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www.singidunum.ac.rs
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2011.
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ISBN: 978-86-7912-368-8
Copyright:
2011. Univerzitet Singidunum
Izdava zadrava sva prava.
Reprodukcija pojedinih delova ili celine ove publikacije nije dozvoljena.


 
   
   

 


 

  

  


 
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1. Host-based,
15

2. -

3. Peer-to-peer.
:

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16

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18

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44

 ;

. UTP
4 .
8 .
,
25mm.
;
.
.
UTP 110N.
.
222N,
.
; .
.
.

2.1.6-6.
;
. RJ45
. .
.
.
,
.

, patch
.
45

 2.1.6-7.
,
.

2.1.6-8. patch

.

2.1.7.


.
: (
patch )
( , .
patch ).

46

 2.1.7-1.

.
( 2.). ),
,
. ,
(Network Analyzers) ( 2.).
,
. UTP
. ,

.

.
,
.

.
. ,
.

,

. .
, .
.

47

 2.1.7-2.
,
,
TIA/EIA 568A ISO D E, TSB67
(Transmition Performance Specification) TSB95 5E.

(wire map)
,

(propagation delay) -
.
,

(propagation delay skew) -

,

(attenuation),

(Near End Crosstalk NEXT)

(return loss) -
dB.

48

PSNEXT (Power Sum Near End Cross Talk) -

,

PSFEXT (Power Sum Equal Level Far End Cross Talk ) -

,

ELFEXT (equalized level far end crosstalk ),

ACR
(attenuation to crosstalk ratio ). 5E PSFEXT ELFEXT.
(
), ,
.

, .

.
.
. Microtest, Fluke,
Hewlett-Packard, Datacom Agilent.
,

.
0,1 500MHz
110dB.
.

49

2.2.

. ,

.
.

2.2.1. (Repeater)

( ) .
. . ,
() .
. 3R :

(Reamply),

(Reshape),

( Retime)

.
,
. OSI .

. ,
, ().
( )
.

2.2.2. (Hub)
OSI (
). ( RJ-45 ).
,
, .
. :
.
.
UTP
. Broadcast2
50

Collision3 . ,
() . ,
.
.

2.2.2-1.
6 24
.
uplink .
. uplink
.

.

2.2.3. (Bridge)
. OSI
, . .
.
.

.
.
,
.
.
51

 ,
.
MAC ()
. , MAC .
. broadcast
( ),
MAC .

2.2.3-1.
80%
, 20% .
(.
), .
,
.

2.2.4. (Switch) ,
. ,
. OSI .
MAC
. , ,
, , MAC
. ,
.
.
52


, .
.
broadcast .

2.2.4-1. LAN-
.
ARQ (Automatic
Repeat Request)
. ,
,
.
, .
(
- ).

, .
, ,
.

2.2.5. (Router)

OSI , , .
()
.
IP .
,

.
53

 address lookup.
(switching)
.
.
, .
. security ,
. ,
.

(. ).
(
)
.

.
( )
.

2.2.5-1.

. ,
. ,
. . ,
( )
.
: , .
.
,
.

54

 .

:
1. -
. ( ,
.)
.
2. -
.
,
,

.

2.2.6. (gateway)
/
.
.
,
.

.
.
.
. ,
,
( ASCII EBCDIC , ) ,
, .
, .
OSI .
, .
:
, ,
.
,
.

55

2.2.7. (firewall)
Firewall ,
(),
(
).
.
LAN- .
firewall

.

2.2.7-1. firewall-
Firewall .
firewall-
.
firewall- .

. firewall-
IP ,
IP .

Firewall
:

56

firewall- ( )
, . , firewall

( ).
firewall ( )

, , .

57

2.3.

-
,
.
.

2.3.1.

. : ,
, NIC...
MAC
2. OSI . MAC
48- IEEE
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers )
.

.
,
, .
.
RJ-45 ( UTP ), BNC / AUI
(Attachment Unit Interface) . ,
LED .
10, 100 1.000Mb/s.
3Com, Intel, Realtek, Marvell, VIA...

2.3.2.

.

,
.

- POTS (Post Office Telephone Service).
PC (
58

ISA PCI ) ( USB ).

Winmodemi
OS (
MS Windows). 56.000b/s (7KB/s).

2.3.3. ISDN Terminal Adapter

ISDN Terminal Adapter (.
) ISDN .
POTS , ISDN .
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network) /.
ISDN
.
.
64Kb/s.
PCM (8KHz 8 ).
ISDN TA
ISDN . ,
ISDN .
.

2.3.4. ADSL/DSL
ADSL/DSL
ADSL (DSL)
. ADSL ADSL
ADSL .
ADSL/DSL ADSL/DSL

. ADSL
. ADSL .
256Kb/s 8Mb/s 1.500
. 64Kb/s 1.024Kb/s. ADSL
: 25,875kHz 138kHz
138kHz 1.104kHz .
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network ) 0
4kHz, ADSL
.
59

2.3.5. RS-232
RS-232 (Recommended Standard 232) 4
DTE
(Data Communication Equipment )
. DCE (Data Circuit Equipment )
. .
.
,
, .

, USB.

2.3.5-1. RS-232 ASCII , , 1 ,

8 1
RS-232 ,
()
. 3 15 .
. +3V +15V
, -3V -15V
. 3V
RS-232 logiku. RxD (
) TxD ( ). RTS (Request To Send)
CTS (Clear To Send) .
:
RTS - ,
60

 CTS .
handshaking . 25 9- DB. ,
DTE , DCE .
DTE DCE RS-232 .
DTE RS-232 (
).

2.3.6.
USB (Universal Serial Bus)
(, , , ,
, flash , , ).
.
. USB .
- USB
.
. USB USB .
5 . USB
127 .

2.3.6-1.
USB USB
. USB RESET
USB .
USB 7- .

.

. . USB
1.x 2.0 master-slave, .
. 3.0
full-dupleks .
61

 2.3.6-2. USB A B
USB 2.0 1.x 5 .

USB . 5V
100mA.
5.
3.0 . USB .
: , , .
12Mb/s ( USB 1.0), 480Mb/s (USB 2.0) 4,8Gb/s (USB 3.0)
.

2.3.7. FireWire
FireWire IEEE
1394
.
USB-

. 63
. peer-to-peer ,
, RAM .
45W, 30V. 6- 9 400 800Mb/s .

. USB , USB
,
.
62

2.3.8. IrDA
IrDA (Infrared Data Association)
.
,
.
, PDA , - ,
, .
1m. 2,4 16Kb/s.
baseband5-, ( full dupleks ). IrDA
, WiFi Bluetooth,

.

63

2.4.
(Media Access Control, MAC )
OSI. MAC
.
.
,
.
, ,
.
:
1. (, , ),
2. - ( MA, CSMA, CSMA/CD,
CSMA/CA)
3. (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA).

2.4.1.

(mainframes)
. LAN
Token ring. X-ON/X-OFF
(Polling).

2.4.2. X-ON / X-OFF

X-ON/X-OFF .
.
,
.
.
, X-ON
, .
X-OFF .
X-ON . X-ON
X-OFF ,
.

64

2.4.3.
(roll call polling)
.
.
, .
( ) :
, , , , , ,
. , , , , , , , , , , ..
.

.

.

2.4.4.
(token-passing)
,
. .
.
.

2.4.4-1.
, ,

. .

. ,
65

 , .

.
ARCnet, FDDI, IBM- Token Ring.

2.4.5.

.
(
) . LAN-.
.
.
:
1.
2. , .
:
.
. , . ,
, ,
18.4%. 81.6%
.

2.4.5-1.
,
36.8%.
,
. ,
66

 .

,
.

2.4.5-2.

, WiFi- .
. 802.11b
2-4 Mbit/s , 11 Mbit/s.

.

a
.
.
CSMA/CD (Carrier sense multiple access with
collision detection).
()
.
CSMA/CA (Carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance)

2.4.6.
(. Media Access Control address, MAC
address) .
IEEE
:
67

1. MAC-498,
2. EUI-48 (Extended Unique Identifier-48)
3. EUI-64.
, MAC

. IEEE 802 MAC ,
MAC-48, .
48 ,
248 281.474.976.710.656 MAC .
,
. .

. 0
, 1 . MAC48 EUI-64 .
MAC 00-78-74-4c-7f-1d. IEEE
OUI , MAC Dell Computer Corp.

. MAC-48 :

Ethernet

IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802

Bluetooth

IEEE 802.5 Token ring

FDDI

ATM ( )

SCSI Fiber channel

68

2.5.

.
. ,
.
. ,
.
.
,
.
.

. ,
, , ;
. ,
. .

2.5-1.

2.5.1.
(Stop-and-Wait Flow Control)

. ,
69

 (ACK), (NACK)
. ,
. ACK , .
, .
. .
, . (
y) .
, ,
.
( y) .

, .

2.5.1-1.

2.5.2.

, .

. ,
.
.
.
() ,
.

70

 2.5.2-1.

2.5.3.

. ,
.
( ) (
, , .).

. 7- ASCII ,
.
70%.
. ,

, .
.

,
OSI .
,
.

71

 2.5.3-1.
, ,
.
,

,
OSI TCP/IP

72

2.6.
(IEEE 802.3 ISO 80802-2)
.
MAC . DEC, Xerox Intel
IEEE IEEE 802.3.
(
). .
7
10101010....
,
. ,

. ,
. VLAN LAN-;
VLAN-, , 2
24,832 (8100). , ,
, .
(TCP/IP, IPX/SPX).
1.500 .
,
64 . ,
, , 64.
CRC-32

2.6-1.
.
.
1985. IEEE 802.3 Carrier Sense Mutiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method and
Physical Layer Specifications.
.

( ) 10Mb/s,

73

 (UTP ),
100Mb/s ( Fast Ethernet),
. 802.3
OSI .

. ()
.
- ,
, LAN , LAN , , Network
Interface Card - NIC.
(driver) .
.
() .
, .
-
.
OSI CSMA/CD. Multiple
Access
. Carrier Sense
-
. (
) . Collision Detection

()
.
,
. 1518 .
101010101010. .
.
( MAC)
, . MAC
. ;
multicast
broadcast
.

broadcast multicast .
74


.
.

.

.
MAC
.
1500
.
- CRC (Cyclical Redundancy Check).

.
,
.
(CRC). ,
, . .

( ) .

2.6-2. MAC
10Mb/s
:

1.
2.
3.
4.

10Base5 - ,
10Base2 - ,
10Base-T -
10Base-F .
75

 . - 10 -
10Mb/s. Base baseband .
(
).
. 5 ,
500m. T F twisted-pair
fiber optic.
, 10 100Mb/s,
802.3u, :
1. 100Base-T4 UTP 3. 100m,
2. 100Base-TX UTP 5. 100m,
3. 100Base-FX 2000m.
1998. 802.3.

. switch-,
, . IEEE 2002.
10Gb/s 802.3ae.
:
1. 1000Base-SX , , x 550m,
2. 1000Base-LX , , x 5.000m,
3. 1000Base-CX STP , , x 25m,
4. 1000Base-T UTP 5. , , 100m.

2.6.1.1.
(
)
half-duplex
.
hub.

. ,
, .
,

.
76

2.6.1.2.

,
.
-
(Switched Eternet).
w
. hub
switch
.
, .

2.6.2. ARP -

. ,
IP . ,

. ,


,

. , , .
,

. , ,
. Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP) RFC 826.
(. Address Resolution Protocol, ARP)

IP . ARP
. , ARP MAC
IP . ARP

.
IP ,
IP .
77

 IP MAC
. , ARP
MAC
( IP ).
ARP , ARP (),
IP ? ,
MAC ,
ARP
MAC .
, ,
IP MAC . ,
.

