alloys cools.

In general, a grain size of 30um or less has been reported to be desirable in dental
alloys. Grain sizes vary from 10 to 1000um. Dendritic structure (roughly
analogous to grain structure) may be very large in base metal alloys, where the
size of a single grain can approach the diameter of a removable partial denture
framework clasp.

Under normal conditions, the grain structure of alloys is not visible. Special acid
etching & magnification are generally necessary to view grains.
2. PHASE STRUCTURE

20

A second metallurgical concept important to the clinical performance of alloys is

phase structure (also called Microstructure, which includes the grain structure of
the alloy). Alloys can be either single phase or multiple phases.

Single-phase alloys have essentially the same composition throughout, whereas

multiple phase alloys have areas of composition that differ by micro-structural
location. In single-phase alloy, little structure is evident aside from polishing
scratches because alloy is reasonably homogenous throughout. In multiple-phase
alloy, several different micro-structural constituents are visible. Each phase has
different composition; this can be verified by quantitative elemental analyses with
electron beam microscope or scanning electron microscope. Each phase in
multiphase alloy has its own grain structure.

Whether an alloy is single or multiple-phase is dependent on the solubilities of the

alloy elements, If all elements are completely mutually soluble in the solid state
(as is the case with gold, palladium and copper), than the alloy will be Singlephase. If some elements are not soluble in one another (such as gold and
platinum). Then the alloy may be multiple-phase.

Phase structure affects the corrosion, strength and etching character of alloys. In
general, multiple-phase alloys are prone to higher corrosion rates then singlephase alloys because of galvanic effect, between the microscopic areas of
difference composition. However, the presence of multiple phases also allows
them to be etched for bonding. Because each phase generally etches at a different
rate, etching creates a microscopically rough surface.

The effect of phase structure on strength is more complex. In some cases, multiple
phases greatly strengthen an alloy, but in other they weaken the alloy.
Strengthening depends on the nature of the second phase (particularly its
ductility), its composition and dispersion throughout the other phases.

Single-phase alloys are almost always easier to manipulate in laboratory, have

more consistent properties, and are less technique sensitive. It is for these reasons
that manufacturer having preferred to sell single-phase alloys.
3. YIELD STRENGTH

21

It is amount of stress required to produce a pre-established amount of permanent

strain (i.e change in length) of the alloy, standardized amount (typically 0.1%. to
0.2%).

Ideally, we want our alloys to have high yield strength, so that a great deal of
stress must be applied before they permanently change dimensions.

Alloys with tensile yield strengths above 300Mpa are strong enough to resist
permanent intra-oral deformation in most clinical situations.
The most likely site for this type of failure is between pontics in a multiple unit
fixed partial denture.
4. HARDNESS

The hardness of the alloys must be enough to resist occlusal forces but not wear
opposing teeth.

Generally, alloys with a Vickers hardness of less than 125kg/mm are susceptible
to wear and alloys that are harder than 340kg/mm (hardness of Enamel) are at risk
of wearing opposing teeth.
5. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (MOE)

It is measure of the stiffness or rigidly of an alloy, since it corresponds to the

amount of stress for unit elastic strain.

The MOE for prosthodontic alloys need to be high so the prosthesis can resist
flexure, especially in metal ceramic restorations where any flexure will cause
fracture of porcelain.

The MOE of most gold - or palladium based alloys range from 90 to 120 Gpa.
Such MOE are sufficient in most clinical situations but may not be adequate for
long span metal ceramic restoration or removable partial dentures .In latter case,
nickel or cobaltbased alloys, which have MOE of 180 to 230 Gpa, may be
appropriate.
6. COLOR

22

The color of an alloy has been the focus of dentists and patients for many years.
Historically, Yellow- colored alloys have been associated with high gold content
high cost, high social value and good clinical performance. Similarly, white
(silver) colored alloys have been associated with corrosion, less social affluence,
and low cost.
-

However, in todays alloy market, color is useless in making any judgments about
composition, cost or clinical performance. There are many examples of high
gold alloys that are white in color. In fact, any alloy that contains greater than
10wt% palladium will be white, regardless of the gold content. Similarly alloys
exist that have a yellow color even with no gold present (Pd-In-Ag).

The clinical performance of alloys is related to almost every physical property

except color. Thus, the dentist should never make a clinical judgment about an
alloy based on its color. The patients association of social value with yellow
colored alloys may play a part in the clinical decision. But it should never be the
sole basis for alloy selection.
7. CORROSION

The corrosion of an alloy is of central importance to the success of prosthesis. For

metals and alloys, corrosion is always accompanied by release of elements and a
flow of current.

Corrosion can lead to poor esthetics, compromise of physical properties, or

increased biological irritation. Corrosion can be measured either as the current
flow or the amounts of released elements. Both are commonly used, but elemental
release is probably more relevant to any adverse biological effects that corrosion
might have.

Corrosion is complex and impossible to predict, based simply on the composition

of the alloy .The presence of multiple phases or high percentages of non noble
elements does however increase the risk of corrosion.

23

8. Porcelain bonding properties

-

If an alloy will be used for a porcelain restoration, then several properties in

addition to those mentioned previously are important for clinical performance.
The color & thickness of the alloy oxide must be considered.

High gold alloy have a relatively light colored oxide that is easier to mask with
opaque porcelain, whereas most silver-, nickel- and cobalt- based alloys have
darker, gray oxide that require thicker layers of opaque porcelain to mask.

In general, research has shown that thicker oxides increase the risk of metalceramic bounding failure. Fracture tends to occurs because oxide are brittle and
weaker then either the porcelain or alloy. Further more, stress from occlusal load
is often concentrated in the oxide layer. The thickest oxide layers occur in nickel& cobalt based alloys because these alloys contains elements that form oxides
easily during the initial oxidation step prior to firing of the opaque porcelain.

Gold & palladium form oxides much more sparingly because of their noble
character; alloys based on these metals therefore require the addition of tin,
gallium, indium, or other trace elements to promote oxide formation.

Caution must be exercised in reusing gold-based alloys for metal-ceramic

restorations because the oxide forming elements may be depleted from the first
casting procedure. In that situation, the oxide layer would be inadequate for
reliable bonding of the porcelain.

The relative expansion between the metal and ceramic is of prime importance in
porcelain bonding. Both alloys and porcelain expand when heated and contract
when cooled.

24

If porcelain and an alloy bond together at a high temperature then the relative
contraction rates of these two materials will be important as the bimaterial bond
cools to room temperature. If porcelain contracts less then alloy as cooling
progresses, then the porcelain will have residual compressive stress at room
temperature. If porcelain contracts more than the alloy, then the porcelain will
have residual tensile stress at room temperature. Because porcelain is a brittle
material and thus subject to failure by crack propagation, it does not tolerate
tensile stress well. Thus, the metal-ceramic bond must minimize residual tensile
stresses in the porcelain.

It is best to select a porcelain with a coefficient of thermal expansion (and

contraction) that is less than that of the alloy. Most dental alloys have coefficient
of thermal expansion between 13.5 and 17.0 x 10-6 0 C.

Generally, a 0.5X10-6

difference in coefficient of thermal expansion between

alloy and porcelain is desirable.

-

Alloy for metal ceramic restorations must have melting temperatures that are
compatible with peak firing or sintering temperature of the porcelain. Because
they are mixtures of elements, alloys have melting ranges rather than single
melting point temperatures.

Each alloy has a lower temperature (called the solidus temperature) at which
melting begins and an upper temperature (called the liquidus temperature) at
which entire alloy is melted. During porcelain firing, it is critical to stay below the
solidus temperature of the alloy.
9. Ductility

The degree to which a material can be permanently deformed by a tensile force

without undergoing fracture or rupture. Often expressed as percentage elongation.
(PE). Gold alloys with a PE >5% are considered ductile; those PE < 5% are
described brittle. The most ductile metals are gold & silver.

25

10. Malleability
-

The degree to which a material can be permanently deformed by a compressive

force without undergoing fracture or rupture. The most malleable metals are gold
& silver.

