Casting defects:

Defects occur in metal casting due to one or more of the following reasons:
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Fault in design of casting pattern

Fault in design of gating system and risers
Fault in design of mold
Improper choice of molding sand
Improper metal composition
Inadequate melting temperatures and pouring rate

Casting defects are mainly divided into three types:

Major defects: these defects result in scrapping of the casting. Metal penetrations &
rough surface that interfere with machining and finishing operations and castings
that fail to meet either physical or functional requirements are the examples of such
defects
Intermediate defects: these result in high cost of repairing of casting but save the
casting from scrapping
Minor defects: these defects permit easy and economical repair of casting

Surface defects:
Blows are large cavity which are produced by gases that displace molten metal from
a convex surface
Scars are small blows on a flat surface. When a scar is covered with a thin metal
layer it is called blister
Scabs are formed when an up heaved sand gets separated from the mold surface
and the molten metal flows between the displace sand and the mold
Drop is an irregularly-shaped projection on the cope surface caused by dropping of
sand
Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the sand particles in the
mold.

Internal Defects:
Internal defects occur mainly due to trapped gases and dirty metal. Gases get
trapped due to hard ramming or improper venting. These defects also occur when
excessive moisture or excessive gas forming materials are used for mold making

Blow holes are large spherical bubbles appearing in the metal matrix while porosity
are large number of uniformly distributed holes.
Pin holes are small blow holes appearing just below the casting surface
Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal matrix and lighter inclusions at
the casting surface are called dross.

Visible defects:
Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of sand by the flowing
metal
Rat tail are long, shallow, angular depression caused by sand expansion
Hot tear is a crack caused by high residual stresses
Shrinkage is essentially solidification contraction occurred by improper use of riser
Swell is a deformation of vertical mold surface due to hydrostatic pressure of
moisture in sand
Shift occurs due to misalignment of the two parts of the mold or incorrect core
location
Misrun occurs due to insufficient superheat provided to the liquid metal

Pattern material for casting:

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Wood
Metals
Plaster-gypsum cement
Plastic compounds
Wax

Pattern allowances:
1) Shrinkage allowance: it is also called the contraction allowance as the metal
contracts upon cooling. Shrinkage allowance depends on the metal being cast
and the exact method of casting being used. 2.5% linear shrinkage can
happen
2) Draft or taper allowance: when removing the casting, sand may be drafted
with it if taper allowance is not present. 1-3 degree taper allowance is
recommended
3) Distortion allowance: in case of large casting, metal may get distorted
depending on the size, shape and type of metal. Uneven shrinkage may
cause distortion too. To overcome it, the mold is distorted in the opposite
direction

4) Finishing or machining allowance: after casting is finished, the component is

finished or machined. So components are made slightly bigger
5) Shaking or rapping allowance: while removing the casting from mold, if the
casting is rapped or shaken the cavity in the mold may increase slightly. To
compensate for this increase, cavity in the mold is made slightly smaller
The type of pattern selected for a particular casting will depend on the following
several factors:
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Shape and size of casting

Number of casting required
Characteristics of the casting
Method of moldings used
Difficulty of the molding operation

Single-piece pattern: this type of pattern is made without any joints, partings or any
loose pieces. The molder has to cut gates and risers. So it is difficult to maintain
uniformity of the casting. The single piece pattern is used for large casting of simple
shape
Split pattern: a split pattern is made of two or more parts joined together by dowel
pins. When the casting is of peculiar design and intricate shape, it cannot be
withdrawn from the single piece pattern so split pattern comes in handy.
Loose piece pattern: it is made of loose component pieces assembled together by a
dowel pin. The whole pattern can be removed from the molding sand by taking out
all the pieces one by one. The main component is removed first, then the small
pieces which may have to be turned or moved, are removed.
Gated pattern: gated patterns are used for mass production of small castings. The
passage through which the molten flows into the mold is called gate.
Match-plate pattern: when split patterns are mounted with one half on one side of a
plate and the other half on the opposite side of the plate, it is called the match-plate
pattern. On one plate, called the match plate, many patterns can be mounted
Sweep pattern: the sweep pattern is used to make molds of symmetrical and
regular shapes particularly in large sizes. The sweep pattern consists of a wooden
board connected to a metal rod. The outside contour of the board is similar to the
contour of the castings.
Cope and drag pattern: if the casting is large, the complete mold is too heavy and
difficult to be handled by a single operator, the cope and drag patterns are made.
The pattern is made in two halves, split in any convenient joint line. The upper half
is called the cope and the lower half is the drag.
Follow-board pattern: patterns having thin section tend to get distorted or collapsed
during ramming. Sagging due to ramming can be easily overcome by constructing a
supporting block. This follow board may fit inside the pattern to provide support.