2.6.2-1. ARP RARP

IP
, . , .
( IP ) ,
,
IP MAC (
).
IP MAC
.
MAC ARP .
, ,
, IP ,
MAC . ARP : IP
, MAC TTL (Time-to-Live),
20 .

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

ARP.
( IP ) . ,
78

 ( diskless workstation)
IP , .
RARP
RARP IP .
.
RARP ( )
. MAC RARP
RARP IP ?). RARP
MAC .

79

2.7.
2.7.1.

IBM. .
, .
4Mbps 16Mbps. : .

().
,
.

. ,
.
, , ,
, .
.
IBM
. , ,
.
,
.

2.7.2. Fiber Distributed Data Interface

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
.
(100Mbps) ( 100km)
. ,
,
CDDI.
, FDDI
, .
,
.
(,
.). FDDI
.
80

2.8. WAN
LAN , WAN (Wide Area Netowork)
, . (
).
() , . WAN
.
(,
), WAN .

2.8-1. (WAN)
, WAN
. WAN
LAN ,

. WAN
, .
.
LAN- : E1(T1), E3(T3), ATM, ISDN, ADSL,
(Frame Relay), .
- (backbone).

2.8.1. PPP
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) WAN
.
.
.
. .
. PPP
1. PPP type
81

 .
L3 (Layer 3 )
PPP . , OSI , PPP
( , ,
, , )
(, , , ).

2.8.1-1. PPP
( Flag),
01111110. PPP
,
(ESC flag 01111101).
(byte staffing).
,
. 11111111.

(Control) 00000011. RFC

1662 .
Type .
L3 . PPP IP
21. ( Data)
L3 . 1.500 .
( FCS) 2 4 .
( CRC-16 CRC32).
PPP .
LCP (Link Control Protcol)
(
, ESC flega ). PPP
, ,
(data encryption) .
PPP .
ATM . Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet
(PPPoE) Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM (PPPoA),
DSL- (
).
82

2.8.2.

.
, , ,
. ,

. ,
-,
() - , , .
, ,
, ,
. ,
, ,
xDSL .

(. International
Telecommunication Union, ITU).
191 .

. E.164 , 1997.

,
:
1. 15 ;
2. ( )
;
3.
(. national destination code, NDC);
4. (.
subscriber number, SN);
5.
.

,
. ,
83


.
,

.

.
( Public
Switched Telephone Network, PSTN ).
.

,
.
.
.
WAN .
, .
,
.

,
. ,

, .
, 3,4kHz ,
.
56Kb/s
(TCM - Trellis Coded Modulatiori),
. , . ,
/ / . ,
. ,
56Kb/s 45
50Kb/s ( ).
, dial-up
, LAN , backup
WAN WAN
.
84




, .
,
,
.
:

.
RJ-11 ( )
, ,
.

.
(RS-232) USB .
RJ-11
.
-
,
,
.

2.8.3. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network ) , ITU-T,
,
(PSTN).
,
. 70- XX
.
.
ISDN- 1984. . ISDN
.
(circuit switched connections).

:
1. . ISDN
( , , )
. ISDN
85

,
.
, .
2. .
.
,
/
. / .
.
ISDN- / / .
.
3. . ISDN ,
. . ISDN

.

ISDN ,
. ( )
,
. , . ISDN-
,
. -

.

2.8.3-1. ISDN
ISDN : (BRI Basic Rate Interface)
(PRI Primary Rate Interface). (
) 64Kb/s (

) 16Kb/s, 144Kb/s. 2+.
. PRI (30+)
86

 64Kb/s
64Kb/s , (
2Mb/s), .

BRI (2+), PRI (30+)
. ISDN-
, ISDN 128Mb/s upsteram
downstream .
ISDN :
1.

ISDN

2.

()

3.

ISDN ( ISDN
ISDN )

4.

ISDN LAN router bridge

5.

ISDN

6.

FAX 4

7.

ISDN PABX () ISDN .

2.8.4.
( Digital Subscriber Line DSL)
(
144Kb/s 50Mb/s). DSL
(service providers), . ,
.
( ).


,
.
300
4.000Hz.
, .
.
DSL
87

 xDSL. DSL
ISDN-. DSL
,
.
. , downstream (
), upstream (
).
download-, , e-mail-,
upload-.

2.8.4-1. ADSL-
DSL-: (ADSL), High-bit rate (HDSL),
Single Line (SDSL), Very-High-Data-Rate (VDSL) .
()

, .

DSL- . ,

(ADSL-Asymetric Digital Subscriber Line ). ,
DSL .
DSL .

( , , ,
, home shopping, .),
. ADSL
. ADSL
.

( PSTN Public Switch
Telephone Network).
88

ADSL
()
.
ISDN . ADSL
ISDN . ISDN
ADSL .
.

.

2.8.4-2. ADSL-
ADSL-
. splitter,

ADSL-.
( ),
ADSL ADSL
. (Local Loop)
.
89

 , ADSL-
.

.
. .
(PSTN), DSL .
, ,
DSL access multiplexers (DSLAM)
.

2.8.5.
( )
. .
,
,
. , .
56Kb/s, 64Kb/s, 128Kb/s, 256Kb/s,
512Kb/s 2Mb/s. - ,
.
.

. -
- .
, :
1.
2. ,
, frame
relay. .

2.8.6. X.25
X.25 ITU-T , WAN
ISDN .
, ( 1 3) OSI .
X.25
.

X.25
90

 . ,
Frame Relay,
WAN
.
( )
.
X.25 .
,
, ,
. , ,
, ,
,
X.25 .
X.25
:
1. ,
2. ( Transactions Processing),
3. ,
4. ,
5. (ATM - Automatic Teller Machines), .
X.25 ,
X.25 64Kb/s,
2Mb/s X.25 .
. LAN . Frame relay
ATM X.25 .

2.8.7.
X.25
Frame Relay .
,
.
. Frame Relay- LAN
.
PPP
WAN . ,
91

 ,
PPP . .

.
,
.
Frame Relay . Frame Relay WAN
WAN
.
. ,
10 , pointto-point 45 (109/2=45). Frame Relay
.
.

Frame Relay point-topoint . ,

, LAN .
LAN , Frame Relay
broadcast , .
Frame Relay NBMA (Non Broadcast Multi Access)
.

2.8.7-1. Frame Relay

1. Frame Relay .
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) (
92

 ) Frame Relay (DCE - Data Communication

Equipment). , DTE LMI
(Local Management Interface) Frame Relay . Frame Relay

Frame Relay .
Frame Relay .

2.8.7-2. DTE
2. DTE .
.
DTE . Frame Relay
PVC (Permanent Virtual Circuit). DLCI (Data Link
Connection Identifer) Frame Relay
. PVC DTE .
PVC
point-to-point .
,
Frame Relay .
, Frame Relay CIR (Committed Information Rate).
PVC CIR,
.

Frame Relay LMI Frame Relay

. LMI DTE Frame Relay
. Frame Relay
OSI . Frame Relay
DTE , LMI Frame
Relay DCE . LMI
DTE Frame
Relay . , PVC-.
LMI : Cisco, ITU ANSI.
.
93

 Frame Relay ,
. Frame Relay DLCI .
L2 . Frame Relay
DLCI , DTE ,
DTE ,
.
DLCI . DLCI
PVC-, .
, Frame Relay
L3 (IP) .
.

Frame Relay IP .
ARP. ARP
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) .
ARP, DTE PVC- ( DLCI
) IP
PVC-. Frame Relay DLCI
IP, DTE
.

Frame Relay NBMA .

, broadcast
multicast . ,
IP DLCI PVC-.
multicast broadcast . IP
multicast broadcast
Frame Relay , IP ,
Frame Relay , DLCI DLCI PVC-.

2.8.8.
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
WAN . ATM TDM (Time
Division Multipelxing). TDM
()
. ATM
. L2
( ).
ATM
94

 .
,

, VoIP (Voice over IP)
. ATM ,
DTE
. ATM SONET/SDH
( ) ( backbone)
(PSTN) ISDN-, IP .

95

2.9.

.
. , ,
, , .

.
,
.

. ,
, :

,

.
. , ,

.

,

.

.

,
, ( ,
) .

,
.

. ,
:

:
Bluetooth

96

:
IEEE 802.11

:


Paging

IEEE 802.11 (
)
.

2.9.1. Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1

Bluetooth
( 10 ) .
,

.
.
blutooth-
, PC , , , ,
, .
. Bluetooth
, , .

100mW

~100m

2,5mW

~10m

1mW

~1m

bluetooth
Bluetooth 1994.
(). 1998.
Bluetooth SIG (pecial Interest Group)
Bluetooth-. , 2000 ,
97

 , , , .
1999. , 2002. IEEE 802.15.1
PAN6 Bluetooth .
bluetooth-:
1.0 - Bluetooth
(BD_ADDR) .
1.1 - 2002. IEEE 802.15.1.
. bluetooth .
1.2 .
,
.
721Kb/s.
.
2.0 0+EDR - 2004.
.
Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) .
EDR 3 Mb/s, 2.1 Mb/s. EDR
Gaussian Frequency-Shift Keying (GFSK) Phase Shift Keying
(PSK) . EDR
.
2.1 +EDR 2007.
secure simple pairing (SSP). SSP-
Bluetooth .
. sniff subrating low-power .
3.0+ HS 2009. .
24 Mb/s, bluetooth . Bluetooth
,
802.11.
,
.
4.0 2009. .
Bluetooth low energy ,
.

Bluetooth 2,4GHz 2,4835GHz . .

98

ISM 7. ISM ,

() ( fading
). FHSS
8.
83,5MHz 79 1MHz.

.
625ms,
. 1.600 .
,
(piconet). ( master),
.
(slave). piconet 8 ( master
slave ), piconet- ( 10, 80 )
scatternet.
. polling-. Bluetooth point-to-point point-to-multipoint
. ,
. Bluetooth
.
.
.

.
, .
,
. .

72b

54b

0-2.745b

bluetooth
,
.
bluetooth
.
Bluetooth
.
99

 .

:

bluetooth (BD ADDR)

, , Bluetooth ,

128 - ,

8 - 128 ,

2.9.2. WiFi IEEE 802.11

Wi-Fi - Wireless-Fidelity

. Wi-Fi
LAN (WLAN), .
IEEE 802.11a, 802.11b, 80.11g
802.11. XX
(1-2 Mb/s).
Wi-Fi :

802.11 2002.
54Mb/s,
30Mb/s. 5GHz.

802.11 1999.
11Mb/s,
1 2 Mb/s. WiFi
.

802.11 2003.
. 2,4GHz, 802.11
.

802.11 2,4GHz 5GHz,

150Mb/s.

WLAN- . ISM (Industrial, Scientific &

Medical)
. FTA (free to air spektar).

100

ka 2.9.2-1. ISM

ISM : 902 - 928MHz, 2.400 - 2483,5MHz 5.728

5.750MHz. 2,4GHz. WLAN-
(Spread Spectrum).
( FHSS Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum),
(DSSS Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum)
. ( FDM Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing). ,


. 50
,
.
IEEE 802.11
. MAC (Media
Access Control)
. (Phisycal Layer)
. MAC (Data Link
Layer)
, MAC ,
.

2.9.2-2. 802.11
101

 IEEE 802.11
,

. WiFi
WiFi ( )
. ( 30 m).
.
IEEE 802.11
. WLAN .
, AD-HOC (IBSS Independed Basic
Service Set) 802.11
. peer-to-peer WLAN .
( AP- Acces Point).
.
, .
(hidden node).