BIOCOMPATIBILITY OF DENTAL ALLOYS:

-

Dental alloys are widely used in application that places them into contact with the

oral epithelium, connective tissue, or bone for many years. Given these long-term roles, it
is paramount that the biocompatibility of alloys be measured and understood.
Biologically relevant properties of alloys:
-

In dentistry, alloys usually contain at least 4 metals, and often 6 or more metals.

Thus, dental alloys are complex metallurgically.

-

Dental alloys are commonly described by their composition. Composition can be

expressed in wt % or at %.
Atomic percentage better predicts the number of atoms available to be released
and affect the body.
-

Another way of describing an alloy is by its phase structure. Single-phase alloys

have more or less, a similar composition throughout their structure. However elements in
multiple phase alloys combine in such a way that some areas differ in composition from
other areas.
-

The phase structure of an alloy is critical to its corrosion properties and its

biocompatibility. The interaction between the biological environment and phase structure
is what determines which element will be released and therefore how the body responds
to the alloy.
What is corrosion and why is important to biocompatibility
Corrosion:
Corrosion to alloys occurs when elements in the alloy ionizes. Thus, the elements
that are initially uncharged inside the alloy lose electron and become positively charged
ions as they are released into solution.

26

Corrosion of an alloy indicates that some of the elements are available to affect

the tissue around it.

-

Corrosion is measured in a number of ways:

1)

Visually by observing the alloy surface for visual effects of loss of atoms.

2)

Measuring current flow from loss of electrons (electrochemical tests).

3)

Measuring released elements directly by spectroscopic analysis.

The most relevant measure of corrosion from the standpoint of biocompatibility is

identifying and quantifying the elements that are released.

-

Corrosion of an alloy is of fundamental importance to its biocompatibility

because the release of elements from the alloy is nearly always necessary for adverse
affects such as toxicity, allergy or mutagenicity.
The biological response to the elements depend upon:

Which element is released

Quantity released

Duration of exposure to tissues

An alloy dose not necessarily releases elements in proportion to its composition.

Multiple phases will often increase the elemental release from alloys.

Certain elements have an inherent higher tendency to be released from dental

alloys, regardless of alloys composition. This tendency is called liability.

Cu, Ni, Ga are liable elements
Cd & Zn are relatively liable
Ag Moderately liable
Au, Pd, Pt have low liability.

Reduction of pH will increase elemental release from dental alloy. This effect is

especially pronounced for Ni-based alloys. Because dental plaque often adheres to dental
alloys and produces reduced pH, the effects of acid on dental alloys are relevant to
biocompatibility concerns.

SYSTEMIC TOXICITY OF DENTAL ALLOYS

27

Elements that are released from alloys into the oral cavity may gain access to

inside of the body through the epithelium in the gut, through the gingival or other oral
tissue, or, for elements that form vapors such as Hg, through the lungs.
-

In contrast, elements that are released from dental implants into the bony tissue

around the implant are, by definition, inside the body. Thus, elemental release from
implants is thought to be more critical biologically then elements released from dental
alloys used for prosthetic restorations.
-

The route by which an element gains access inside the body is critical to its

biological effects.
-

Once inside the body, metal ions can be distributed to many tissues, each

harboring a characteristic amount. They are distributed by:

Diffusion through tissue

Lymphatics

Blood stream

Ultimately the body eliminates metals through the urine, feces or lungs.

There is little evidence that elements released from alloys contribute significantly

to the systematic presence of elements in body. In most situations, the amounts of

elements that are released from dental alloy are for below those taken in as part of diet.
-

Furthermore, no studies with dental casting alloys and implants have shown the

systemic metal levels are elevated from use of dental crown.

LOCAL TOXICITY
A second major concern about the safety of dental casting alloys is whether
elements released can cause toxicity locally, that is adjacent to the restoration.
Casting alloys are in long-term intimate contact with local tissue. And there are often
microenvironment formed between the alloy and the tissue. For example, a dental
crown often extends below the level of the gingival, forming a sulcus between the
gingiva and the alloy. If elements from the alloy are released into this sulcus, they are not
diluted by saliva or digestive juices.
-

The concentration that is required to have a local adverse effect may be much

lower then concentration necessary to cause systemic effects through oral route.
28

Elements released towards the tissue side of the removable partial denture

framework may not be diluted by oral fluids to same extent as elements that are released
from the opposite side of the framework consequently, metal ion concentration may be
higher next to the tissue than in the saliva.
-

In invitro it is clear that, if metal ions are present at higher enough concentrations

they will alter-or totally disable cellular metabolism. The mitochondrial activity is often
used because it is indicative of the cellular ability to provide energy for all other cellular
processes.
-

At low concentration (< 2.0 u mol/ml), cellular mitochondrial activity is

unchanged from normal however, as the concentration of silver ion increases cellular
activity falls dramatically. Above 10 u mol/ml, activity is essentially zero.
-

Toxicity of these metal ions is reported as the concentration to depress cellular

activity by 50% or the toxicity concentration of 50% (TC 50 value).

TC 50 values (after 24hrs of exposure) for metal ions range from 6 to 3000 u mol/ml,
depending on the cell type and toxicity parameter that is measured.
-

If the exposure time of the metal ion to cells is increased, the TC 50 value will

decrease i.e. the longer the metal ions are in contact with cells, the lower the amount of
metal ions are required to cause cellular problems. Thus, alloys that release elements over
longer periods are more likely to cause toxic effects.
-

Although the release of elements from dental alloy is well established in vitro and

in vivo, the local biologic effects of these released elements is still a topic of intense
debate.
-

Various studies have clearly established that release of metallic ions is necessary

for cellular damage but dose not guarantee that cellular damage will occur. Whether
damage will occur depends on the elemental species, the concentrations released and the
duration of their exposure to the cells.
Allergy to dental alloys
-

An element must be released from an alloy to cause allergy. No studies has show

that allergy to alloys can occur without corrosion and release of metallic ions.

29

Metal ions cannot act as allergens by themselves. Rather they act as haptens,

binding to resident molecules and altering these molecules such that the body sees the
complex as foreign. Because of their ability to bind to many types of molecules in the
body such as proteins, nucleic acids, or carbohydrates, the potential for many types of
allergic complexes is greater.
-

Finally the exposure of metal ions to the oral mucosa may elicit different effects

than if ions are exposed to the skin.

-

Classically, allergic responses are characterized by dose independence. In reality

the boundary between toxicity and allergy are not clear and the relationship is still an
active area of research.
-

Patch tests for metal hypersensitivity are controversial. Allergy to metal is

assessed by either applying the metal ion to the skin in a patch or by injecting a small
amount of the ion below the skin. Even with proper administration, the assessment of the
response is difficult.
-

The incidence of hypersensitivity with clinical dental products in general appears

to quiet low. In one study only one in 400 prosthodontic patients experienced adverse
effects to the materials. Of those, 27% were related to base metal and to noble metal
alloys. Redness, swelling, pain and lichenoid reactions were common signs and
symptoms of the responders.
-

Studies indicate that about 15% of general population is sensitive to nickel, 8% is

sensitive to cobalt and 8% to chromium. Documented allergies have also been reported
for mercury, copper, gold, platinum, palladium, tin and zinc.
MUTAGENECITY AND CARCINOGENITY OF DENTAL ALLOYS:
-

Mutagenicity:

Describes an alternation of base pair sequence of DNA (a

mutation).
-

Carcinogenicity: means that alternations in the DNA have caused a cell to grow

and divide inappropriately. Carcinogenicity results from several mutations.

-

Metals may not have to act directly on DNA to cause mutations, but may generate

free radicals that may alter the DNA.

30

Alloys must release elements for carcinogenicity or mutagenicity to occur.

