Computers Part-1 PDF

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COMPUTERS AND BASIC CONCEPTS

INTRODUCTION
The word compute means to calculate. We all are familiar with calculations in our life
and do mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. Simpler
calculations take less time. But complex calculations take much longer time. Another factor is
accuracy in calculations. So man explored with the idea to develop a machine which can
perform this type of arithmetic calculation faster and with full accuracy. This gave birth to
a device or machine called computer.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
Computer is an electronic device, which can do arithmetic calculations faster. How ever
modern computer it does much more than that. It is a machine capable of solving problems
and manipulating data. It accepts data, processes the data by doing some mathematical
and logical operations and gives us the desired output as information.
Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It there fore
i) Accepts data
ii) Stores data,
iii) Process data as desired,
iv) Retrieve the stored data as and when required
v) Prints the result in desired format.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Speed
It takes few minutes for the computer to process huge amount of data and give the result. A
typical computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second)
or nano second (10-9 part of a second).
Accuracy
The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with
the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of computer.
Whatever the errors that are committed by a computer are due to human and inaccurate data
feed. If given right data, it always give the right result with accuracy.
Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours
without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will
perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability computer has diligence
than humans.
Versatility.
It means the capacity to perform completely any or different type of work. Computer has
the power of storing any amount of information or data at any length of time. Any information
can be stored and recalled as long as we require it, for any numbers of years.
No IQ-Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the
user. It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy as long as it is given
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right instructions in right sequence.

4 Storage-The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data.
We can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside
computer and can be carried to other computers (called Portability).
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
Following were some of the path-breaking inventions in the field of computing devices.
Calculating Machines-The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the
Egyptian and Chinese people. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of
sticks in horizontal positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. A modern form of ABACUS
which is used to teach children simple calculations has a number of horizontal bars each having
ten beads. Horizontal bars represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.
Napiers bones-English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose
of multiplication in 1617 A D. The device was known as Napiers bones.
Slide Rule-English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine
could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely
used in Europe in 16th century.
Pascals Adding and Subtraction Machine-Blaise Pascal had developed a machine at the
age of 19 that could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
Leibnizs Multiplication and Dividing Machine-The German philosopher and mathematician
Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a mechanical device that could both multiply and divide.
Babbages Analytical Engine-It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles
Babbage built a mechanical machine to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called
difference engine. Later he developed a general-purpose calculating machine called analytical
engine. For this invention he was later came to be known as the father of computer.
Mechanical and Electrical Calculator-In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical
calculator was developed to perform all sorts of mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it
was widely used. Later the rotating part of mechanical calculator was replaced by electric
motor. So it was called the electrical calculator.
Modern Electronic Calculator-The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron
tubes, which was quite bulky. Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of
calculators became small. After the advent of Computers not only it can compute all kinds of
mathematical computations and mathematical functions but also have become capable of storing
some data permanently.
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
The period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into five distinct
phases known as Generations of Computers. Each phase is distinguished from others on the
basis of the type of switching circuits used.
First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
First generation computers used Thermion valves. These computers were large in size and
writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this generation were:
ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania, USA
by John Eckert and John Mauchy. It was named Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC).
EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was developed
in 1950. The concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer was introduced
here. This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to both data
and instructions. The other advantage of storing instruction was that computer could do
logical decision internally.
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OTHER IMPORTANT COMPUTERS OF FIRST GENERATION

EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was developed
by M.V. Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949.
UNIVAC-1: Ecker and Mauchly produced it in 1951 by Universal Accounting Computer
setup.
CHARACTERISTICS OF 1 ST GENERATION COMPUTERS
These computers uses vacuum tube for data processing and storage
They had a memory size of 20bytes speed of 5mbps
They produced a lot of heat
It required large space for installation.
The programming capability was quite low.
These computers were unreliable slow and could not work fast with a lot of data
They uses punch card for data storage
The programmes were machine dependent
First generation computers used to consume a lot of power
Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first
generation computer. It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing
Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and input and output units were developed.
The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period.
Some of the computers of the Second Generation were
IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and mostly used
for scientific purpose.
IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.
Characteristics of 2nd generation computers
Y Were capable of translating, process and store data
Y Had got memory size of 32bytes speed of 10mbps
Y Were reliable compared to first generation computers
Y Produced less heat compared to first generation computers
Y They uses punch card for data storage
Y Consumed less energy compared to first generation computers
Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used Integrated Circuits (ICs).
These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors, registers and
capacitors built on a single thin chip of silicon called semi conductor. So the size of the
computer got further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this period were IBM360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC (Beginners All
purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this period. Computers of this
generation were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing speed is very high.
Y They used integrated circuit(ICs.) to store data
Y The integrated circuit consisted of many transistors
Y Used storage disk for data storage e.g. magnetic disks, tapes
Y Third generation computers were more reliable compared to other previous generations
Y For the first time, instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating
system
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Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)