2.9.2-3. Ad-hoc (IBSS WLAN)

( BSS Basic Service Set)
. ( AP Access Point). AP
30 ,
.
, , .
. uplink
.

102

 2.9.2-4. (BSS WLAN)

BSS
ESS (Extended Service Set).

2.9.2-5. (ESS WLAN)

802.11 CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access With
Collision Avoidance)
(LBT listen before talk).
o . CSMA/CA
. CSMA/CA :

1.

(carrier sense) -
.
.
103

2. DCF (distributed coordination function ) -

.
, .

(random backoff timer).
,
IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS9 .

2.9.2-6. RTS/CTS
AP
, AP RTS ,
. CTS , AP-

AP .
.

. , . .
ACK (
). ACK,
. MAC
, ACK,
.
,
.
104


, .
. IEEE 802.11

,
. , AP 20- PS-Poll (Power Save) . AP

.
, .
, PS-Poll
.
,
.
LAN- (WLAN)
.
.

AP- ,
. -
. -
AP , AP- . beacon
AP-, .
AP .
,
. , AP AP-
-
. AP
.
AP AP-
, (
MAC ).
AP- .
AP- IP ,
.

105

2.9.3. WiMAX
WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access )
IEEE 802.16.
.
. DSL
.
.
WiFi 802.11,
WiMAX-. 50Km
5-15Km , WiFi 802.11
30-100 .
40Mb/s, IEEE 802.16
1Gb/s.

.
.

. WiMAX
VoIP, streaming, .
WiMAX-: (802.16) (802.16).
point-to-multipoint multipoint-to-multipoint
, .

106

3.
OSI TCP/IP

.
, ,
, , ,

.
.

.

3-1.
,
.
()
.
107

 . , ,

(). ,

, .
, ,
,
.

3.1.

, .
, IPv4.
, www.xkcd.com
, ,
, (.
Internet Protocol version 4, IPv4, IP ).

.

( , X Window System UNIX
).

. ,
108

 ,
.
,
, .

, .

.
.
,

.

,
, .



.
.


.

.
,
. ,
,
.

, (.
Internet Control Message Protocol, ICMP )
.
,

.

109

 ,
. ,

.

2011.
.

,
.

3.1.1.
:
.
.

3.1.1-1.
.
160 96
( , , ,
, ) 64 . ,
()
32 . :

(. Version)
.
4.

110

(. Internet Header Length, IHL )

.
,
. ,
.

(. Type of Service, ToS )

, ,

, .
(
),
, ,
, .

, .

(. otal Length)
( ),
(). 65.536
, 576 (64
512 )
.

(. Identification), (. Flags),
(. Fragment Offset) ,
32 ,
. , ,
, , .
,
,

, , .

,
( 64 ), ,
.

(. Time to Live)
.
,
111

 , (
, . ) .

. ,
.
ICMP
.


, .

(. Hop Limit).

(. Protocol)
,
.
, 1,
ICMP , 6 TCP , .

RFC 790 .

(. Header Checksum)

,
.
.
,
. ,

.

(. Source Address)
.

, ,
.

(. Destination Address)
.

, .

112


, .
. ,
, , ,
.

3.1.1-2. , Wireshark

, .

3.1.2.

.
, ( 1.)
.

3.1.2-1.
( )
. , ,
,
.
resolver Domain Name System .
113

 , ,
.
.
, , ,
.

(. Address Resolution Protocol-).
? ,
,


. ,
, , , ,
, ,
.
, 2 32
( 4.294.967.296) .
, - 1974.
- . , ,
.

3.1.2.1. ,

,
(.
exclusive dijsunction, exclusive OR, XOR ). IP
,
,
. ,
IP ,
.

( ) .

. , , , .
.

114

 . ,
, .
.

3.1.2.1-1.
,
.
.
,
. , . ,
, .
( ).
.

3.1.2.1-2.

, .
115

 .
,
. ,

.

3.1.2.1-3.
,

. ,
.
. ,
,
. ,
.

3.1.2.2.
32
( ). -
- - .

.
, .

3.1.2.2-1.
,
.
116

 ,
.
, .

3.1.2.2-2.

(. network address) (. broadcast
address).
. .
.
.
.
.

3.1.2.2-3. ,
, ,
,
.
n .
.
,
117

 , , . ,
,

.

3.1.2.2-4.
(. default gateway)
,
.

, ,
.

3.1.2.2-5.
, ,
(. multihoming).
, , :
, / /?

( ). ,
, 1,
2. , /
1, / 2.
118

 3.1.2.2-6.

, , DNS
.
,
.

3.1.2.3.

254 (2 8 2) 16.777.214
(224 2). ,
, ,
.

. ,
, .
1981. RFC 791
.

3.1.2.3-1.
RFC 791
A, B C D E .

119


, .
A . ,
A
. A

. 127
16.777.216 .

3.1.2.3-2. A
B 10.
, B
.
B
. 16.384 B
65.536 .

3.1.2.3-3. B
C 110.
, C
.
C
. 2.097.152
C 256 .

120

 3.1.2.3-4. C
D 1110.
, D
.
,
(
multicast). D RFC 1112 .

3.1.2.3-5. D
E 1111.
, E
.
,
.

3.1.2.3-6. E

.

,
1981.
1993. . ,
.

1993.
.
121

 ,
.

3.1.2.4.
,
, IP
. C
( )
, 252 256
. ,
254 .
65.279 65.536 .
, , 1993. ,
1519 ,
, Classless InterDomain Routing, CIDR.

3.1.2.4-1. C

,
.
,
,

122

 .
0, 128, 192, 224, 240, 248, 252, 254 255.

, , . ,
C 192.168.1.0
24 255.255.255.0.
,
. ,
192.168.1.0-255 ,
.
25 7 .
255.255.255.128
.
192.168.1.0/25
192.168.1.128/25.
.
3.1.2.4.1. C
C, 192.168.1.0/24,
140 :
1. : 80
2. : 35
3. : 15
4. : 10
,
.
n- 2 -
, ,
.
(256 ),
: 80
128 (27), 35 64 (2 6),
15 32 (2 5), 10
16 (2 4).
2.
, .
123

 128 .
192.168.1.0/25, 192.168.1.127,
192.168.1.1 192.168.1.126,
255.255.255.128.

3.1.2.4.1-2. C
64 .
192.168.1.128/26, 192.168.1.191,
192.168.1.129 192.168.1.190,
255.255.255.192.

32 .
192.168.1.192/27, 192.168.1.223,
192.168.1.193 192.168.1.222,
255.255.255.224.
16 .
192.168.1.224/28, 192.168.1.239,
192.168.1.225 192.168.1.239,
255.255.255.240.
C
192.168.1.240/28 .
, , .

, ,

. ,
. ,
, ,
.
.
124


(
).
,
.
,
, .


. ,


, .

3.1.2.4.1-3. C
( 3.)
192.168.1.64 192.168.1.192
.
192.168.1.127
192.168.1.0/25, 192.168.1.128
192.168.1.128/25.
192.168.1.127/25 192.168.1.128/25

. ,

, .

3.1.2.5. ,

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, IANA .
125

 (,
)
.
.


.


.
,
,
.
.



.

:

0.0.0.0/8
. , 0.0.0.0/32
. 0.0.0.0/24 TCP
22 ALLOW TCP 22
C , 0.0.0.0/32 TCP 110
ALLOW POP3
. , 0.0.0.0
/XX
.
,
.

10.0.0.0/8 .

( ).
16.777.216
,
.

126

127.0.0.0/8 (.
loopback address) ,
. ,
,
.
, ,
127.0.0.1/32
.

169.254.0.0/16
(. link local addresses).
,
,
.
, DHCP ,

.

.
.

172.16.0.0/12 , 10.0.0.0/8 192.168.0.0/16,

.
1.048.576 . ,
.

192.0.0.0/24
C .
IANA IETF .
.

192.0.2.0/24 TEST-NET-1
.
example.com
.
(, .)
,
, ,
.

192.88.99.0/24
127


. ,
(
).

192.168.0.0/16
, .
65.536 , , 256 C. ,

.

198.18.0.0/15

.

.
.

198.51.100.0/24 TEST-NET-2 ,
192.0.2.0/24
.
.

203.0.113.0/24 TEST-NET-3 ,
192.0.2.0/24 198.51.100.0/24,
.
.

224.0.0.0/4
D . (.
multicast).

240.0.0.0/4
.

.
RFC . ,

,
,
.
128

3.1.3. (NAT)
(. Network Address Translation, NAT )
,
,
.
- .
,

.

IP ,

.

.

,
.

3.1.3-1.

129

 .

.

.
.
,
.

.
,
.

.
,
, ,
,
. (, )
.
, (
),
. ,
.

,
, .


. ,

, (. Network
Address Port Translation, NAPT ).
(. Port Address Translation)
.
(
)

130

 .
.
,
.

,
.

3.1.3-2.
3.
.
,

. PAT
,
.
, .

, PAT
( ,
.).

. ,
131

 , ,

.

3.1.3-3. NAPT/PAT


.
,


. , ,
,
,
. , (. IPsec)


.

3.1.4.

, ,
.
132

 .


. ,
, ,
.

3.1.4-1. NAPT
,
, ,
.


.
(. port forwarding).

2.
, .
10.10.10.0/24
SSH, DNS, HTTP HTTPS .
. R1
133

3.1.4-2.

() - 203.0.113.123.

. ,

.
-
. , ,
( )
.

.

,
.
.

134


.
:
1.
2.
,
,
, ,
, . ,

.

3.1.5.

.
.
,
(. Maximum Transmission Unit, MTU).

.

.

3.1.5-1. MTU

MTU .
, 1
2.
1 2

MTU 2. , 2 3
, ,
135


3 ( MTU ).

, ,
(Identification, Flags, Fragment Offset)
.
.

.

.
.

.
. ,

,
ICMP
.

ICMP
.

, ICMP
.


,
, ,
.
, , :

.

.

136

. Teardrop UNIX,
Windows
.

ICMP

65.536 . Ping of Death
UNIX, Windows
.

.
.

,
,

.

137

3.2.
,
,
.
.
- .

.
.

3.2-1.
,
.

.

.

.

.

3.2-2.

138


.
( ).

( , 192.168.12.34
192.168.0.0/16 192.168.12.0/24)
. ,
,
, ,
, .


.

.
,
: -
, , , , .


, .

.
:
1. ,
2.
3.
.


.


.

139


.

. ,
. ,

( )
.
.

:

.

.
,
, ,

.
(. routing protocol)
(. routed protocol).

. ,
.

3.2-3. R1
3.
, ,
. R1
140

 , B C
. , R1
, ,

.
(. default route)

.
R2
. R2

. ,
.
R2 ,
R1 ( ).
,
R1.

.
.

( ) .

.

.

.

.

.

.

141

3.2.1.

.

. , -
-
.
, -
-

.
.


.
.
. ,
,
, ,
.
.
-
,

. ,
:

.

.
.

,
142

 RIP , EGP BGP .

, .
.

. RIP , OSPF, IS-IS .

- Interior Gateway Protocol - - Exterior Gateway
Protocol.
, .
.
(. Autonomus System)
,
. IANA
. RIP, OSPF, IS-IS
.
EGP BGP .

, .

(. distance vector)
(. link state).
,
. ,
,
.
,
.
RIP EIGRP.
( )
.

.
SPF , .

.
(. link-state database)
143

 .
.


,


.


. , EIGRP

, ,
.
,
,

.
, .

( )
. ,
.

.
, ,
.

3.2.1.1. RIP -

(. Routing Information
Protocol, RIP). routed
BSD UNIX ,
de facto .
1988.

. RIP 1969.
ARPANET .
144


( )
(-) ( Token-ring,
Ethternet). ,
-
-
16.