Therefore, an alloys ability to cause carcinogenicity or mutagenicity is directly related to

corrosion.
-

Carcinogenic activity of elements in dental alloys is often unknown or poorly

understood. There is little or no evidence for the dental literature that indicates that metal
alloys are carcinogenic.
-

It is also imperative to realize that the form of the metal is critical to

understanding its mutagenic potential. For example, the oxidation state of chromium is
critical to understanding its mutagenic potential. Cr3+ is not a mutagen, but Cr6+ is. The
molecular form for the metal ion is also important. Nickel ions are weak mutagen but
Nickel subsulfide (Ni2S3) is highly mutagenic. Therefore it is improper to state that a
metal is mutagenic or carcinogenic per se, because the mutagenic activity will depend
upon the specific form and oxidation state of metallic elements in question.
-

In dental laboratories, the vapor forms of elements such as beryllium are the most

common mutagenic threat. The vapors are created during casting and finishing of the
prosthetics. Exposure to beryllium may result in acute and chronic form of Beryllosis.
Symptoms range from coughing, chest pain and general weakness to pulmonary
dysfunction.
-

Overall, there is no evidence that dental alloys cause or contribute to neoplasia in

the body however it may be prudent for practitioners to avoid alloys containing elements
such as cadmium, cobalt and beryllium.
GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF ALLOYS
Choosing an alloy for prosthodontic restorations is a formidable risk. Although
there is no formula for selection, practioner may find the following guidelines helpful.
Develop an understanding of alloys
1.

Avoid selecting an alloy based on its color unless all other factors are equal.

2.

Know the complete composition of alloys, and avoid elements to which the patent

is allergic. Know the alloys that the laboratory uses; specify a specific alloy in the
laboratory prescription.

31

3.

When possible use single phase alloys over multiple phase alloys.

4.

Keep track of the alloys used in the patients with the identalloy system or

something similar. At minimum, the name of the alloy and manufacturer be recorded.

Use clinically proven products from quality manufacturer.

5.

Use alloys from companies that research and manufactures their own alloys.

These companies will be able to provide the most accurate information, the best services,
and the best answers when problems arise.
6.

Use alloys that have been tested for elemental release and corrosion and that have

the lowest possible release of elements.

7.

Use a dental laboratory that is knowledgeable about its alloys and willing to

discuss issues about them.

Develop a clinical philosophy
8.

Focus on the long-term clinical performance and long term cost of restorations

rather then on short term cost

9.

Consider the clinical situation (esthetics, occlusion, space and systemic allergy)

when selecting an alloy. Select the alloy that meets the needs of the patients. Avoid a one
size fits all approach.
10.

Remember that the practitioner is ultimately responsible for the safety and

efficiency of any restoration.

CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL ALLOYS
Older classification system for classifying dental alloys
Approximately 25 to 30 years ago, alloys were organized into three groups according to
their use:
I.

Gold based alloys for full-cast restorations

II.

Metal-ceramic alloys for porcelain bonding

III.

Alloys for removable partial denture

32

I. GOLD-BASED ALLOYS FOR FULL CAST RESTORATIONS:

There were 4 types of these alloys as given in table below:
Type

Hardness

Yield strength(Mpa)

Percentage

I
II
III
IV

Soft
Medium
Hard
Extra hard

< 140
140 200
201 340
>340

elongation (%)
18
18
12
10

This method of classification was based on one developed in 1927 by the Bureau of
standards (now the National Institute for Standards and technology) and was based on
their dental function. After the ADA revised specification 5, the alloys were classified
according to their properties and not their compositions.
These alloys were essentially ternary alloys of gold, silver and copper with small
amounts of zinc, platinum and palladium; iridium was occasionally added for grain
refinement (which helped improve physical properties).
The most commonly used one was Type III, which typically had a composition
similar to,: (in weight %)
Gold

75%

Silver

10%

Copper

10%

Palladium

3%

Zinc

2%

Effects of various constituents:

Gold: increase resistance of tarnish and corrosion; increase ductility and malleability
Copper: principal hardener; is necessary for heat treatment (when added in a
concentration > 12wt %)
33

Silver: main purpose is to modify the red color produced by gold and copper; reduces
melting temperature; increases ductility and malleability.
Platinum: raises melting temperature; increases tensile strength; decreases the coefficient
of thermal expansion; reduces tarnish and corrosion.
Palladium: raises melting temperature; increases hardness; acts to absorb hydrogen gas
which can cause porosity in the casting; prevents tarnish and corrosion; has a very strong
whitening effect on gold alloys even when used at a low concentration (i.e 5 wt%)
Zinc: act as a scavenger and prevents oxidation of the other metals during the
manufacturing process; increases fluidity and decreases surface tension which improves
cast ability.
Iridium: act as a grain refiner; this increases tensile strength and percentage elongation
(i.e ductility) it also increases, to a much lesser degree (if at all), hardness and yield
strength.
As these gold-based full casting alloys go from Type I to Type IV, their
composition changes: gold content, melting temperature, and ductility decreases, while
copper content, proportional limit, hardness, tensile strength and yield strength increases.
To a great extent, the alloys physical properties determine where they are best suited for
use:
Type I: inlays for non-stress bearing areas
Type II: inlays and onlays in stress bearing areas
Type III: Full crowns, crowns, and short-span fixed partial Dentures
Type IV: Full crowns, long span fixed partial dentures and removable partial dentures.
II. Metal-ceramic alloys for Porcelain Bonding
These alloys differed from the gold-based alloys used for full cast restorations in
the following ways:
1. They had higher melting temperature (due to greater palladium content) to
accommodate the temperature required for porcelain application.
2. They contained little, if any silver which could cause the porcelain to turn green.
3. They contained little, if any, copper because it could cause the alloy to sag during
porcelain firing.

34

There were six types of these alloys: Four were gold-or palladium based, however
the most common contained both gold and palladium. The remaining two were nickel or
cobalt based.
III. Alloys for Removable Partial Dentures
These consisted of three types:
1. Type IV gold-based alloys
2. Chromium-based alloys
3. Cobalt-based alloys
The type IV gold based alloys were strong enough to function adequately when
used to make framework.
The Cr & Co based alloys differed from their metal-ceramic counterparts in that
they contained a small amount of carbon (0.1 to 0.5wt%) for hardening.
These alloys had advantages compared to Type IV gold based alloys in that they
were stronger, 30% harder, less dense (therefore light and cheaper), and had twice as high
higher modulus of elasticity (i.e rigidity). The greater rigidity made them a good choice
for removable partial denture frameworks because the frameworks could be cast in
thinner sections and still retains the important property of rigidity. Also, because they
flexed less, undercuts used for clasp retention could be less pronounced and skill function
adequately.
Disadvantages:
Of these alloys (compared to the Type IV gold) were their higher casting
temperature and higher hardness (which made fabrication, finishing, and polishing more
difficult) and their low ductility. Low ductility meant that clasps could only be
permanently deformed a few times before they failed.
CURRENT SYSTEM FOR CLASSIFYING DENTAL ALLOYS:
The previous system for classifying alloys used in prosthodontics was based on
three mutually exclusive categories: gold-based alloys for full-cast restorations, metalceramic alloys for porcelain bonding, and alloys for removable partial dentures. For

35

economic and technical reasons, there is now considerable overlap of these three. Todays
system is based on 2 separate criteria. Physical properties and composition.

1) Classification Based on Physical properties:

Type
I
II
III
IV

Hardness
Soft
Medium
Hard
Extra hard

Yield strength(Mpa)

Percentage

< 140
140 200
201 340
>340

elongation (%)
18
18
12
10

2) Another system, this one based on alloy composition and not physical properties
was proposed by ADA in 1984 to accommodate new types of alloys that were
being introduced at the time.

Type
High Noble

Composition
Gold content >= 40 Wt % and

Noble
Primarily Base. Metal

Noble metal content >= 60 Wt %

Noble metal content >= 25 Wt %
Noble metal content < 25 Wt %

ALLOYS FOR ALL METAL AND RESIN VENEER RESTORATION

Based on the 1989 revision of specification No.5 by the ADA, the following 4
alloy types are classified by their properties and not by their compositions:
Type I (Soft) small inlays, easily burnished and subject to very slight stress
Type II (medium) inlays subject to moderate stress, including thick three-quarter
crows, abutments, pontics and full crowns.

