Database system concepts and architecture

DBMS Architecture

Database models
Various techniques are used to model data structure. Most database systems are
built around one particular data model, although it is increasingly common for
products to offer support for more than one model. For any one logical model various
physical implementations may be possible, and most products will offer the user
some level of control in tuning the physical implementation, since the choices that
are made have a significant effect on performance. Here are three examples:
Hierarchical model
In a hierarchical model, data is organized into an inverted tree-like structure,
implying a multiple downward link in each node to describe the nesting, and a sort
field to keep the records in a particular order in each same-level list. This structure
arranges the various data elements in a hierarchy and helps to establish logical
relationships among data elements of multiple files. Each unit in the model is a
record which is also known as a node. In such a model, each record on one level can
be related to multiple records on the next lower level. A record that has subsidiary
records is called a parent and the subsidiary records are called children. Data
elements in this model are well suited for one-to-many relationships with other data
elements in the database.
This model is advantageous when the data elements are inherently hierarchical. The
disadvantage is that in order to prepare the database it becomes necessary to
identify the requisite groups of files that are to be logically integrated. Hence, a
hierarchical data model may not always be flexible enough to accommodate the
dynamic needs of an organization.
Advantages
1.
2.

it is the easiest model of the database.

searching is fast and easy

3.

very efficient in handling one to many relationship.

Disadvantages
1.
2.

it is old fashioned and outdated database model.

cant handle many to many relationship

3.

increase redundancy because some data is to e writtten in different place.

Network model
The network model tends to store records with links to other records. Each record in
the database can have multiple parents, i.e., the relationships among data elements
can have a many to many relationship. Associations are tracked via "pointers". These
pointers can be node numbers or disk addresses. Most network databases tend to
also include some form of hierarchical model. Databases can be translated from
hierarchical model to network and vice versa. The main difference between the
network model and hierarchical model is that in a network model, a child can have a
number of parents whereas in a hierarchical model, a child can have only one parent.
The network model provides greater advantage than the hierarchical model in that it
promotes greater flexibility and data accessibility, since records at a lower level can
be accessed without accessing the records above them. This model is more efficient
than hierarchical model, easier to understand and can be applied to many real world
problems that require routine transactions. The disadvantages are that: It is a
complex process to design and develop a network database; It has to be refined
frequently; It requires that the relationships among all the records be defined before
development starts, and changes often demand major programming efforts;
Operation and maintenance of the network model is expensive and time consuming.
Advantages
1. more flexible than the hierarchical because it can handle many to many
relation
2. reduces redundancy because data should not be repeated if same type of
data is needed.
3. searching is faster because of multi-direction pointer.
Disadvantages
1.
2.

Very complex type of database model

needs long program to handle the relation

3.

pointer needed so it increases the overhead of storage.

Relational model
It defined the simple table for each relation and many to many relation. Cross
reference keys link the table together representing the relationships between
entities. Primary and secondary keys indexes provide rapid access to data based
upon qualification.
Advantages
1.
since one table is linked with another table with some common field rules
implemented on one table can easily be implemented to another.
2.
some rules, popularly known as referential integrity can easily be
implemented.

3.
4.

very less redundancy.

normalization is possible

Data Description
It is divide in to two types.
Physical Data Description.
The method which provide all the information about the data storage, its name and
the mode of transmission of data is called physical data description.
Logical data Description.
The method which provide all the information about the data definition such as its
field, data type, format, relationship etc is called physical data description.
Note : Both (Logical and Physical) are called data description.
Data independence
It can be divided in to two types.
1.

Physical data independence

It means if we change the logical data description than the physical
description of data should not be changed

2.

Logical data independence

It means if we change the physical data description than the
description of data should not be changed

Both (logical and physical

independence.

Logical

data independence) are combinly called data

Data dictionary
It is a dictionary which contain metadata that is data about data. The schema of a
table is the example of data. The database system consult the data dictionary before
reading or retrieving the data.
It contains the information like
1.
name of the relations
2.
name of the attribute of each relation
3.
domains and length of attributes
4.
integrity constraints
Entity
The item about which we store the information is called entity. Such as if we are
collecting the information about the student then student will be an entity.
Attribute
The item for which we collect the information is called attribute. Such if we collect
the name , roll number , date of birth of the student, these are called the attribute
of the entity(student).
E-R- Model

It is the detailed logical representation of the data . The E-R- Model is expressd in
terms of entities in the business environment, the relationship among those entity
and the attributes of both the entities and the relationships.
Entity type
It is a collection of entities that share common properties or characteristic . Each
entity type
in an E-R model is given a name. Since the name represent the
collection of items , it is always singular.

Entity

Entity instance
It is a single occurrence of an entity type. An entity type described just once in the
database while many instance of that entity type may be represented by data stored
in the database
12
Student
Rollno
Ram
Name
type
10/4/75
Entity instance
Dateofbirth

13
Raju
1/1/80
Strong Entity type
It is the one that exists independently of other entity types. Instance of a strong
entity type always have a unique4 characteristic that is an attriute or combination
of attributes that uniquely distinguish each occurrence of that entity.
Weak entity type
It is the one who existence depends on some other entity type. It has no business
meaning in the E R Diagram. Without the entity on which it depends.
Associative entity
It is an entity type that associates the instances of one or more entity types and
contains attributes that are peculiar
to the relationship between those entity
instances.
There are following four condition that should exists for the associative entity
1.
All the relationships for the participating entity should of many to many.
2.
the resulting associative entity type has independent meaning to end
users.
3.
It has one or more attribute is addition to the identifier.
4.
The associative entity
participates in one or more relationships
independent of the entity related in the associated relationship.
Degree of the relationship
It is the number of entity type that participates in that relationship. Mostly three
types of degree of the relationship are used such as unary(degree -1), binary(degree
-2), ternary. (degree -3). Higher degree of relationships are possible but they are
rarely encountered in practice.
Unary

person

Is
married
to

Binary

person

Is
Assigned

Parking place

person

Is
Assigned

Parking place

person

Is
Assigned

Parking place

One to one

One to many

Many to many

Part

Ternary

Vendor

supplies

Shippin
g mode

Supplier

Unit
cost

Cardinality
It means the number of entity instance be participated in the relation.
Cardinality constraints
Suppose there are two enity sets, A and B that are connected by a relationship . A
cardinality constraints specifies the number of instance of entity B that can be
associated with each instance of entity A.
There are two types of cardinality constraints.
1.

Minimum Cardinality
It is the minimum number of instance of entity B that may be associated with
the each instance of entity A.
2.

Maximum Cardinality

It is the maximum number of instance of entity B that may be associated with

the each instance of entity A.