15 .

,
.
.
,
(
).

.

3.2.1.1-1. RIP
1. R1
M1 M2, R2
M3, R3 M4.
145

 .
R1 R2 R3 M1 M2,
R2 R1 R3 M3 R3
R1 R2 M4.

. , ,
, .
R1 R2 M4
R3 M3, R2 R1
M4 R3 M1 M2, R3
R1 M3 R2
M1 M2. , (
),
. ,
R1 R2 R1 M3 R3

.
.

,
. 2. R1
10.10.2.0/24 -
R3 R2 R3.
R3 ( )
R2 R3 .
R1 R3 .

3.2.1.1-2. RIP

146

 .
3. R1
2 .
(. load balancing),
.

3.2.1.1-3.

RIP
. ,
.

.

3.2.1.1-4. RIP

4. R1
1 R3,
( R2)
147

 .

.
RIP
.
( ,
.) ,
( ,
, .).
3.2.1.1.1.
.
, (
)
.
- ,
, . RIP


,
.


.

.

,
.

3.2.1.1.1-1.
148

 RIP
.
.
, .
,
.

, , RIP
-
.
( )
.
RIP
30 .
180 ,
,
. ,
.
.

, RIP .
,
16.
.
3.2.1.1.2.
1. R1
1 ( 1 ).
R1 R2 1 R2
1 2.
R2 1 , R1.
R1 1
R2 3
1.
R1
R2 R1 1. R1
149

 1 . ,
R2
1 3 (
R1 1).
R1 1
.

3.2.1.1.2-1.

1
R1 R2 - R2 R1
R2... (
1) TTL
.
255 . ,


.

.
. 1
R1 R2 3. , ,
, R1
, R2. R2
1 4
R1. 16,

.

(.
150

split horizon).
.
, 1,
. ,
.

(. split horizon with poisoned reverse ).

16.
.

3.2.1.1.2-2.
2.
,
.
.

RIP .

3.2.1.1.3. RIPng -

( Routing Information
Protocol next generation, RIPng ) RIP

. , RIPng
. :

IPv6 .

151

IPv6
.
.

, UDP .

152

3.3.

2011.
.
,

. ,
.

,
.

,

.

.

.
IGMP.

3.3.1. ICMP -

.
,

.
(. Internet Control Message Protocol).

.

.


. .
153

 3.3.1-1. ICMP , Wireshark

(. Destination Unreachable
Messages)


. ,

.

3.3.1-2.
(. Time Exceeded
Messages)
( Time to live ,

.

(. Parameter
Problem Messages)
.

.
154

 (. Source Quench Messages)

, .

.
(. Redirect Messages)
.

3.3.1-3.
(. Echo and Echo Reply Messages)
.
,
.


.

(. Timestamp Messages)
.
: ,
,
.
(. Information Request or
Information Reply Messages)
.

.

155


,
.
,
.

,
.
. ,

.

3.3.1.1. ICMP
ICMP
. ,

, .
ICMP ping traceroute.
ping
. IP/ICMP
,
.
$ ping -c5 192.168.55.10
PING 192.168.55.10 (192.168.55.10) 56(84) bytes of data.
64 bytes from 192.168.55.10: icmp_req=1 ttl=128 time=0.302 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.55.10: icmp_req=2 ttl=128 time=0.366 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.55.10: icmp_req=3 ttl=128 time=0.295 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.55.10: icmp_req=4 ttl=128 time=0.313 ms
64 bytes from 192.168.55.10: icmp_req=5 ttl=128 time=0.487 ms
--- 192.168.55.10 ping statistics --5 packets transmitted, 5 received, 0% packet loss, time 3999ms
rtt min/avg/max/mdev = 0.295/0.352/0.487/0.074 ms

3.3.1.1-1. ping
ping

. ,
156



. ,

. ,
ICMP firewall
.
ping
. ,
( 2.)
-
.
$ ping www.google.com
PING www.google.com (209.85.148.103) 56(84) bytes of data.
64 bytes from www.google.com (209.85.148.103): icmp_req=1 ttl=53 time=42.8 ms
$

3.3.1.1-2. ping

, ping ( 3.).
, ,
DNS .
$ ping www.google.com
ping: unknown host www.google.com
$

3.3.1.1-3. ping
traceroute
, .
ping
ICMP .
4. traceroute

www.google.com.
6 .

157

$ traceroute www.google.com
traceroute to www.google.com (209.85.148.103), 30 hops max, 60 byte packets
1

192.168.60.12 (192.168.60.12)

79-101-159-1.isp.telekom.rs (79.101.159.1)

0.419 ms

0.813 ms

7.641 ms

212.200.15.221 (212.200.15.221)

12.343 ms

212.200.6.238 (212.200.6.238)

79.101.106.2 (79.101.106.2)

209.85.242.228 (209.85.242.228)

72.14.232.102 (72.14.232.102)

www.google.com (209.85.148.103)

11.424 ms
14.789 ms

0.972 ms
9.040 ms
13.793 ms

16.188 ms

25.807 ms

17.430 ms

26.674 ms

29.042 ms

28.063 ms

23.735 ms

30.110 ms

13.664 ms

31.517 ms

38.252 ms

9.957 ms

39.190 ms

37.913 ms
40.196 ms

3.3.1.1-4. traceroute
,
.
GeoIP
,
.

3.3.1.1-1. traceroute

ICMP Nmap.
,
, , .
.

158

# nmap -O 192.168.1.1
Starting Nmap 5.51 ( http://nmap.org ) at 2011-06-25 09:20 CEST
Nmap scan report for 192.168.1.1
Host is up (0.0028s latency).
Not shown: 997 closed ports
PORT

STATE SERVICE

21/tcp open

ftp

23/tcp open

telnet

80/tcp open

http

MAC Address: 00:1E:E3:7A:98:B7 (T&W Electronics (ShenZhen) Co.)

Device type: general purpose
Running: Linux 2.6.X
OS details: Linux 2.6.13 - 2.6.31
Network Distance: 1 hop
OS detection performed. Please report any incorrect results at
http://nmap.org/submit/ .
Nmap done: 1 IP address (1 host up) scanned in 6.81 seconds

3.3.1.1-5. nmap


ICMP
.

3.3.1.2. ICMP
ICMP ,
, , .. ,

.
:
1. ICMP

;
2. ICMP
;
ICMP
159

 .
1. ICMP
192.168.1.0/24 .
nmap, 256
3 , 192.168.1.12, 192.168.1.15
192.168.1.20 .
-
, ,
..
$ nmap -sP 192.168.1.*
Starting Nmap 5.51 ( http://nmap.org ) at 2011-06-24 11:00 CEST
Nmap scan report for 192.168.1.12
Host is up (0.0020s latency).
Nmap scan report for 192.168.1.15
Host is up (0.00079s latency).
Nmap scan report for 192.168.1.20
Host is up (0.0018s latency).
Nmap done: 256 IP addresses (3 hosts up) scanned in 3.07 seconds

3.3.1.2-1. nmap

2. ICMP
.
ping : 1)
( -f) 1
; 2) 64
65.535 ; 3) 10.000
.

.
2. 10.000
4.736,
147,658 .
33,5Mb/s, 17,8Mb/s. 47 ,
15,7Mb/s ,

,
.
160

# ping -f -s 65507 -c 10000 192.168.1.12

PING 192.168.1.12 (192.168.1.12) 65507(65535) bytes of data.
..............................................................................
..........................................................
--- 192.168.1.12 ping statistics --10000 packets transmitted, 5264 received, 47% packet loss, time 147658ms
rtt min/avg/max/mdev = 36.779/578.688/882.137/124.448 ms, pipe 63, ipg/ewma
14.767/433.750 ms

3.3.1.2-2. ping
,

.
(. denial of service)

.

3.3.2. IGMP -

(. unicast) (. broadcast).
,
( ).

.
, ,
,
.
(.
multicast), .

(. Internet Group Management Protocol, IGMP ).
,
,
( 1.).
, , .

.
- ,
161

3.3.2-1.


.
D
.

3.3.2-2.

.
. ,
162



.

:
1. ,
2.
3. (
).

. TTL ,
.

.

163

4.
OSI TCP/IP

. .

- (
).

,
.
,

.

4-1.

.
164

 :
1. .
2. ( ) .
3.
.
4.
.
5.

.


IANA.
(
) .

, .

4.1.
,
.
16-
/ ()
, .
, (
). 0 1023

.
( FTP, SSH, Telnet, DNS ).
1024 49151
.
49152 65535
/ .

165

4.2.
(. socket)
4.2 BSD UNIX ,
.

. :
1. IP
2.
3.
4.
5. IP

.
Berkeley socket UNIX Winsock
.
.
, X Window System UNIX
.

166

4.3. TCP -
(. Transmission Control Protocol, TCP)
.

( full-duplex).


.

.

. RFC793

.
(
, MTU 536
)
.


.
de facto
. (,
) .

4.3.1.

.
:
1. SYN
ISN- .
2. SYN ACK
ISN- .
SYN ISN.
3. SYN ACK
ISN .
167

 (. handshake)
, .
(. active open)
(.
passive open).
(.
).
(
).

.
,
. FIN TCP
:
1. TCP FIN
.
2. ACK .
3. FIN
.
4. ACK
.
(. active
close)
(. passive close). (
FIN ACK )
- (. halfclose) .

4.3.2.

. ,

.
. .

,
168

 .
.
.

. (
) ( / ).

(
).

4.3.2-1.

. 32 ,
.
( )

.

4.3.2-2. TCP IP

169

. 32 .
32 ,
. TCP MSS (Maximum Segment
Size), WSOPT (Window Scale Option), SACK (Selective ACK) SACK Permitted.
( TCP checksum).

4.3.2.1.


. , broadcasting multicasting
. ,
TCP . IP
( ) , TCP
:

TCP
.

.

TCP .

.
, .

TCP
.

TCP
.

TCP
.
,
.

TCP
(
) .
(.
) TCP .
( MSS, Maximum
Segment Size), .

170

 MSS SYN
( ) ,
, 536 .
TCP ( ) MSS-
536 556 . IP
576 (556 TCP + 20 IP ). ,
IP MSS- 536 (93%)
40 (7%) TCP IP .
100Mb/s
93Mb . MSS-
3.960 IP 4.000
( TCP IP ).

99:1. MSS-
100Mb/s 99Mb .
MSS-
. . ,

.
( )
MSS-
. MSS TCP
.

.
ACK

. , SACK permitted
SACK -
.
.

. SACK (Selective ACK)
.
SACK Permitted
.

171

4.4.
(. User Datagram Protocol, UDP)

.
,
, ,

.
,
.
,
,
.

( , ,
).
,
.
.

.
UDP

.

4.4-1.
UDP 16
:
172

(. Source port number) -

.

(. Destination port number) -

.

(. Length) - .

(. Checksum) - .

UDP ,
,

. UDP (
TFTP ). , UDP


.

173

5.

.

.

5-1.

.
(, - )
.

5-2.
174

, ,
,
.
( , top
)
. ,
( )
( ).

5-3.
UNIX (.
daemon). 1963. ,
MAC IBM.

. UNIX
d, httpd,
mysqld...
$ ps -A
USER

PID %CPU %MEM

VSZ

RSS TTY

STAT START

TIME CMD

...
root

2146

0.0

0.0

6060

1484 ?

Ss

Jun19

0:11 cupsd

root

2151

0.0

0.0

2076

416 ?

Ss

Jun19

0:00 crond

root

2175

0.0

0.0

2840

184 ?

Jun19

0:00 mysqld

root

2325

0.0

0.0

64836

564 ?