The present day computers that we see today are the fourth generation computers that started
around 1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands
of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an
entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. Due to the development of microprocessor it
is possible to place computers central processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers
are called microcomputers. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of Graphical
User Interface (GUI), the mouse and other handheld devices.
Fifth Generation Computer (Present and beyond)
The computers of the years beyond 1990s and presently being developed systems are said to
be Fifth Generation computers. Very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.
The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can perform parallel
processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the computer
to take its own decision. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will
radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing
is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and
self-organization.
Classification of Computers
Classification of the computers may be based on either their principles of operation or
their configuration.
Classification based on Principles of Operation
Based on the principles of operation, computers are classified into three types, analog
computers, digital computers and hybrid computers.
1) ANALOG COMPUTER
An analog computer, processes or Measures physical quantities that vary continuously, such
as variations in temperature, speed, pressure, or the amount of current flowing through on
electrical conductor etc. Analogue computer does not compute directly with numbers; rather
it measures, continuous physical magnitudes (e.g., pressure, temperature, voltage, speed,
etc.) Analog computers are used for a wide variety of industrial and scientific applications that
require the quantifying continuously varying data. Slide rule, thermometers pressure gauge,
speedometer etc are often cited as examples of analogue computers.
2) DIGITAL COMPUTER
Digital computer, On the other hand operates on digital data such as numbers. They represent
data in discrete form. They convert all inputs into numbers before processing them. It uses
binary number system in which there are only two digits 0 and 1. These types of computers
are more accurate than the analogue computers since there is no analogous representation. All
modern electronic computers are examples of digital computers.
3) HYBRID COMPUTER
A hybrid computing system is a combination of desirable features of analog and digital
computers. It is mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes and
machines. Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are used for transforming
the data into suitable form for either type of computation. For example, in hospitals automated
intensive care unit, analog devices might measure the patients temperature, blood pressure
(Which are physical quantities). These measurements which are in analog then will be converted
into numbers and supplied in digital format or shown as a result in a computer.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON CONFIGURATION
By configuration, we mean the size, speed of doing computation and storage capacity of a
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computer. There are various types of computers depending upon the size, efficiency, memory
and number of users. Broadly they can be divided it to the following categories.
1) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of speed and storage
capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. So a microcomputer is a computer with a
microprocessor as its central processing unit.
The first microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips, though currently32-bit
chips are available. .
Personal computers (PCs) come in this category. They are often called personal computers
because they are designed to be used by one person at a time. Personal computers are typically
used at home, at school, or at a business. Examples of microcomputer are present day personal
computers such as IBM PC, PC-AT etc.
Micro computers can further be divided in to
a) Desktop computers are larger and not meant to be portable. They usually sit in one place on a
desk or table and are plugged into a wall outlet for power.
b) Laptop or notebook computers are small and lightweight enough to be carried around with
the user. They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet. They typically
have a built-in LCD display. They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in
pointing device (such as a touch pad).
c) A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)/Digital Tablet is a handheld microcomputer that trades
off power for small size and greater portability. They typically use a touch-sensitive LCD screen
for both output and input (the user draws characters and presses icons on the screen with a
stylus). PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable
connection, infrared (IR) beam, or radio waves. PDAs are normally used to keep track of
appointment calendars, to-do lists, address books, and for taking notes.
d) A Handheld PC, or H/PC for short, is a term for a computer built around a form factor which is
smaller than any standard laptop computer. It is sometimes referred to as a Palmtop.
These devices typically look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and small
keyboard. They may use Windows CE or similar operating system for handheld devices.
e) Netbooks (also called mini notebooks or sub notebooks) are a rapidly evolving category of
small, light and inexpensive laptop computers suited for general computing and accessing web
based applications; they are often marketed as companion devices, that is, to augment a
users other computer access
f) A tablet personal computer (tablet PC) is a portable personal computer equipped with a
touch screen as a primary input device and designed to be operated and owned by an individual.
The term was made popular as a concept presented by Microsoft in 2001, but tablet PCs now
refer to any tablet-sized personal computer, regardless of the operating system.
g) The ultra-mobile PC (UMPC) is a specification for a small form factor of tablet PCs. It was
developed as a joint development exercise by Microsoft, Intel, and Samsung, among others.
h) A workstation is a powerful, high-end microcomputer. They contain one or more
microprocessor CPUs. They may be used by a single-user for applications requiring more power