36

Type III (hard) Inlays subject to high stress, including thin three-quarter crowns,
thin cast backings, abutments, pontics, full crowns and denture bases, and short-span
fixed partial dentures.
Type IV (Extra Hard) Inlays subject to very high stresses including denture
bases, bars and clasps, partial denture framework and long span fixed partial dentures.
(Full crowns are often made of this type).
The compositions of these alloys are usually based on a majority of either gold or
silver; gold alloys can be age hardened by an appropriate heat treatment.
Type I and II alloys are often referred to as Inlays alloys. Traditional type III and
IV alloys are generally called Crown and bridge alloys, although type IV used
occasionally for high stress application such as removable partial denture frameworks.
Silver-Palladium alloys:
-

White in color

Predominantly silver in composition but have substantial amounts of palladium

that provide nobility and promote the silver tarnish resistance.

May or may not have copper .

Copper free Ag-Pd alloy may contain 70-72% silver and 25% palladium
Other silver-based alloys might contain roughly 60% silver, 25% palladium and as
much as 15% or more copper.

Major limitations greater potential for tarnish and corrosion.

Nickel chromium and cobalt chromium alloys:

They are rarely used for all-metal restorations. These alloys mainly used in metalceramic restorations and partial dentures.
Titanium and Titanium alloys
-

The use of commercially pure titanium (CPTi) and titanium alloys increased
significantly over last two decades.

37

These metals can be used for all-metal and metal-ceramic prosthesis, as well as
for implants and removable partial denture frameworks. Titanium is considered
the most biocompatible metal used for dental prosthesis.

According to American society for testing and materials (ASTM), there are five
unalloyed grades of CPTi (Grades 1-4, and Grade 7), based on the concentration
of oxygen (0.18 Wt% to 0.40 Wt%) and iron (0.2 Wt% to 0.5 Wt%). Other
impurities include nitrogen (0.3 Wt% to 0.05 Wt%), carbon (0.1 Wt%) and
Hydrogen (0.015 Wt%).

The corrosion protection is derived from a thin (10nm) passivating oxide film that
forms spontaneously. However because the oxidation rate of titanium increases
markedly above 9000C, it is desirable to use ultra-low-fusing porcelain for
titanium-ceramic prosthesis.

Titanium has the highest melting temperature of all metals used for metal ceramic
prosthesis and is highly resistant to sag-deformation of metal frameworks at
porcelain sintering temperatures. This high melting point is accompanied by a
relatively low thermal expansion coefficient, and special low-expansion dental
porcelain is necessary for bonding to titanium.

Commercially pure titanium undergoes on allotropic transformation from a

hexagonal closed-packed crystal structure ( phase) to
Body centered crystal structure ( phase) at 885 c
Four possible types of titanium alloys can be produced: , near-, and .

Vanadium: Which has a bcc structure, is one of the alloying elements that is isomorphous
with the -phase and is a -phase stabilizer, that is, causing transformation from -phase
to -phase to occur at lower temperature on cooling.
Aluminum: which is a -phase stabilizer (i.e causing the transformation of -phase to phase to occur at a higher temperature on heating), is included in and near alloys.
The most widely used titanium alloy in dentistry and for general commercial
applications is Ti-6Al-4V, which is a alloy. But this alloy is not as biocompatible as
CPTi, because slow release of aluminum and vanadium atoms in vivo.

38

Aluminum Bronze alloy

-

Traditionally bronze is defined as a copper-rich, copper-tin alloy

Composition of ADA approved alloy of this group has

o 81 88% copper
o 7 11 wt% aluminum
o 2 4 wt% nickel
o 1 4 wt% iron

Disadvantages
-

Copper reacts with sulfur to form copper sulfide, which tarnishes the surface of
this alloy.

ALLOYS FOR METAL-CERAMIC RESTORATIONS

-

The chief objection to the use of dental porcelain as a restorative material is its
low tensile and shear strength. This can be minimized by bonding porcelain
directly to a cast alloy substructure made to fit the prepared tooth. If a strong bond
is attained between the porcelain veneers and the metal, the porcelain veneer is
reinforced.

The original metal ceramic alloys contained 88% gold and were much too soft for
stress-bearing restorations. As there was no evidence of a chemical bond between
these alloys and dental porcelain, mechanical retention and undercuts were used
to prevent detachment of the ceramic veneer. By adding less than 1% of oxide
forming elements such as iron, indium, and tin to this high-gold content alloy, the
porcelain metal bond strength was improved by a factor of 3.

Classification of alloys used for metal-ceramic restorations:

1) High noble

Au Pt Pd
Au Pd Ag
Au Pd

2) Noble Pd Au
39

 Pd Au Ag
Pd Ag
3) Base metal

Pure titanium
Ti Al V
Ni Cr Mo
Ni Cr Mo Be

Inspite of vastly different chemical compositions all the alloys share atleast 3 common
features:
1) They have the potential to bond to dental porcelain
2) They possess coefficients of thermal contraction compatible with those of dental
porcelain.
3) Their solidus temperature is sufficiently high to permit the application of low
fusing porcelains.
Alloys for metal-ceramic bonding have several unique requirements that do not apply to
all-metal products. These alloys must have thermal expansion / contraction coefficient
that is comparable to or slightly greater than that of the veneering porcelain, and they
must also have a sufficiently high melting range to avoid sag deformation or melting
during sintering of porcelain veneers.
To avoid this potential problem, a sag resistant alloy should be used.
HIGH NOBLE ALLOYS

By definition, these alloys must have a noble metal content of atleast 60 wt% of
which at least 40 wt% is gold. They usually contain a small amount of tin, indium and/or
iron, which provide for oxide layer formation.
The disadvantages of these alloys are
-

Lower rigidity

Poor sag resistance during porcelain fixing.

Gold-Palladium silver alloys (low silver content);

Composition: Au 75%
Pd 12%
40

Ag 10%
Sn, Zn, In - Balance
Advantages: Excellent resistance to tarnish and corrosion and relative freedom form
technique sensitivity associated with porcelain bonding and thermal contraction
differences.
Disadvantages: potential for porcelain discoloration when silver vapor is released and
deposited on the porcelain surface.
Gold-Palladium silver alloys: (high silver content)
Composition:Au 52%
Pd 26%
Ag 17%
Sn, Zn, In - Bal
These alloys are white colored and are used primarily for their lower cost and comparable
physical properties.
The Au-Pd alloys with high silver content (12% to 22%) have been popular alternatives
to the higher gold content alloys for many years despite their potential for porcelain
discoloration. The silver increases the thermal contraction coefficient.
Gold Palladium alloys
The first alloy of gold-palladium type was introduced in 1977 by J.F Jelenko and
Co. this alloy was designed to overcome the porcelain discoloration effect (because it is
silver free) and also to provide an alloy with a lower thermal contraction coefficient
than that of either the Au-Pd-Ag or Pd-Ag alloys.
Composition:
Au 51. 5%
Pd 38%
Ca 15%
Sn, Zn and In Bal

41

When used with compatible porcelains, Au-Pd alloys are considered nearly ideal
compared with other noble metal alloys, since these alloys contain no silver and
their surface oxides is virtually indiscernible.

The sag- resistance of these alloys is somewhat better then Au-Pt-Pd alloy.

Their castability, corrosion resistance and adherence to porcelain excellent.

These alloys are moderately priced.

Whiter in color.

The only recognizable disadvantage is the incompatible co-efficeint of thermal

contraction with some of the porcelains with higher thermal contractions coefficient.

Alloys of this type must be used with porcelains, which have lower coefficient of
thermal contraction to avoid the development of axial and circumferential tensile
stresses in porcelain during the cooling part of the porcelain firing cycle.