Molding sand:
Molding sand is the principle raw material in molding because it possesses several
major characteristics for molding
Green or natural sand:
It is collected from river beds or is dug from pits
It contains only binder as water
It has the advantages of maintaining moisture content for a long time, wide working
ranges of moisture content and permits easy patching and finishing of molds

Synthetic sand:
It is an artificial sand prepared in the foundry by mixing clay free sand, binder and
other materials. Its properties can be easily controlled by mixture content.
Advantages:
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Low sand maintenance cost

Improved permeability, low moisture
Easier to work on mass production molding
Semi-skilled workers can conduct molding
No sand dumping

Properties of molding sand:

1) Refractoriness: it is the property of the sand by virtue of which the sand can
withstand high temperature without being fused. It is a very important
property of the sand because when the molten metal is poured it is of very
high temperature and poor refractoriness will result in fusion of the sand
which result in forming slag on the casting surface
2) Permeability: it is also called porosity. Its the property of the sand by virtue of
which the sand permits the escape of gases and steams through it. As the hot
molten metal is poured into the cavity gases and steams are formed due to
high temperature of the metal. These gases must escape otherwise it may
result in bursting of the casting or blow holes are formed.
3) Cohesiveness: it is the property by virtue of which the sand particles stick
together. It is also referred to as strength. Lack of this property can cause the
mold to break when molten is poured into it
4) Adhesiveness: the property to adhere with other materials. It is this property
by virtue of which the molding sand is held successfully in the molding flask
& does not fall out of the flask when it is removed.
5) Plasticity or flowability: it is the property due to which the sand acquires a
predetermined shape under pressure and retains the same when the pressure
is removed

Green Sand Molding:

It is the type of molding in which the molding is in moist state when pouring the
metal into it. Here the word green means moist or wet. Green sand molding is used
in casting practically all ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. It is suitable for small,
medium and large casting.

Advantages:
1) It is the least expensive molding method
2) Green sand does not need baking so non-baking equipment
3) Green sand molding is less time consuming
Disadvantages:
1) It is not very strong hence liable to damage when handling
2) Surface finish is not very good
3) The green sand molds cannot be stored for a long time
Dry Sand Molding:
The dry sand molding is similar to green sand molding except the sand is dried or
baked before pouring the metal into it until the moisture is driven off. The drying of
sand improves its strength, erosion resistance and improves surface finish.
Advantages:
1) Stronger than the GSM and hence can withstand additional handling
2) Better surface finish
3) Better dimension control
Disadvantages:
1) Requires baking equipment that are expensive
Skin Dry Molding:
Skin dried molding are sometimes preferable to GSM where assurance is needed
that the surface moisture and other gas forming materials are lowered. Special
bonding materials are added to the molding mixture. Skin dry moldings are
commonly employed in medium-heavy and heavy castings.
Advantages:
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Less equipment needed than DSM

Less time required than DSM
Reduces moisture from molding surfaces
Stronger than GSM

Disadvantages:

1) These molds are more expensive to produce. Mold sections must be

completely dry and cool before assembly
Loam Molding:
These moldings are used for large ferrous works. The mold is made of bricks or large
iron pieces. These piece are plastered with a thick loam mortar and then dried. It
has all the advantages over the DSM.
Disadvantages:
1) These moldings take a long time to prepare
2) Cannot be reused
Metal molding:
Metal molding consists of molds made of metal. Metal molding is used for small and
accurate moldings. Die casting, investment casting and centrifugal casting use
metal molding
Advantages:
1) Does not get eroded on metal pouring
2) Has a long life and can be stored for a long time
3) Smooth surface finish and dimensional accuracy
Disadvantages:
1) Costly
2) The mold making process is lengthy

Elements of a Gating System:

1) Pouring basin: this is where the molten metal is poured to manufacture the
desired part. The basin should have a projection with a radius around it to
reduce turbulence
2) Down sprue: from the pouring basin the molten metal for casting travels
through the down sprue. It has a tapered section
3) Sprue base: the down sprue ends at the sprue base.
4) ingate: from the sprue base the molten metal passes though ingate. Ingate is
very important for flow regulation of molten metal
5) runners: runners are passages that distribute the liquid metal to the different
areas of the cavity
6) main cavity: the impression of the actual part to be cast is often referred to as
the main cavity
7) vents: gases and steams escapes through the vent
8) risers: risers are there for compensation for shrinkage as the cast solidifies.
Top, side, blind, open. Top and side risers feed the metal casting from top and
side respectively. Blind risers are completely contained in the mold. Open
risers are open at the top to the outside environment

Chills:
Directional solidification is very important to the manufacture of a part in the
casting process in order to ensure that no area of the cavity is cut off from the flow
of liquid metal before it solidifies. To achieve directional solidification within the
metal casting, it is important to control the flow of liquid metal inside the cavity.
Chills help obtain this goal.

Internal chills: internal chills are located inside the mold cavity and are usually
made of the same material as the casting. When the metal solidifies the internal
chills are fused into the metal casting itself.
External chills are located just outside the metal casting. These are made of
materials that are capable of removing heat faster than the surrounding mold
material. Iron, copper and graphite
Gravity Die Casting:
It is similar to sand casting except that the mold is machined from solid metal ( cast
iron). This means that the cavity and the mold is permanent. Being metal the mold
can be machined accurately and the better thermal conductivity allows faster
cooling. Surface finish is better but the size of product is small. The metal being cast
must have a lower melting point than the mold metal.
Application: bicycle cranks, engine pistons
Pressure Die Casting:
It is a development of gravity die casting in which the molten metal is injected into
the cavity under pressure. Again the metal being cast must have a lower melting
point than the mold metal. It is faster than gravity die casting and sand casting as
the liquid metal is fed under pressure. It is an equivalent to inject die casting. Finer
surface finish can be expected from this procedure.
Applications: door handles, electric iron bases and carburetor bodies
Advantages:
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cost of casting is relatively low for high volume

high production rates
excellent surface finish
high degree of design complexity and accuracy
suitable for relatively low melting point metals (871 0 C) like lead, zinc,
aluminum, magnesium.

Disadvantages:
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initial cost is high

needs high volume of production to justify economy
castings have to be smaller
limited to metals with high fluidity