Ss

Jun19

0:13 httpd

...

5-1.
(
) -
- . Rootkit UNIX

.
175

5.1.

.

.
- . host-based
-
. -
.
,
(. cloud computing).

5.1-1. -
. -
,
.
,

.
- . .

176

 5.1-2. -
(. peer-to-peer)

. ,
,
.

.

5.1-3.

.

.

177

5.1.1. -
-
.
.

. , ,
. -
, -
, ,
. , -
. ,

.

5.1.1-1. -
- -
( 1.). -
,
. , -

.

-
178

 . ,
-
,
, ,
( 2.).
, ,
, .

5.1.1-2. -

,
, ,
. , ,
( )
- . ,
,
- .
-
,
.

179

5.1.1.1.

,
. .
, :

.

.

5.1.1.1-1.


.
, . ,
(
,
), .

.

180


.
.
( ,
) .

5.1.1.1-2.

(
) .


. ,

.

.

5.1.2.
(. peer-to-peer, P2P)
(. node) .

P2P
( ) (
181

 ).
.

. ,
, , ,
...

. -
(
)
.
:
1.
2.
3.

. peer
.


( broadcast ).

- .

,
.


,
.

. .

.

182

5.2.
(. World Wide Web)
. 1991.
, .
,
(. hyperlink)
.

5.2-1. -
.
, ,


.
,
( , ,
...).

, .
( 1.0).
,
.
183

 ,
. ,

, .

5.2.1. ,

. http
https,
- mailto, ftp, rtsp...

- HTTP.
SSL .

SOAP, XML-RPC, .
,
.
,
- HTML.

, .

5.2.1.1.
(. Uniform Resource Locator, URL)
.
,
, ,
.
,
,
, , ..

.
.
.

.
184

,
.

5.2.1.1-1. HTTP
,
(HTTP HTTPS ) (
).
.

( 80 HTTP
443 HTTPS ).

,
.
-
(: mod_rewrite
Apache ). , ,
GET HTTP
.
,

. ,
.

,
.
HTTP
( 2.).

, @,
(:@).
HTTP
,
.
185

 5.2.1.1-2. HTTP
. ,


.

.

,
( , )
.
, ,
.
,

(. Uniform Resource Identified, URI).
(.
Uniform Resource Name, URN).

5.2.1.2. HTTP -
(. HyperText Transfer Protokol, HTTP)
.
-
- -
.
,
.
186

 .

(TCP)
.
80, ,
(HTTPS) 443.
5.2.1.2.1. ,

. : , - . ,
.

5.2.1.2.1-1.
,
(. Content-Length)
(. Transfer-Encoding).
,
. ,
.

.
.
GET POST.
OPTIONS, HEAD, PUT, DELETE, TRACE CONNECT.

. (
) .
(
)
187

 ()
.

5.2.1.2.1-2.
GET
.
.
.
GET /Studije/Poslediplomske
HOST: www.singidunum.ac.rs

POST. , GET,
( ,
.) . ,
GET, .
, HTML
GET :
<form method=GET action=prijava.php>
: <input type=text name=korisnik />
:

<input type=password name=lozinka />

<button type=submit></button>

</form>

188

, , GET
.
.
( input password)

.

5.2.1.2.1-3.
POST
. , GET ,
.
, a
:
http://adresa.servera/prijava.php?korisnik=petar&lozinka=abc123

GET

.
,
8.192 .
( )
.


.

.

5.2.1.2.1-4. POST
189

 HEAD GET
.
,
.
,
.

, :

-
;

-
;

-
;

-
,
;

-
, .

,
.
,
.
5.2.1.2.2.
(. stateless),
.
,
( ,
) .
(
)
, . ,

.
190

 ,
, .


.
,
.
,
.

.
, .

.

.

. ,
,
.
(. cookies)

.
, ().
, ,
.
Set-Cookie ,
Cookie. .
,
-
.
.
( ,
)
( ,
), .
,
191

5.2.1.2.1-5.

. :

( , 1.440
Apache PHP ).
(. session
hijacking),
.

, (,
),
. ,

/ .
, ,

(, , .
192

 ),
/ (
).

5.2.1.2.1-6.
1.1
(. persistent connection),
.
:

3. ,

, ;
4.

;
5. ,
,

;
6.


.

193

 1.1 ,
,
.
Connection .
,
.
5.2.1.2.3.

.
SSL ,
(. Transport Layer Security, TLS).

, .

(
, ).
443.
(. Content
Management System, CMS)
, . ,

.

.

(HTTPS) ,
.

5.2.1.3. HTML -
(. Hyper Text Markup Languagem, HTML )
(. markup language).
, .
. :
<u> </u>.

<u> </u> (. tag) .
194

 - .
(
)
(. ).
:
.
, , ,
.
(
).
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<html>
<head>
<title> </title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
</head>
<body>
.
</body>
</html>

5.2.1.3-1.


.

5.2.1.3-1.

- , / ,
, .

195

5.2.1.4. XML -
(. Extensible Markup Language, XML)

. ,

. XML-
, W3 .
- - XML
- ,
, , .. XML-

. OSI TCP/IP ,
, HTTP
.
, XML-
.
C :
int sabiranje (int a, int b) { return a+b; }

,
.
:
c = sabiranje(2, 3);

XML
(, ):
<naredba>
<pokrenuti>sabiranje</pokrenuti>
<argument tip='int'>2</argument>
<argument tip='int'>3</argument>
</naredba>

, ( , ,
)
XML , C
, ( , . XML )
XML :
196

<odgovor>
<rezultat tip='int'>5</rezultat>
</odgovor>

, XML

. () - XML-RPC,
SOAP WDDX - XML-.
5.2.1.4.1.

XML-RPC (.
Remote Procedure Call, RPC ) XML
HTTP .
:

array - ,

base64 -

boolean -

date/time -

double -

integer -

string - XML

struct -

nil null - (XML-RPC )

, XML-RPC
SOAP .

5.2.1.5. SOAP -
SOAP (Service Oriented Arhitecture Protocol Simple Object Access Protocol)
XML (
HTTP ).
, (. Web
services stack)
OSI TCP/IP .
(. Remote Procedure Call, RPC ), SOAP
197

 . SOAP XMLRPC
() . SOAP :
<soap:Envelope xmlns:soap="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/soap/envelope/">
<soap:Body>
<getStudentData xmlns="http://studenti.unis.local/ws">
<Student_ID>2704</Student_ID>
</getStudentData>
</soap:Body>
</soap:Envelope>

getStudentData Student_ID 2704.

student.unis.local (.
4837).
:
<soap:Envelope xmlns:soap="http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/soap/envelope/">
<soap:Body>
<getStudentDataResponse xmlns="http://studenti.unis.local/ws">
<getStudentDataResult>
<ID>2704</ID>
<Ime>Petar</Ime>
<Prezime>Petrovi</Prezime>
<BrojIndeksa>III-8/2004</BrojIndeksa>
<Fakultet_ID>2</Fakultet_ID>
<Fakultet_Kod>FPI</Fakultet_Kod>
</getStudentDataResult>
</getStudentDataResponse>
</soap:Body>
</soap:Envelope>

SOAP


.

198

5.2.1.6. WDDX -
(. Web Distributed Data eXchange, WDDX )

XML .
, , , , .

, WDDX
PHP, Ruby, Python, Java, C++, .Net, Flash, Lisp, Haskell ...
WDDX :
<wddxPacket version='1.0'>
<header comment='UNIS'/>
<data>
<struct>
<var name='ID'>
<number>2704</number>
</var>
<var name='Ime'>
<string>Petar</string>
</var>
<var name='Fakultet'>
<array length='2'>
<number>2</number>
<string>FPI</string>
</array>
</var>
</struct>
</data>
</wddxPacket>

WDDX ,
. SOAP
(
WDDX-),
WDDX
. , WDDX
1998. ( XML-RPC)
(Allaire ).

199

5.2.1.7. JSON - JavaScript

XML-
,
. ,
XML-
. , , (
)

.

JSON (JavaScript Object Notation)

,
. JSON
-
.
{
"ID": 2704,
"Ime": "Petar",
"Prezime": "Petrovi",
"BrojIndeksa": "III-8/2004",
"Fakultet": {
"ID": 2,
"Kod": "FPI"
}
}

1. JSON
JavaScript JSON-,
,
ActionScript, C, C++, C#, Java, Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby , .

5.2.2.

, .

.


200

,
, , ,
, ,
. - (
) -
( ).

5.2.2-1.

. ,
. ,
1996. , (. Apache Web server)
. 1995.
HTTP -
(. National Center for Supercomputing Applications )
. ,
.

201

 .
(. Apache Tomcat), Java Servlet JavaServer
Pages (JSP) .
IIS
, iPlanet ( Sun
ONE ), - (. engine x, nginx)
, ( ,
,
).
- lighttpd,
Hiawatha, Jetty, tHTTPd, Zeus .

. , ,
.

5.2.2-2. ()

5.2.2.1.

- ,
.
.
,
202

 ,
.

, ,

.
.
,
, ,
.


, ,
.
.

5.2.2-1. -

,
.
(. load balancing) .

- - -

.
203

 5.2.2-2.

, .

. ,

( , IIS
). ,
, UNIX .
, 2011.
:

1 Datapipe

FreeBSD

00:00:00

0,004%

2 INetU

FreeBSD

00:00:00

0,004%

3 New York Internet

FreeBSD

00:00:00

0,004%

4 Hosting 4 Less

Linux

00:00:00

0,008%

5 www.logicworks.net

Linux

00:00:00

0,012%

6 www.micfo.com

Linux

00:00:00

0,019%

7 ReliableServers.com

FreeBSD

00:00:00

0,023%

8 aruba.it

Windows Server 2003

00:00:00

0,023%

9 Kattare Internet Services

Linux

00:00:00

0,023%

Linux

00:00:00

0,031%

10 www.qubenet.net

5.2.2-1. 2011.

204

 ,
,
. ,
(. Active Server Pages, ASP)
IIS .

5.2.3.

. ,
( ) (
).
,
.
.
. ,
,
.

5.2.3-1.


205

. ,
, JavaScript .

.
.

, (
),
.
,

JavaScript .

5.2.4.

- .

-

-. ,
,
.


,
.

.

(. Content Management
System, CMS). ,
,
.
,

.

206

 5.2.4-1.
,
:

4. -
,
;
5. -

;
6. -

;

, .
PHP
MySQL
.

, .
, .
207

 5.2.4-2.


,
.

208

5.3.
, ,
.
( host-based ),

- .

.
1 2010.
1,88 e , 294
, 107
.
,
.
, , - 89,1
2010. (. spam).

5.3.1.

.
-
:

(. Message Store, MS) .

.

.
(. Message User Agent, MUA)
1

: www.pingdom.com, Internet 2010 in numbers

209

 .
.

,
.

5.3.1-1.
(. Message Submission Agent, MSA )
,
.
.

(. Message Transfer Agent)

.

.

.
(. Message Delivery Agent)
, ,
( -,
- ).
,
.

.
,
(. Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol, SMTP). ,

210

 (. Post Office
Protocol version 3, POP3)
(. Internet Message Access Protocol, IMAP).

.


.

,
.

5.3.1-2.

(. Webmail).

,
.


(Google Mail, Hotmail, Yahoo),
(Roundcube, Horde/IMP, Squirrel Mail, AtMail ).

5.3.2. ,
(. envelope)
.
, .
.
1.000
, .

211


127 ASCII ,
. ,
.
(.
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions, MIME ).

.

.
.
. @.
.
64
255 .
()
.
, ,
, ., _ -.

5.3.2.1. SMTP -

(.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, SMTP )
.
,
, TCP.