Gold-Platinum alloys
-

Initially developed as an alternative to palladium alloys, these can be used for

full-cast as well as metal-ceramic restorations.

Because they are subject to sag, they should be limited to short-span fixed partial
dentures.

They often contain silver or zinc as a hardener.

Composition:
Au 85%
Pt 12%
Zn 1%
Ag in some brands
NOBLE ALLOYS

By definition, these alloys must contain at least 25 wt% noble metal. Because the
noble alloys can contain a number of different metals, they are a rather diverse
group. As a general rule, however, they have relatively high strength, hardness
and ductility. They may be yellow or white in color.

42

When white, it is due to their palladium content. Palladium also gives them their
relatively high solidus temperature.

Palladium-Silver alloys:
-

These alloys were introduced in late 1970s.

The disadvantages was they had a tendency to discolor the porcelain during firing

This greenish yellow discoloration, popularly termed as Greening is due to the

silver vapor that escapes from the surface of these alloys during firing of the
porcelain, the silver vapor diffuses as ionic silver into the porcelain, and is
reduced to form colloidal metallic silver in the surface of porcelain.

Some of high palladium alloys develop a layer of dark oxide on their surface
during cooling from the degassing cycle, and this layer has proven difficult to
mask by opaque porcelain.

Composition of Pd-Au alloys fall within a narrow range 53 to 61% palladium and
28-40% silver. Tin or indium or both are usually added to increase alloy hardness
and to promote oxide formation for adequate bonding of porcelain.

Adherence of porcelain is considered to be acceptable for most of Pd-Ag alloys.

However, some of these alloys may form internal rather then external oxides.
Instead of the formation of the desired external oxide, Pd-Ag nodules may
develop on the surface that affects retention of porcelain by mechanical rather
then chemical bonding.

Palladium-Copper alloys:
-

Comparable in cost to Pd-Ag alloys

Susceptible to creep deformation at elevated firing temperatures, so attention is

given when these alloy used for long span fixed partial denture with small
connectors.

Composition: 74 80% Pd
2 15% copper

Porcelain discoloration due to copper is not a major problem.

43

These have 1145 MPa of yield strength and hardness values equal to base metal
alloys.

These have a poor potential for burnishing when the marginal areas are thin.

Palladium-Cobalt alloys
-

These alloys contain around 88% palladium and 4 5 %. Cobalt this group is the
most sag resistant of the noble metal alloys.

These alloys a have good handling characteristic

They tend to have relatively high thermal contraction coefficient and would be
expected to be more compatible with higher expansion porcelain.

Main disadvantage: is the formation of a dark oxide that may be difficult to mask
at thin margins.

Palladium-Gallium-Silver and Palladium-Gallium-Silver-Gold alloys:

-

These alloys are the most recent of the noble metals. This group of alloys was
introduced because they tend to have a slightly lighter-colored oxide than the Pd
Cu alloys and they are thermally compatible with lower expansion porcelains.

The silver content is relatively low (5%) and is usually inadequate to cause
significant porcelain greening.

Alloys for ultra-low fusing porcelains

-

Porcelain developments have focused on improving the life-like (aesthetic)

qualities of the materials.

As a result the sintering temperatures of some newer ultra low fusing porcelains
are now below 8500C

The lower fusing temperature has benefited the high-gold alloys that sometimes
suffer from poor sag-resistance during porcelain firing.

Less Abrasive porcelains

-

A new type porcelain was introduced in mid-1980s. These materials contain a

glass phase and very small crystal particles.

44

They are generally less abrasive to opposing teeth and are sintered at a lower
temperature than conventional porcelains and must accordingly be more closely
matched to the thermal expansion coefficients of the cost alloys to be used in
metal-ceramic prosthesis.

Physical properties of High noble and noble metal alloys

1) The metal-ceramic alloys must have a high melting range so that the metal is solid
well above the porcelain sintering temperature to minimize distortion (Sag) of the
casting during porcelain application.
2) Must have considerably low fusing temperature
3) Good corrosion resistance
4) High modulus of elasticity.
BASE METAL ALLOYS FOR METAL-CERAMIC RESTORATIONS
-

Developed in 1970s most of the base metal alloys are based on nickel and
chromium, but a few cobalt-chromium based alloys are also available.

Composition:
Ni Cr:

61 81 wt% Ni
11 27 wt% Cr
2 5 % Molybdenum

Co Cr:

53 67% Co
25 32% Cr
2 6 % Mo

These alloys contains one or more of the following elements; aluminum, beryllium,
boron, carbon, cobalt, copper, cerium, gallium, iron, manganese, niobium, silicon, tin and
zirconium.
Properties of Ni Cr, Ni Cr Be and Co Cr alloys:
The base metal alloys have different physical properties then noble metal alloys.
-

The most significant are high hardness, high yield strength, and high elastic
modulus.

45

Elongations is about the same as for gold alloys but is negated by the high yield
strength which makes it difficult to work the metal.

The elastic modulus of base metal alloys is as much as 2 times greater than the
values of noble metal alloys, which decreases the flexibility to a significant
degree. The flexibility of a fixed partial denture framework constructed of Ni Cr
is less then half that of a framework of the same dimensions made from a high
gold alloy. This property would enhance the application of base metal alloys for
long-span bridges.

In a similar manner, the high modulus of elasticity may be used to permit thinner
castings.

The creep resistance of nickel-based alloys at porcelain firing temperature is

considered to be superior to the resistance of gold and palladium based alloys
under the similar conditions.

It is particularly important in long span bridges where the porcelain firing

temperature may cause the unsupported structure to deform permanently. Under
controlled condition it has been found that base metal alloy deform less than
25um, whereas a noble metal alloy deforms 225um.

They have high hardness and strength therefore grinding and polishing of fixed
restoration to achieve proper occlusion require more chair side time.

The addition of beryllium to some Ni Cr alloys result in more favorable

properties. Beryllium increases the fluidity, and improves casting performance. It
also controls surface oxidation and results in more reliable, less technique
sensitive porcelain metal bonds.

There are several reasons for use of Ni Cr alloy in dentistry:

1. Nickel is combined with chromium to form a highly corrosion resistant alloy.
2. Ni Cr alloys became popular in early 1980s as low cost metals.
3. The Ni Cr and Ni Cr Be alloys are relatively inexpensive compared with
high noble or noble alloys. The price of nickel base alloys is stable, unlike the
price of palladium-based alloys.

46

4. Nickel alloys have excellent mechanical properties, such as high elastic modulus,
high hardness and a reasonably high ductility.
PARTIAL DENTURE ALLOYS
They are classified as:
High noble:

Au Ag Cu Pd

Noble

Ag Pd

Base metal:

Pure Ti, Ti AL V
Ni Cr Mo Be
Ni Cr Mo
Co Cr Mo

Properties required
1) High tarnish Corrosion resistance
2) Should be easily castable
3) High modulus of elasticity, which helps in determining thickness of various
portions of framework.
4) Should have high strength and hardness.
5) Ductility should be higher which represents a measure of amount of plastic
deformation that a denture framework can with stand before it fractures.

WROUGHT ALLOYS
These are metal alloys that are relatively ductile and amenable to hot work or cold
work during fabrication. Such alloys are shaped when solid by a process, which involves
their deformation by mechanical means.
Gold alloys: often ternary alloys of Au-Cu-Ag or 'platinized' alloys containing 10-20wt%
Pt and Pd. Wire can be used in the work hardened condition for orthodontic appliances.

47

Co-Cr alloys: the wire is used for the clasp arms of partial denture frameworks because
of its increased ductility in comparison with the cast form which is inherently brittle and
can often break if minor adjustments are attempted.
Co-Cr-Ni alloys: Special wires are available such as Elgiloy (Co 20Cr-16Fe-15Ni-7Mo2Mn). It is presented for orthodontic use in straight lengths of various hardness values.
Wiptam (Co-30Cr-25Ni) is used as an economic way of producing the root-section of a
post crown. Crevice corrosion is more likely with such a restoration.
Titanium & titanium alloys: wire for use in orthodontic appliances is available. Ni-Ti
alloys such as Nitinol (Ti-48Ni-2Co) are superelastic wires, which are widely used now
because they transmit a low force to a tooth or teeth over an appreciable distance.
Wrought titanium and titanium alloys such as Ti-6AI-4V are used for surgical implants
including dental implants such as the Branemarck, Astra, Calciteck & Straumann systems
and osseointegration occurs between the implant fixture and bone. Dental implants are
machined or cut to shape.
Metals are shaped either by deformation of solid products such as wire or sheet or by
casting which involves melting and pouring the liquid metal into a mould whereupon it
solidifies.
Stainless steels and Ni- Ti alloys (superelasticity)
Stainless steel: Stainless steel is an alloy of iron (Fe) and carbon (C). The carbon content
is not greater than 2wt%. Stainless steel also contains chromium (Cr), which gives it
corrosion resistance due to an oxide of chromia that forms on the alloy surface. The
chromium content should be greater than 12wt% in order to give adequate protection.
Stainless steel may be used in sheet form for fracture resistant denture bases (18/8
austenitic stainless steel: 18%Cr -8% Ni). The wire form is used for orthodontic
appliances and is often austenitic stainless steel. It may also be used for rests, clasp arms
and lingual bars. Pre-formed crowns can be made from work-hardened stainless steel.
Dental instruments, pins and root posts can all be made from stainless steel.

48

Nickel-titanium: Nickel-titanium alloys exhibiting superelasticity are those containing

approximately 50 wt. % Nickel and 50 wt. % Titanium. The phenomenon of
superelasticity observed in such alloys is manifested in the form of large elastic
deformation of the order of 8 % that is completely reversible. However, unlike 'normal'
alloys, like steels, stress is not proportional to strain on loading and a characteristic
plateau is obtained on the stress-strain curve. Large elastic strains are possible because of
stress-induced superelasticity whereby a phase-transformation occurs on loading that
begins at the start of the plateau and ends when 'normal' stress-strain behavior resumes at
the end of the plateau. This makes such alloys extremely useful as orthodontic wires since
on unloading (as teeth move and the stress in the wire decreases) only small changes in
stress are observed for large changes in strain (the distance moved by the tooth). These
alloys are also very useful as endodontic files since the large strains observed with
relatively little change in stress allow the file to follow the curvature of the root canal
more faithfully, cleaning the canal walls rather than removing sound dentine.
Softening metals
An important group of forming processes involves shaping the metals by plastic
deformation (deformation that is permanent or non-recoverable). These processes include
rolling, pressing & drawing (process by which wires are produced).
Metal denture bases have been and still on occasion are formed in this manner
from sheet. The processes used are not normally available in the dental laboratory and
involve large pieces of equipment. For instance, the hydraulic press is used to form steel
denture bases. Titanium alloy denture bases have more recently been formed using
superplastic forming. A technique involving the detonation of explosive charges has also
been utilized.
Cold-work is the plastic deformation of a metal at a temperature below the
recrystallization temperature. The recrystallization temperature is the temperature at
which full recrystallization occurs in one hour. As the metal is deformed by rolling or

49

drawing, the grains distort and become elongated. Within a single grain, dislocations
(crystal imperfections) move along close-packed planes of atoms. In grains and at grain
boundaries dislocations (crystal imperfections) multiply and interact with one another.
This interaction leads to a reduction in the possible paths along which dislocations may
move. The mechanical properties of the metal change as these processes take place. The
metal hardens and becomes less ductile. If too much deformations were to occur the
metal would fracture.
Softening metals by annealing
The way in which a cold-worked metal can be softened is by annealing.
Annealing is the process by which metals are heated and changes take place in the
material which renders it softer and ductility is recovered. The changes that take place
depend on the temperature to which the metal is heated and the length of time held at that
temperature.
When the metal is heated to less than 0.3 of melting temperature (in Kelvin)
dislocations disappear and internal stresses are relieved. This process is called recovery.
Between 0.3-0.5 of melting point very large changes in hardness and strength
occur due to the change in the shape of the grains. The elongated grains, caused by coldwork, are gradually replaced by new equiaxed grains. The rate at which this occurs
depends on the metal and on the temperature. The metal is said to be at its
recrystallization temperature when total recrystallization takes place in one hour.
Before total recrystallization is complete the new grains begin to grow and after
total recrystallization grain growth will continue. Grain growth will be faster at higher
temperatures.
Once recrystallization has taken place the metal will exhibit the ductility, strength
and hardness that it possessed before cold-work. By a combination of cold-work and
annealing a metal can be drawn down to produce a wire. Wires work-hardened by
bending can be softened by annealing.

50

Magnets
Permanent rare earth magnets such as Samarium-cobalt (SmCo5) and Neodyniumiron-boron (NdFeB) are mainly used for overdentures where between 2 and 4 attachments
may be used for retention. Most dental magnets are of the closed-field type where 2 poles
of a magnet are connected by a soft ferromagnetic material (keeper) and the external
magnetic field is shunted through the keeper eliminating external magnetic fields which
are believed by some to be harmful!
However, these alloys are extremely prone to corrosion and as a result must be
kept from oral fluids. Therefore, one arrangement involved containing the NdFeB magnet
in a stainless steel keeper encapsulated in a titanium dome. Unfortunately the casing can
fail due to wear leading to corrosion of the permanent magnet.
One group of researchers claim to be working on the development of a Platinumrich alloy for magnet bodies for dental prostheses that need not be encased. The
Platinum-rich alloys supposedly possess the magnetic properties, the corrosion and wear
resistance to withstand the demanding conditions of the mouth for the retention of the
denture.
DENTAL IMPLANTS MATERIALS:
Most commonly, metal and alloys are used for dental implants. Initially, surgical grade
stainless steel & Co Cr alloys were used because of their acceptable physical properties
and relatively good corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. However, it is currently
more common to use implants made of pure titanium or titanium alloys, because of the
excellent biocompatibility of titanium.
Implants materials can be classified as:
a) Metallic Implant material
b) Ceramic implant material
c) Polymeric implant material

51

d) Other implant material

1. Metallic implant material
1. Stainless steel
-

The first stainless steel used for implant materials was 18 8, which is stronger than
vanadium steel and more resistant to corrosion.

Chromium is a major component of corrosion- resistant stainless steel.

The surgical austenitic stainless steel, especially types 316 and 316L, are most widely
used for implants.
It is iron carbon (0.05%) alloy with approx. 18% chromium (corrosion resistance)
and 8% nickel (to stabilize the austenitic structure)

Because nickel is present, its use in patients allergic to nickel is contraindicated

The alloy is most frequently used in a wrought and heat - treated condition it has
strength and ductility, thus it is resistant to brittle fracture.

Surface passivation is required to maximize corrosion-biocorrosion resistance of the

alloys; this alloy is most subject to crevice and pitting corrosion. Therefore, care must
be taken to use and retain the passivated (oxide) surface.

2. Co-Based alloys
-

These materials are usually referred as cobalt chromium alloys.

The ASTM (American Society for testing and materials) lists 4 types at Co-based
alloys that are recommended for surgical implant applications

1) Cast Co Cr Mo alloy
2) Wrought Co Cr W Ni alloy
3) Wrought Co Ni Cr Mo alloy
4) Wrought Co Ni Cr MoW Fe alloy
-

At present, only 2 of the four alloys are used extensively in implant fabrications, the
castable Co Cr Mo and wrought Co Ni Mo alloy.

52

The composition of Co-based alloys is approx. 63% Co, 30% Cr and 5% and they
contain small concentrations of carbon, manganese and nickel.

Molybolenum stabilizes the structure

Carbon act as a hardner

These alloys posses outstanding resistance to corrosion and they have high strength.
However they are least ductile of all alloys systems and therefore bending must be
avoided.