.
,

.
, .

.
. ,
,
212


.
MAIL FROM: "Adam Jones" <adam@jones.tld>
RCPT TO: "Danny Carrey" <danny@carrey.tld>
DATE: Fri 18 Feb 2005 16:27:01 GMT
SUBJECT: New song
Message-ID: 000a01c76701$b2a25600$f601f0d5@server
DATA
Danny, I believe that two notes would be enugh for entire song.
QUIT

5.3.2-1. SMTP
SMTP
.
()
,
.

5.3.2.2. POP3 -
(. Post Office Protocol version 3, POP3 )

. ,
.
: ,
.
.
.
USER PASS
.

.
,
. :

STAT - ,
;

LIST - ;
213

RETR -
;

DELE -
;
;

RSET - ;

NOOP -

;

QUIT - , .

. ,
.

214

5.4.
()
.
,
-. -
,
,
. -

.
. ,
.
-
- . - Extented
filesysem ( 2, 3 4), Reiserfs, XFS, JFS, Btrfs, NTFS, VFAT, ISO 9660
- .

5.4-1.
.
215

 - ,
,

(, ).

- .
-
-
,
.

5.4-2. -

.
( FTP). , -
- (NFS) UNIX .

216

5.4.1. FTP -
(. File Transfer Protokol, FTP)
TCP/IP
. FTP -
.

.
FTP :

FTP :

(, ,
, ) TCP/IP

firewall-.

"" 3.
xy .

FTP
.

md5 .

5.4.1.1. FTP
FTP :
1. .
2. .

. ,
217

FTP (.
) :
1. .
2. FTP
( ).
3. .
FTP-,
FTP-:
1. SFTP (SSH File Transfer Protocol) - FTP SSH (Secure SHell)
.
2. FTPS (File Transfer Protocol over SSL) - FTP SSL TLS
.

5.4.2. NFS - -
- (. Network File System, NFS)
- UNIX .
.
- - .

,
.

5.4.3. CIFS - -
SMB (Server Messages Block) OSI
,
. MS
Windows . SMB
IBM- DOS- "Interrupt 33"
. , SMB-
. 1998.
SMB- CIFS (Common Internet
File System) SMB :
,
, NetBios-.

218

SMB NetBios (
NetBEUI, IPX/SPX NBT ) MS Windows 2000
SMB TCP/IP .
MS Windows , SMB
Unix Samba . ,
, SMB
.
CIFS (Common Internet File System) SMB-
,
SMB- TCP/IP NetBios .
1996. SMB
SMB CIFS. 1.0
CIFS IETF

. NetBios TCP/IP CIFS
DNS .
CIFS
.

219

5.5.
- ,
- ,
,
, .
,
.

.
.
(. Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol, DHCP).
.
(. Domain Name System, DNS).

5.5.1. DHCP -
(. Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol, DHCP )
.
:

( ) DHCP
;

(
,
, DNS )
;

220


.

, .

- ,
.

5.5.2. DNS -
(. Domain Name System, DNS)
,
- . DNS-
.
(, , .)
DNS . ,
DNS-
.
DNS-
.

5.5.2.1.

, ( )
.

( ,
www.dir.singidunum.ac.rs 212.62.45.222).
hosts .
,
:
1. N .
2. N N hosts
:
1. 192.168.1.1 1.-
2. 192.168.1.2 2.-
3. 192.168.1.N N.-
221

3. 1: N
hosts
hosts
4. 2: N
hosts
5. 3: N 1 hosts
hosts
DNS- DNS .
,
.
hosts ( hosts
)
1983.
.
#
# hosts This file describes a number of hostnametoaddress
# mappings for the TCP/IP subsystem. It is mostly
# used at boot time, when no name servers are running.
# On small systems, this file can be used instead of a
# "named" name server. Just add the names, addresses
# and any aliases to this file...
#
# By the way, Arnt Gulbrandsen <agulbra@nvg.unit.no> says that 127.0.0.1
# should NEVER be named with the name of the machine.
# It causes problems
# for some (stupid) programs, irc and reputedly talk. :^)
#
# For loopbacking.
127.0.0.1 localhost
192.168.1.1 tool.local tool
# End of hosts.

5.5.2.1-1. hosts

Hosts DNS-.
DNS- .
hosts
222

 DNS .
. , DNS .
-
0.0.0.0 ad.doubleclick.net hosts
ad.doubleclick.net.

. , ,

. , DNS .
:
1. X.X.X.X -
www.google.com - Y.Y.Y.Y.
2. X.X.X.X
www.google.com

www.google.com.
3. www.google.com Y.Y.Y.Y
.
4.
hosts : X.X.X.X
www.google.com.
,
www.google.com X.X.X.X Y.Y.Y.Y
.

5.5.2.2.
DNS-
. DNS (. authoritative DNS
nameserver)
DNS -.

(. domain name).
.
dir.singidunum.ac.rs:

(.
223

top level domain), rs.

- ac, singidunum dir . 127
63 ,
(
) 255 .
(.
hostname) .
, dir.singidunum.ac.rs
www.dir.singidunum.ac.rs
212.62.45.222.

5.5.2.2-1.
.
DNS
. DNS
.
DNS (. root
servers) -
.
. 13
[A-M]. root-servers.net.
224

 -
dir.singidunum.ac.rs rs.
:
1. -
: rs -
, ru - , cn - ;
2. -
: com - , org , edu - ;
3. -
arpa .
,
,
. ,
.
, ,
-,
, .
2011. .
DNS (. resolver).
DNS
.
, .

DNS .
DNS :
1. ( , )
http://www.dir.singidunum.ac.rs/index.php
(http),
(www.dir.singidunum.ac.rs) (/index.php).
2.
.
3. DNS
: "
www.dir.singidunum.ac.rs?"
225

4. DNS
(dir.singidunum.ac.rs)
DNS : " DNS
rs ?"
5. : "147.91.8.6".
6. DNS 147.91.8.6 : " DNS
ac.rs ?".
7. DNS 147.91.8.6 : "147.91.8.21".
8. DNS 147.91.8.21 : "
DNS singidunum.ac.rs?"
9. 147.91.8.21 : "212.62.48.42".
10. DNS 212.62.48.42 : "
DNS dir.singidunum.ac.rs?".
11. 212.62.48.42 : "212.62.45.222".
12. DNS 212.62.45.222 : "
www.dir.singidunum.ac.rs?".
13. 212.62.48.222 : "212.62.45.222"
14. DNS :
" www.dir.singidunum.ac.rs
212.62.45.222".


/index.php. DNS-.
DNS
DNS .

5.5.2.3.
DNS DNS-

. , ,
DNS DNS
.
DNS DNS .
.
226

 DNS- DNS
DNS
.
DNS ,
, ,
DNS
.
DNS
-
DNS ,

?
(. Time To Live, TTL)
.
DNS
.
86.400 , .
( DNS )
DNS .
:

Serial: ,

.

Refresh: slave secondary

.

Retry: slave secondary

master
.

Expire: slave secondary

master
.

227

5.6.


.

.

.
:
.

5.6.1. NTP -
(,
, ) ,
.
,

,

.

:
1. ,
,
2.

3.
.
(. Network Time Protocol, NTP )
.
bash3.1# /usr/sbin/ntpdate ntp.nasa.gov
15 Mar 12:02:46 ntpdate[]: step time server 198.123.30.132 offset 1.914867 sec
bash3.1# /sbin/hwclock systohc
bash3.1#

5.6.1-1.
228


UDP , 123.

NTP
. NTP
1984.
.
2.
NTP NTP
NTP ( ,
ntp.nasa.gov). ,
.
,
,

,
. ,
,
.
bash3.1# cat /sys/devices/system/clocksource/clocksource0/
available_clocksource

current_clocksource

bash3.1# cat /sys/devices/system/clocksource/clocksource0/current_clocksource

hpet
bash3.1#

5.6.1-2.


.

( )
.
,

.

http://www.cse.ucsd.edu/users/marzullo

229

5.6.2. SNMP -

. ,

, , ,

. (. Simple
Network Management Protocol)
,
.
SNMP
. SNMP
: SNMP- (.
managed device), SNMP (. Network
Management System, NMS).
SNMP
SNMP .
.
( NMS) SNMP .
SNMP
SNMP NMS
. NMS
SNMP
. SNMP NMS .
, SNMP ,
SNMP NMS.
SNMP
.
SNMP
SNMP-.

230

5.7.


, .
,
, Secure Shell .

X Window System UNIX .

(. Virtual Network Computing, VNC).

5.7.1.

( UNIX ).
-

.

- .
(. )
.

.


.
. (
)

.

231

5.7.2. SSH -
SSH (Secure Shell)
[RFC4251]. UNIX
.
,
.
,
TCP/IP
.
.

.

.
.

.

,
X11 . SSH
, , ,
.
.

.
SSH
() .
SSH .

SSH .

.
.

232

5.7.3. C

C
- DISTCC (Distributed C Compiler).
.
, ,
C .
,
,
.

.

233

5.8.

. ,


, .
.

5.8.1.

.
(. Voice over IP,
VoIP).
( )
.

.
H.323, ITU-T 1996. .

-. H.323
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
.

IP
. IP
.

5.8.2.
-

.

.
.

234


.

.

( )

.

.

/ .


.
/ : H.320, .323 MPEG-2.

.
Webcasting.
/ , . /

. -
-
.

235

6.


. ,
,


. ,
-
.
, ,
.
, -
, ,
, .
,
,
. ,
,
, .

.

.


:
1.
.
2.
.
3.
.
4.
236

 / ,
()

.
,


.

.

6.1.

.
()
,
.
- ,
.

6.1.1.

(,
.) .
( )

. .
.
,
.
,
.
RSA
de facto
.
.
,
, .
237

6.1.2.

( ,
.) . (. brute force
attack).
.

6.1.2-1.

,
( ).
( )
.

.
UNIX ,
.
,
( )
( )
/etc/passwd. ,


.
/etc/shadow
.
238



su
.

,
( ) .


.
MS Windows
.
.
PIN . ,
,

.
,

.
.

,
, :
National Security Agency (NSA)

ECC

Secret

128

256

256

Top Secret

256
384
6.1.2-1. NSA

384

ECRYPT

ECC

Attacks in "real-time" by individuals

Only acceptable for authentication

32

239

tag size

Very short-term protection against

small organizations
Should not be used for confidentiality
in new systems

64

816

128

816

128

128

Short-term protection against

medium organizations, medium-term
protection against small organizations

72

1008

144

1008

144

144

Very short-term protection against

agencies, long-term protection
against small organizations
Smallest general-purpose level,
Use of 2-key 3DES restricted to 240
plaintext/ciphertexts,
protection from 2008 to 2011

80

1248

160

1248

160

160

Legacy standard level

Use of 2-key 3DES restricted to 106
plaintext/ciphertexts,
protection from 2008 to 2018

96

1776

192

1776

192

192

Medium-term protection
Use of 3-key 3DES,
protection from 2008 to 2028

112

2432

244

2432

244

244

Long-term protection
Generic application-independent
recommendation,
protection from 2008 to 2038

128

3248

256

3248

256

256

"Foreseeable future"
Good protection against quantum
computers

256

15424

512

15424

512

512

6.1.2-2. ECRYPT

Bundesamt fr Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI)

ECC

2008

1280

160

1280

180

SHA-1*
RIPEND-160
SHA-224

SHA-256
SHA-384
SHA-512

2009

1536

160

1536

180

SHA-1*
RIPEND-160
SHA-224

SHA-256
SHA-384
SHA-512

240

2010

1728

224

2048

224

SHA-1**
RIPEND-160
SHA-224

SHA-256
SHA-384
SHA-512

2011
...
2015

1967

224

2048

224

SHA-224
SHA-256

SHA-384
SHA-512

(*) .
(**)
20 .
6.1.2-3. BSI

(
) .
2 N-1
N .