When proper quality control is ensured, the alloys groups exists excellent
biocompatibility

3. Ti and Ti Based alloys

-

Attempts to use titanium for implant fabrication date to the late 1930s. Its lightness
(4.5 g/cm3 compared to 7.9 g/cm3 for 316 stainless steel, 8.3 g/ cm 3 for cast Co Cr
Mo alloys) and good mechanochemical properties are salient features for implant
application.

There are four (grade 1 4) four grades of unalloyed titanium for implant
applications. The impurity contents separate them; oxygen, iron and nitrogen. Oxygen
has a great influence on the ductility and strength.

One titanium alloy (Ti 6 Al 4V) is widely used to manufacture implants. The main
alloying elements of the alloy are Al (5.5 6.5 wt%) and vanadium (3.5 4.5 wt%).

Titanium is an allotropic material that exists as a hexagonal close-packed structure (

- Ti) upto 8820C and body-centered cubic structure ( - Ti) above that temperature.
The addition of alloying elements to titanium enables it to have a wide range of
properties:

1. Aluminum tends to stabilize the -phase, that is, increase the transformation
temperature from to phase.
The - alloy have single-phase microstructure which promotes good weldability. The
stabilizing effect of high aluminum content results in excellent strength characteristic
and oxidation resistance at high temperature. These alloys cannot be heat-treated for
strengthening. Since they are single phased.

53

2. Vanadium stabilizes the -phase by lowering the temperature of the transformation

from to .
-

The higher % by - stabilizing elements results in a microstructure that is

substantially which can be strengthened by heat treatment.

Mechanical properties of Ti and Ti alloy

Properties
Tensile strength

Grade1
240

Grade2
345

Grade3
450

Grade4
550

Ti 6A1 4V
860

(MPa)
Yield strength

170

275

380

485

795

(Mpa)
Elongation (%)

24

20

18

15

10

The modulus of elasticity of these materials is about 110 Gpa, which is half the value
of Co-based alloys.

From table one can reveal that the higher impurity content leads to higher strength
and reduced ductility.

The strength of the material varies form a value much lower than that of stainless
steel or co-based alloys to a value equal to that of annealed 316 stainless steel or the
cast Co Cr Mo alloy.
However, when the compared by the specific strength (strength per density) the Tialloy excels over any other implant material.

Titanium derives its resistance to corrosion by the formation of a solid oxide layer.
Under in vivo conditions the oxide (Ti O2) is the only stable reaction product. An
oxide layer 100 A thick forms a thin adherent film passivates that material.

Few titanium substructures are plasma sprayed or coated with a thin layer of calcium
phosphate.

The rationale for coating the implant with tricalcium-phosphate or hydroxyapatite,

both rich in calcium and phosphorus to produce a bio-active surface that promotes
bone growth and induces a direct bond between the implant and hard tissues.

54

The rationale of a plasma sprayed surface is to provide a roughened, though

biologically acceptable, surface for bone ingrowth to ensure anchorage to the jaw.

4. Other metals and alloys

-

Several other metals have been used for a variety of specialized applications.

Early implants are made of gold, palladium, tantalum, platinum, iridium, and alloys
of these metals.

More recently, devices made from zirconium, hafnium, and tungsten have been
evaluated..

Metals implants undergo one or more of several surface modifications to enable them to
become suitable for implantation. These modifications are:
-

Passivation

Anodization

Ion implantation

Texturing

Passivation refers to the enhancement of the oxide layer to prevent the release of
metallic ions as a result of surface breakdown. Passivation treatments can be
performed through immersion in 40% nitric acid or Anodization where an electric
current is passed through the metal. The former method of treatment minimally
increases the oxide layer thickness, whereas the latter treatment results in a thicker
oxide layer, which is more beneficial in enhancing corrosion resistance.

Surface texturing increases the surface area of implant by up to 6 times and

enhances osseointegration by increasing the area to which bone can bond.
This is accomplished through:

Plasma spraying with titanium

Acid etching

Blasting with Al2 O3 or another ceramic material

It is important that the increased implants surface remain passive.

55

Ion implantation consists of bombarding the surface of implants with high-energy

ions upto a surface depth of 0.1um.This procedure is claimed to increase the
corrosion resistance of the metal through the formation of a Ti N surface layer.

B. Ceramic and Ceramic-coated Implant systems:

-

There are several synthetic and biological materials that have been used in the
treatment of bone defects, ridge augmentation, and osteoporotic lesions. These
materials are also used to coat metallic implants to produce an ionic ceramic surface,
which is thermodynamically stable and hydrophillic, thereby producing a high
strength attachment to bone and the surrounding tissues.
These ceramics can be either be plasma-sprayed or coated onto the metal-implant to
produce a bio-active surface. The term bioactive refers to a variety of inorganic
materials that can simulate adhesion and bonding to bone. These materials are
generally brittle and have high elastic modulus.

Ceramic implants can withstand only relatively low tensile stresses induced by
occlusal loads, but they can tolerate quite high levels of compressive stress.

Aluminum oxide (Al2 O3) is used as the gold standard for ceramic implants because
of its inertness with no evidence of ion release or immune reactions in vivo.

Zirconia (Zr O2) has also demonstrated a high degree of inertness, although alumina
(Al2 O3) has shown a higher surface wettability compared with those of metallic
surface implants. These ceramic implants are not bioactive. They have high strength,
stiffness and hardness and function well as sub periosteal or transosteal implants.

Of the synthetic types of materials, calcium phosphates are the most successful for
grafting and augmentation of bone. These materials are non-immunogenic and are
biocompatible with host tissues. The two most commonly used calcium phosphates
are hydroxyapatite (HA), or Ca10 (PO4)6(OH)2, and tricalcium phosphate (TCP), or
Co3(PO4)2.

These materials are bio-active

-

The bioglasses (SiO2 CaO Na2O P2O5 MgO) are another form of bioactive
ceramics. These materials are known to form a carbonated hydroxyapatite layer in
vivo as a result of their calcium and phosphorus content. They are bioactive in nature.

56

Despite their favorable osteoinductive ability bioglassess are also very brittle, which
makes them unsuitable for use as a stress-bearing implant materials.
C. Polymeric Implant material
-

Polymeric implant in the form of polymethyl methacrylate and polytetrafluroethylene

was introduced in 1930s.

The use of polymers for osseointegrated implants is now confined to components.

The implants are either titanium plasma-sprayed or HA-coated and incorporate a
polyoxymethylene (POM) intramobile element (IME), which act as internal shock
absorber.
The IME is placed between the prosthesis and the implant body to initiate mobility,
stress relief, and shock absorption capability to mimic that of natural tooth.

D. Other implant materials

-

Carbon and a carbon compound (C & Sic) were introduced in 1960s for used in
Implantology.

Vitreous carbon, elicits very minimal response from host tissue, thus one of the most
biocompatible materials.

Compared with metallic implants, carbon is inert under physiological conditions and
has a modulus of elasticity equivalent to that of dentin and bone.

However, because of its brittleness, carbon is susceptible to fracture under tensile

stress.

It also has relatively low compressive strength.

Carbon-based materials are also used for ceramic and metallic implant coatings.

TRENDS FOR TOMORROW:

-

Although it is difficult to predict, several trends are likely for prosthodontic

alloys. The trend toward metal free dentistry and associated use of all ceramic

57

restoration has received much promotion in recent years. Although all-ceramic

restorations are clearly advantageous in some clinical application and can provide
excellent esthetics, they currently are not a viable replacement for the metal
ceramics restoration.
-

All ceramics systems requires the removal of significantly more tooth structure
and are susceptible to fracture, especially in posterior teeth or in fixed partial
denture applications. The claims for superior biocompatibility of all ceramic
materials are often not proven but assumed based on tests with traditional ceramic
materials.