6.1.2-1. , COPACOBANA

241

 ,
.
COPACOBANA Bochum
Kiel.

64 . DES
. ,
127 COPACOBANA
. 43
2006.
22.865 Pentium 4 . 2006.
8.980 .
,
,

,

. ,



- .

6.1.3.

(. Man in
the middle attack).

(, .),
.
, ,
() .

.
( )
.
, , .
242

 6.1.3-1.

, , ,
.

.

:
PKI , , ,
.

.
.

6.1.4.
(. Denial of Service, DoS)
, , ( ).

( )
.
.

.
. .
. (
)
( )
.
.

6.1.4-1.
243


(. Distributed Denial
of Service, DDoS).

.

6.1.4-2.

( ).
.
,
, .

.

2008.
.
.
:
1. IP
IP TCP
( ).
2.
- TCP
.
3.
.

244

 .

. , ,
20. 2008.

. ,
http://mfa.gov.ge
. .


( , , - .).
( ,
.).

6.2.
.
,
. ,

.
:

OSI TCP/IP
. ,
,
.

6.2.1.



.
245

 ,
.

/
.

6.2.1-1.
,
/. ,


.

6.2.1.1.

.

.
.
.
OpenPGP.
246

OpenPGP
, ,
Radix/64 [RFC 4880]. ,
. OpenPGP
.
,
. ()
, . OpenPGP
:
1. ,
2. OpenPGP ()
,
3. OpenPGP
,
4. OpenPGP
,
5.
,
6.
.
,
.
,
,
.
:
1. ,
2. ,
3.
,
4. ,
5. ,
6.
.
247

OpenPGP .
,
.
:
ID

ZIP [RFC 1951]

ZLIB [RFC 1950]

BZip2

100-110

6.2.1.1-1. OpenPGP

( ):
ID

MD5

SHA-1

RIPE-MD/160

SHA256

SHA384

10

SHA512

11

SHA224

100-110

6.2.1.1-2. OpenPGP

:
ID
0

248

IDEA

3DES (168bit)

CAST5 (128bit) [RFC 2144]

Blowfish (128bit)

AES (128bit)

AES (192bit)

AES (256bit)

10

Twofish (256bit)

100-110

6.2.1.1-3. OpenPGP

:
ID

RSA ( )

RSA ( )

RSA ( )

16

Elgamal ( )

17

DSA

18

19

20

21

100-110

6.2.1.1-4. OpenPGP

OpenPGP
() ,
.
.

249

 .
64 128,
OpenPGP-CFB .
DSA
3072.
OpenPGP IETF
.

6.2.2.

OSI TCP/IP , ,

.

6.2.2-1.
, TCP

. , TCP

.
, TCP ,
(. ),
250

 TCP
(. ).

TLS (. Transport Layer Security). 3.0
SSL (. Seure Sockets Layer) . SSL
( 2.0 )
, Man-in-the-middle .
,
40 .

6.2.2.1. Transport Layer Security

TLS
.
IETF
. 3.0 SSL
. , 1.0 [RFC2246], 1.1
[RFC4346] 1.2 [RFC5246] , [RFC
2817, 2818, 3546, 3749, 4366, 5054, 5081, 5705, 5746],
[RFC: 2712,
3268, 4132, 4279, 4492, 4785, 5288, 5289, 5469, 5487, 5489]. TLS
:
5. TLS Record
6. TLS Handshake

TLS Record
, TCP .
:

TLS

- .

TLS Handshake . TLS Record
.

-
(. SHA-1).
TLS Record
.

Handshake

251

 , (
) .
, ,
. TLS Handshake TLS
Record . TLS
Handshake :

(. RSA, DSA .).
, .

TLS .
:

-
.

-
TLS
.

-
.

.

-
TLS
.
. ,

.

TLS
.
TLS , .
,
252

.
.
6.2.2.1.1. TLS-

TLS
( TLS Record ),
, . TLS
Handshake
:
4. -
,
5. - X509v3
,
6. -
,
7. - ,
,
,
8. master secret - 48 ,

9. .

, TLS Record ,
. , ,
.
Change Cipher Spec ,
.
( ).
, ,

. ,
, TLS
Record , .
Change Cipher Spec
,
.

253

 Alert TLS
.
,

. Alert
:

-
.
.
,
, .
.

-
,
, .
.

:
bad_record_mac,
decryption_failed_RESERVED, record_overflow, decompression_failure,
handshake_failure,
no_certificate_RESERVED,
bad_certificate,
unsupported_certificate,
certificate_revoked,
certificate_expired,
certificate_unknown, illegal_parameter, unknown_ca, access_denied,
decode_error,
decrypt_error,
export_restriction_RESERVED,
protocol_version, insufficient_security, internal_error, user_canceled,
no_renegotiation, unsupported_extension .
RFC TLS
.

TLS Handshake
, - ,
, , master secret .
:
1. hello , ()
, .
2.
premaster secret .

3.
.
254

4. master secret premaster

secret () .
5. TLS Record
.
6.
(
).



.

,
.
6.2.2.1.2.

TLS Record
,
TLS Handshake .
master secret
:

MAC

master secret
.

6.2.2.1.3.
TLS Record
, master secret ,
() .
, ,
,
. , master secret ,
. .
255


master secret pre master secret .
pre master secret
master secret . master secret
:
1. master secret
2. ()
3. ()
RSA ,
master secret :
1. pre master secret 48 .
2. pre master secret
.
3. pre master secret .
4. master secret pre master
secret .
Diffie-Hellman ,
pre master secret . ,
, . Diffie-Hellman
. pre master secret master
secret .
6.2.2.1.4. TLS
TLS .

: GnuTLS , OpenSSL NSS.
yaSSL.
GnuTLS
LGPLv2.1+ .
( Free Software Foundation).
: SSL 3.0, SSL
3.0, TLS 1.0, TLS 1.1, TLS 1.2. 2.0 SSL
.
UNIX , MS Windows
.
256

OpenSSL , OpenSSL ,
SSLeay ,
Cryptosft. OpenSSL
, Apache ,
SSLeay .
NSS (Network Security Services)
SSL TLS , PKCS#5, PKCS#7, PKCS#11, PKCS#12,
S/MIME, X.509v3 ,
.
Netscape SSL .
AOL, Red Hat, Sun
Microsystems, Google ,
Mozilla.

PKCS#11 .
Smart
.
RSA, DSA, ECDSA, Diffie-Hellman, EC Diffie-Hellman, AES, Triple DES, DES, RC2, RC4,
SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512, MD2, MD5, HMAC
.
yaSSL .
GPL ,
. SSL/TLS
MySQL .

, ,
, .
( GnuTLS
2.8, OpenSSL 0.9.8, NSS 3.12.4, yaSSL 1.9.6). 2 SSL
, ,
.
SSL 2.0

SSL 3.0

TLS 1.0

TLS 1.1

TLS 1.2

GnuTLS

OpenSSL

257

NSS

yaSSL

6.2.2.1.4-1.

Anon
RSA

RSA

RSA
expor
t

DHE
RSA

DHE
DSS

SRP
DSS

SRP
RSA

SRP

PSK

DHE
PSK

ECC

GnuTLS

OpenS
SL

NSS

yaSSL

6.2.2.1.4-2.

AES 256 AES 128

CBC
CBC

3DES
CBC

DES CBC RC4 128

CBC

RC4 40
CBC

RC2 40
CBC

Cammeli
a

GnuTLS

OpenSSL

NSS

yaSSL

6.2.2.1.4-3.

ZLIB

LZO

GnuTLS

OpenSSL

NSS

yaSSL

6.2.2.1.4-4.

258

OpenPGP

SRP

PSK

TLS/IA

Supp.
data

RFC 5077

RFC 5705

GnuTLS

OpenSSL

NSS

yaSSL

6.2.2.1.4-5.

6.2.3.
OSI
. :
,
.

6.2.3-1.


259

 - ,
.
Internet Protocol Security.

6.2.3.1. Internet Protocol Security

Internet Protocol Security (IPsec)
IP .
,
. , IPsec
.

6.2.3.1-1. IPsec

IPsec
, , ,
, ,
. IPsec :
.
IPsec IETF . IPsec
ISO NLSP (Network Layer Security
Protocol) SP3 ,
NIST
(NSA). IPsec
.
260

 6.2.3.1-2. IPsec
IPsec
(SSL, TLS...) OSI
TCP/IP .
.

IPsec Internet Key Exchange (IKE, IKE2)

,
Authentication Header (AH)
Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
, .
IPsec IPv6
. , IPsec
4.
IPsec
.
.


.

IPsec
IP .
RFC .
IPsec
,
.
261

6.2.3.1.1.
IPsec
: .

IP .

6.2.3.1.1-1.
IP IP

IP .
(. Network Address
Translation) (. Virtual Private
Network).

6.2.3.1.1-2.
IPsec,
, ,
262

 ,

.
6.2.3.1.2. Authentication Header

AH (Authentication Header) IPsec

IP [RFC
2402]. ,
. AH IP
.
AH ESP
(Encapsulating Security Payload) . ,
,
, ,
, .

6.2.3.1.2-1. AH

263

 AH ESP
ESP
IP ,
( ). IP
AH IPsec
.

6.2.3.1.2-2. AH

AH 24 . Next Header.
.
AH
264

 IP , IP
NAT .
IP Next Header
4. Next Header
6. IPsec
NAT-Traversal NAT
.
SPI (Security Parameters Index) 32 .
.
Sequence Number reply . Authentication
Data HMAC (hash message authentication data) 96 .
(
) IP .

265

6.2.3.1.3. Encapsulating Security Payload

ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload) IPsec

[RFC 2406].
AH (Authentication
Header) . ,
,
, , , .

6.2.3.1.3-1. ESP

ESP
. ESP
IP IPsec
. , ESP ,
(, )
reply .

ESP .
,
( ESP AH
266

). ,
.

6.2.3.1.3-2. ESP


.
ESP reply .

ESP IPv4, IPv6 . ESP

IP ,
IP .
SPI (Security Parameters Index) 32
ESP IP
. 1 255
267

 . SPI
ESP . 0
.
Sequence Number , , 32
.
reply . 0
.
ESP Payload,
.

(. .).
6.2.3.1.4. IPsec
IPsec de facto
IP ,
, , .


(ISAKMP/IKE) .
IPsec
.
IPsec
2.6.
FreeS/WAN, Openswan
strongSwan
.
IPsec
2000. . ,

Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2003, Windows XP,
Windows 2000. , IPsec Active
Directory .
BSD (FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD)
KAME . Mac OS X
. OpenBSD NRL (United States Naval
Research Laboratory) , ,
.
268

 Cisco IOS
. IBM (AIX, z/OS)
. Solaris, Sun,
.
KAME

KAME
IPsec
BSD Unix . 1998.
7. 2005.
2006. .
, Karigome.
:

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

ALAXALA Networks Corporation

Fujitsu, Ltd.
Hitachi, Ltd.
Internet Initiative Japan Inc.
Keio University
NEC Corporation
University of Tokyo
Toshiba Corporation
Yokogawa Electric Corporation

DragonFly BSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD

IPSec IPv6 KAME . OpenBSD
IPv6 .

IPsec-Tools
. :
1. libipsec - PF_KEY .
2. setkey - ( Security Policy
Database, SPD) ( Security Association
Database, SAD).
3. racoon .
4. racoonctl racoon-.
269


2.5.47 IPsec
. ,
. , , 2002.
IPsec
2.6.

6.2.3.1.4-1. IPsec
IPsec
:

1. ,
2. ( )
3. (GPL).
,

( 1).