A relatively recent development has been the use of a sintered metal composite as
a metallic substructure for metal ceramic restorations. These composites consist of
a sintered high-noble alloy sponge infiltrated with an almost pure-gold alloy. The
result is a composite between 2 gold alloys that is not cast, but fired onto a special
refractory die.
The porcelain does not bond to an oxide layer in these systems but presumably

bonds mechanically to a micro-rough gold surface. Any stress concentrations at the

metal-ceramic interface are presumably relieved by the excellent ductility of the gold.
The esthetic of these metal-ceramic restorations is good because the yellow color of the
metal is more like that of dentin than other alloys. Gold composite systems do show
promise as an alternative to cast metal substructure for single units.
- Periodic controversies about the biological safety of metals leached from alloys will
probably continue. Most manufacturers are already aware of elemental release and have
taken steps to reduce it through new alloy formulations. The practioner must always try to
decide whether questions about biological safety are founded in fact or hyperbole.
Because the patient may be strongly influenced by questionable sources of information,
the practioner must try to focus on quality data from reputable sources of information
such as the food and drug administration, the manufacturer, literature in peer-reviewed
and respected scientific journals and academicians with expertise in the area. In the end,
practitioners must balance the need to satisfy patients with their commitment to sound,
proven clinical treatments that are based on published evidence.

58

REVIEW OF LITERATURE:
Release of elements from dental casting alloys into cell-culture medium over 10
months
Dental materials, vol 14, issue 2, March 1998.
Objective: The release of elements from eight types of commonly used dental casting
alloys into cell-culture medium was measured over a 10-month period. The release of
elements was determined to provide information about the long-term biological risk these
alloys may pose to the oral tissues. The current work extends previous studies of shorter
time periods, and is more relevant to the in vivo situation, where dental alloys are present
intraorally for years.

Method: The alloys were Au-, Ag-, Pd-, and Ni-based with nobilities ranging from 0 to
95 at %. Alloy samples (n=12) were exposed to cell-culture medium. The medium was
changed every 30 days for 10 months. Elemental release into the medium was measured
by means of atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Differences in mass release were
determined using ANOVA and Tukey multiple comparison intervals (a=0.05).
Results: The release of elements continued through 10 months, and it appeared that the
release was constant throughout most of the experiment. Higher initial rates were
suspected but not verified. Most alloys reached a constant rate after <100 days of
exposure to the medium. Long-term element release was not generally intuitive based on
the amount of an element in an alloy or the overall nobility of the alloy. Total mass lost
over the 10-month period ranged from <2 ug/cm2 for the Au-Pd alloy to 55 ug/cm2 for
the Au-Ag--Cu alloy (Tukey interval at a=0.05 was 0.8 ug/cm2). By comparison, pure Cu
lost 4500 ug/cm2 during this period.

Recent research and development in titanium alloys for biomedical applications and
healthcare goods
Science and technology of advance materials, vol 4, issue 5, sep 2003.
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Nb, Ta and Zr are the favorable non-toxic alloying elements for titanium alloys for
biomedical applications. Low rigidity titanium alloys composed of non-toxic elements
are getting much attention. The advantage or low rigidity titanium alloy for the healing of
bone fracture and the remodeling of bone is successfully proved by fracture model made
in tibia of rabbit. Ni-free super elastic and shape memory titanium alloys for biomedical
applications are energetically developed. Titanium alloys for not only implants, but also
dental products like crowns, dentures, etc. are also getting much attention in dentistry.
Development of investment materials suitable for titanium alloys with high melting point
is desired in dental precision castings. Bioactive surface modifications of titanium alloys
for biomedical applications are very important for achieving further developed
biocompatibility. Low cost titanium alloys for healthcare goods, like general wheel
chairs, etc. has been recently proposed.
An evaluation of non-precious alloys for use with porcelain veneers, part I. Physical
properties.
JPD 1973, vol 30, 424-31
The physical properties of two representative non-precious alloys, Jel-Span and Ultratek,
were determined and compared to those of a control gold-based alloy Ceramco O. The
values for hardness, rigidity, resistance to permanent deformation, sag resistance, and
bond strength to porcelain of the non-precious alloys were significantly greater than those
of the gold-based alloy. The non-precious alloys differed from each other in that Jel-Span
(a nickel chromium-cobalt-palladium alloy) had higher hardness and yield strength
values, while Ultratek (a nickel chromium alloy) had a higher ultimate tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity, and percent elongation. In general, it would appear that the physical
properties of the non-precious alloys, Jel-Span and Ultratek, represent a significant
improvement, which could be of potential clinical importance to the success of porcelainfused-to-metal restorations.
Effect of tooth brushing on the toxicity of casting alloys

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JPD, vol 87, issue1, Jan 2002.

Statement of Problem: The biological properties of casting alloys have been assessed
largely under passive conditions. The effect of common intraoral stresses such as
brushing, toothpastes, and low pH on alloy toxicity are not known.
Purpose: This study assessed the toxicity of 5 types of casting alloys commonly used in
prosthodontics after tooth brushing, brushing in an acidic environment, or brushing with
toothpaste. These toxicities were compared with those observed without any brushing.
Material and Methods: Au-Pt; Au-Pd, Pd-Cu-Ga, Ni-Cr-Be, and Ni-Cr (no Be) alloys
were brushed, for 48 hours in a tooth brushing machine at 90 strokes/minute and 200g
force. Alloys were brushed with either saline at pH 7, saline at pH 4 (acidified with
sodium lactate), or saline with 1:7 (wt/wt) toothpaste. After the brushing regimen, the
Cytotoxicity of the alloys was assessed in a standard in vitro test. Cytotoxicities of the
alloys after different brushing treatments were compared with unbrushed (control)
specimens. Analysis of variance (ANONA) and Tukey multiple comparison interval (
=.05) were used to identify significant differences among brushing conditions.
Results: Brushing at pH 7 significantly increased the toxicity of the Pd-Cu-Ga alloy
(15% to 20% over unbrushed specimens). Brushing at pH 4 increased the toxicity of the
Au-Pt and Au-Pd al1oys by 30% and the Pd-Cu-Ga alloy by >40%. The Ni-based alloys
were not affected by acid. After being brushed with toothpaste both Ni-based alloys were
significantly more toxic, but Ni-Cr-Be was the worst, increasing more than 60% in
toxicity over the controls. The toxicity of the Au-Pd alloy also increased significantly
(15%).
Conclusion: Brushing dental casting alloys may increase their cytotoxicity in vitro, but
the increase depends heavily on the alloy type and brushing condition. (J Prosthet Dent
2002; 87:94-8.)

Biocompatibility of some material used in dental implantology: histological study

Colloids and surfaces B Biointerfaces, vol1, issue1, 8 Nov 98

61

This study deals with bioreactive materials for potential application as endosseus dental
implants. Currently used dental implants are made of dental alloys but due to cytotoxic
problems, high strength ceramic materials appear as an interesting alternative to these
alloys. In order to combine good mechanical properties and promotion of the
osteointegration process, a ceramic composite material composed of 10 wt.% tricalcium
phosphate (TCP) mixed with partially stabilized zirconia has been elaborated. Such a
ceramic has been implanted into albino rats, the sites of implantation being the adrenal
gland for the toxicity evaluation and the sphenoid bone to estimate the osteogenesis
potential. These results have been compared to those obtained with implants made of
alumina (Al2O3), zirconia (ZrO2) or poly (ethylene terephthalate) (Dacron). In all cases no
rejection effect was observed. The histological study indicated that ZrO 2-TCP ceramics
induced a marginal and subjacent cell disorganization. However: the existence of an
irregular cellular band indicated a cellular colonization process on the TCP particles. The
microscopy study of the implants after removal confirmed the bioresorption of TCP.

CONCLUSION:
As a wide range of alloys currently available can lead to uncertainty in choosing
an optimal alloy for a given patient and situation. It is necessary for us to have knowledge
about the composition, properties and biocompatibility of the constituent metal of the
alloys, to be able to choose them for the required applications. The decision is not an easy
one, as it will have financial, technical and patient satisfaction consequences. In many
ways the decision is philosophical, based on the drawbacks of using a particular alloy
versus its known clinical benefits.

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