(
) .
, ,
.


. , netfilter
iptables .
, , IPsec
,
270


. ,
, C. C,
,
.
,
.
6.2.3.1.5. Internet Key Exchange
IKE (. Internet Key Exchange) IPsec

( ,
. Security Associations, SA). 2
(IKEv2).
IKE .

ESP AH , ,
.
IKE - .
(. exchange).
-

. IKE
(IKE_SA_INIT)
, Diffie-Hellman .
(IKE_AUTH) ,
.

IKE 500 4500.

UDP .
IKE
,
.
IKE . ,
(
1.280
3.000 , ). IKE
.
271

 IKE
( ESP, AH)
.
() .

(.
).
IKE
, .

.
,
.
rekeying.
,
.

6.2.4.

.

.
, ,
.

.
,
.

( ) (
).
().

.

( ) (
). .
272

6.2.4-1.

, (
)
.

,

.

,
,


/ .

TCP/IP

.
:
273

1.
TCP/IP

. ,

.
2.
statefull .


.
(. )
(.
).

.
3.


. y
.

.

.
.

.


.
.

6.2.5.

,
(. Intrusion Prevention System, IPS )
274

 ()
( )

.
, IPS
(Host based IPS, HIPS) (Network based IPS, NIPS).
,

. ,

, .
,


. .

(. )

.
( ,
)
.
(. Intrusion Detection System, IDS )
,
. IDS
.




. IDS

. IDS IDS

, ,
. , IDS

.
275

6.3.
:
.
( ) .


.
.
AES, DES, RC4
Blowfish.
.
,
,
. .

n-1 (n
).
.
1976.
.


. ,
e ( ) d ( ).
.
. ,
,
.
.
-
RSA .


(, ). ,
,
.
276

6.3.1. Advanced Encryption Standard, AES

Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
.
NIST- .
.
,
.

AES 128, 196 256 .

. AES
, ,
. AES
, 128 . , AES

.
N (N 32).
AES , (. number of rounds),
. 128 10,
196 12, 256 14.
AES
:
1. ,
2. ,
3.
4. Round Key ( )
.
.
Round Key
10, 12 14 , .
, .

277

 , Key Expansion . Key Expansion

. (. key schedule)
Nr (Nr ) .

6.3.2. Data Encryption Standard (DES, 3DES)

Data Encryption Standard (DES)
, NIST-
.
64 .
DES 64
56 8
.
DES
(Ip). , ,
( f)
( -, key scheduling, KS)
.
(Ip-1).
, , ,
.
DES
. NIST
( NBS, National Bureau of Standards )
. ,
.
NSA
IBM Lucifer
.

DES
S ,
NSA .

.
3DES .

278

6.3.3. RSA
RSA ,
( Rivest-Shamir-Adleman).
, ,
.
RSA -
. -
. RSA :
( ),
- , , CRT (Chinese Remainder
Theorem) , CRT , CRT , i-
, i- CRT , i- CRT .
RSA .
, ,

.
,
,
.

279

6.4.

,
.

:
1. ,
2.
3. .

, . ,

,
.
2004. CSO
CERT-,

.


.


.

2009.
.
,
2009.
. .
, ,

.

.
280



. ,
OSI TCP/IP
.
.

281

Andrews S. Tanenbaum, , , 2005.,

Davidson J., Peters J.: "Voice over IP Fundamentals", Cisco Press, 2000.

Jerry Fitzgerald and Alan Dennis, Business Data Communications and

Networking - 8th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2005., New York

Leiner B., Cerf V., Clark D., Kahn R., Kleinrock L., Lynch D., Postel J.,

Roberts L., Wolff S.: "A Brief History of the Internet", Internet Society, 2002.

Muller J. N., Bluetooth Demystified, McGraw-Hill, 2000, NY, USA.

Stevens R.: "TCP/IP Illustrated, vol. 1", Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc., 1999.

William Stallings, Data and Computer Communication, Pearson Prentice Hall,

2004, NJ, USA

Robin Burk, David B Horvath, CCP i drugi, Unix do kraja, izdanje za sistem
administratora, Kompjuter biblioteka, 1999.

Roberta Szyper, Caren Bachmann, Jonathan Decker: Guide to structured

cabling, Black Box, www.blackbox.com.

David Barnett, David Groth, Jim McBee: Cabling: The Complete Guide to
Network Wiring, Sybex, 2004.

A. Anthony Bruno, Jacqueline Kim: CCDA Exam Certification Guide, Cisco

Press, 2000.

Lydia Parziale, David T. Britt, Chuck Davis, Jason Forrester, Wei Liu, Carolyn
Matthews, Nicolas Rosselot: TCP/IP Tutorial and Technical Overview, IBM
2006.

282

7. I -
UNIX
, . UNIX
( Slackware
). :

.


. ,
.

, OSI
. ( PPP, TCP, IP...)
. (SMB, HTTP, FTP)
( ).

. ,

.
.

MS Windows
.

7.1.1.
/etc/HOSTNAME - .

283

/etc/resolv.conf - :

DNS

search singidunum.ac.yu singidunum.local

nameserver 212.62.48.42
nameserver 212.62.45.222
/etc/host.conf - .
order hosts, bind
multi on
nospoof on
/etc/hosts - ( ) .
DNS .
127.0.0.1

localhost

192.168.1.1 lokalniracunar.lokalnamreza lokalniracunar

/etc/networks - ( ).
.
loopback

127.0.0.0

lokalnamreza 192.168.1.0

7.1.2.
ifport -
() .
ifconfig - .

. ,
, broadcast, .
284

route - .

.
usernetctl -
.
arp - ARP .

7.1.3.
ping - ICMP echo request
echo reply. ping echo reply
:

Ping
.

traceroute - ping
, traceroute
.
.
host, nslookup, dig - DNS .
( )
(. ). dig
host .
nstat -
.
SNMP daemon-. /proc/net/snmp .
netstat - /proc/net
nstat . Netstat
,
, routing .
snmp - SNMP (snmpget, snmpnext...)
SNMP. , snmp
daemon SNMP .
285

tcpdump - sniffer-,
.
tcpdump
.

7.1.4. Dial-Up
pppd - daemon
.
DialUp-.
sliplogin - pppd
SLIP PPP .
diald -
Dial-Up .

7.1.5.
inetd tcpd - inetd
/etc/inetd.conf
. , inetd
() tcpd /etc/hosts.allow
/etc/hosts.deny IP
.
, inetd
(ftpd, telnetd...). tcpd
firewall
tcpdchk tcpdmatch - / etc/hosts.allow
/etc/hosts.deny . tcpdchk
. tcpdmatch
daemon/ , ,
.
sendmail - sendmail MTA UNIX
.
qmail postfix.
ssh - Secure Shell (SSH) UNIX .
ssh sshd
.

286

7.1.6. (ifconfig)
(
) ().
,
, ifconfig.
.

C :

: 192.168.1.0

: 255.255.255.0

Gateway: 192.168.1.1

: 192.168.1.10

ifconfig :
ifconfig eth0 192.168.1.10 netmask 255.255.255.0 broadcast 192.168.1.255

ifconfig :
bash# ifconfig
eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:11:25:AA:0E:59
inet addr:192.168.1.1 Bcast:192.168.1.255 Mask:255.255.255.0
UP BROADCAST RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1
RX packets:132492645 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:154256707 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:1000
RX bytes:32797966 (31.2 Mb) TX bytes:1679866715 (1602.0 Mb)
Base address:0x2000 Memory:d0120000-d0140000
lo Link encap:Local Loopback
inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0
UP LOOPBACK RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1
RX packets:3240825 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:3240825 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:0
RX bytes:2704771622 (2579.4 Mb) TX bytes:2704771622 (2579.4 Mb)

ifconfig gateway ,
287

 route:
/sbin/route add default gw 192.168.1.1 metric 1

.
10 up down :
ifconfig eth0 down && sleep 600 && ifconfig eth0 up

,

, gateway- .

288

8. II -

.

8.1.
8.1.1.
:

01000001001000000010111101000001
10101101001100110011001001111101
00101000001100001101010101001110
11000100110100110101000101000111
11011100111111001110001000111011

8.1.2.
:

55.35.108.251

17.144.31.124

154.250.210.69
216.222.117.32

171.67.203.240
194.35.19.238

176.160.153.144
177.122.22.200

38.137.109.67
7.31.65.35

8.1.3.
:

158.58.66.195/16
211.83.131.189/10
234.182.152.159/20
156.20.9.106/17
80.192.90.239/22

289

8.1.4.

:

255.255.224.0
255.255.255.128

255.255.192.0
255.255.254.0

255.255.255.240
255.255.255.0

255.255.255.248
255.255.248.0

255.255.255.192

255.255.252.0

8.1.5.

:

242.151.184.226/30
95.247.184.153/30

204.14.100.245/30
88.164.168.73/30

125.71.7.118/30
167.163.146.163/30

15.226.239.51/30
233.86.212.60/30

151.218.200.101/30

135.187.4.129/30

8.1.6.
:
1
135.113.217.108

2
135.113.216.84

255.255.255.0

100.40.128.21
218.134.163.120

100.40.128.24
218.134.165.16

255.255.255.192
255.255.248.0

171.139.237.44
165.225.14.143

171.139.239.158
165.224.202.143

255.255.240.0
255.255.0.0

290

8.1.7.
206.227.220.0/24.
.
.

..
73

22
10

13
6

8.2.
8.2.1.
:

01000001001000000010111101000001
10101101001100110011001001111101

65.32.47.65
173.51.50.125

00101000001100001101010101001110
11000100110100110101000101000111

40.48.213.78
196.211.81.71

11011100111111001110001000111011

220.252.226.59

8.2.2.
:

55.35.108.251

17.144.31.124

154.250.210.69
216.222.117.32

B
C

171.67.203.240
194.35.19.238

B
C

176.160.153.144
177.122.22.200

B
B

38.137.109.67
7.31.65.35

A
A

291

8.2.3.
:

158.58.66.195/16

158.58.0.0

158.58.255.255

211.83.131.189/10
234.182.152.159/20

211.64.0.0
234.182.144.0

211.127.255.255
234.182.159.255

156.20.9.106/17
80.192.90.239/22

156.20.0.0
80.192.88.0

156.20.127.255
80.192.91.255

8.2.4.

:

255.255.224.0

8190

255.255.192.0

16382

255.255.255.128
255.255.255.240

126
14

255.255.254.0
255.255.255.248

510
6

255.255.255.0
255.255.255.192

254
62

255.255.248.0
255.255.252.0

2046
1022

8.2.5.

:

242.151.184.226/30

204.14.100.245/30

95.247.184.153/30
125.71.7.118/30

88.164.168.73/30
15.226.239.51/30

167.163.146.163/30
151.218.200.101/30

233.86.212.60/30
135.187.4.129/30

292

8.2.6.
:
1
135.113.217.108

2
135.113.216.84

255.255.255.0

100.40.128.21
218.134.163.120

100.40.128.24
218.134.165.16

255.255.255.192
255.255.248.0

171.139.237.44
165.225.14.143

171.139.239.158
165.224.202.143

255.255.240.0
255.255.0.0

8.2.7.
206.227.220.0/24.
.
.

..

73
22

206.227.220.0 255.255.255.128
206.227.220.128 255.255.255.224

206.227.220.127
206.227.220.159

10
13

206.227.220.160 255.255.255.240
206.227.220.176 255.255.255.240

206.227.220.175
206.227.220.191

206.227.220.192 255.255.255.248

206.227.220.199

293