than a typical PC (for rendering complex graphics, or performing intensive scientific
calculations).
i) Workstation-class microcomputers may be used as server computers that supply files to
client computers over a network. This class of powerful microcomputers can also be used to
handle the processing for many users simultaneously who are connected via terminals
2) Mini Computer:
A minicomputer (or simply a mini) is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the
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middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the smallest multi-user systems (mainframe
computers) and the largest single-user systems (microcomputers or personal computers).
This is designed to support more than one user at a time. It possesses large storage
capacity and operates at a higher speed. The mini computer is used in multi-user system in
which various users can work at the same time.
This type of computer is generally used for processing large volume of data in an
organization. They are also used as servers in Local Area Networks (LAN).
Since personal computers are becoming more efficient and are available in many variants,
this type of computers are now almost not common. Mini computer has thus been largely taken
over by high-end microcomputer workstations which are capable of serving multiple users.
However the contemporary term for this class of system is midrange computer, such
as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and Itanium -based systems from Sun Microsystems, IBM
and Hewlett-Packard.
3) Mainframes
These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. They operate at very high
speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the work load of very large number of
users.
They are generally used in centralized database management of large organizations.
They are also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN). Example of mainframes
are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000 series.
4) Supercomputer
These are the fastest and most efficient machines. They have high processing speed
compared to other computers. They are massive multiprocessing systems.
One of the ways in which supercomputers are built is by interconnecting hundreds of
microprocessors.
Supercomputers are mainly being used for weather forecasting, Molecular modeling,
biomedical research, remote sensing, aircraft design and other areas of science and
technology. Examples of supercomputers are CRAY YMP, CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and
PARAM made by India.
FURTHER READING
An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor material.
The first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments
and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor.
Computers are, in fact, all around us. Microprocessor chips are found in many electronic
devices (in our iPod, in our DVD player, in our microwave, in our car, in our phone). Almost
every electronicgadget has a Microprocessor in them.
The Rotating Wheel Calculator called Pascaline was developed by Blaise Pascal, which
is a predecessor to todays electronic calculator.
Charles Babbage designed a Difference engine and was helped by Ada Lovelace. Her
notes on the engine include what is recognized as the first algorithm intended to be processed
by a machine and as such she is regarded as the worlds first computer programmer. Babbage
is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer that eventually led to more complex
designs so he is Considered as father of the computer
Alan Mathison Turing was highly influential in the development of computer science and
providing a formalization of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing
machine, playing a significant role in the creation of the modern computer and is known as
Father of Computer science.
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The Simputer is a, handheld computer, designed for use in such areas where using personal
computers are deemed inappropriate. Due to the low cost, it was also deemed appropriate to be
used in rural areas and is often acclaimed as Computer for masses. The device was designed
by the Simputer Trust, a non-profit organization formed in November 1999 by seven Indian
scientists and engineers led by Dr. Swami Manohar.
Mainframes are often colloquially referred to as Big Iron are powerful computers used
mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing such
as census, industry and consumer statistics, Enterprise resource planning(ERP), and financial
transaction processing.
IBM mainframes dominate the mainframe market at well over 90% market share. Unisys
manufactures ClearPath mainframes. Hitachi co-developed the zSeries z800 with IBM to
share expenses.
The performance or speed of Mainframes are measured in millions of instructions per
second (MIPS), but supercomputers are measured in floating point operations per second
(FLOPS).
Seymour Roger Cray was a U.S. electrical engineer and supercomputer architect who
designed a series of computers that were the fastest in the world for decades and also credited
with designing first super computer Cray-II, and for this reason Called the father of
supercomputing.
Cray Jaguar is the fastest supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory Tennessee
USA in the world now.
Examples of special-purpose supercomputers:
a. Belle, Deep Blue, and Hydra, for playing chess
b. GRAPE, for astrophysics and molecular dynamics
c. Deep Crack, for breaking the DES cipher
d. MDGRAPE-3, for protein structure computation
e. D. E. Shaw Research Anton, for simulating molecular dynamics
Petascale supercomputers can process one quadrillion (1015) (1000 trillion) FLOPS.
Exascale is computing performance in the exaflops range. An exaflop is one quintillion (1018)
FLOPS (one million teraflops).
PARAM is a series of supercomputers designed and assembled by the Centre for
Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) in Pune, India. The latest machine in the
series is the PARAM Yuva. Others include PARAM 10000 and PARAM 9000/SS and the PARAM
Padma. The PARAM Padma was Indias first Teraflop supercomputer. Currently, C-DAC is
developing a Petaflop Supercomputer which is expected to be in operation by 2012.
EKA is a supercomputer built by the Computational Research Laboratories under TATAs
with technical assistance and hardware provided by Hewlett-Packard. When it was installed in
November 2007, it was the 4th fastest in the world and fastest in Asia. As of June 2010, it is
ranked as the 33rd fastest in the world and fourth fastest in Asia. Eka is the Sanskrit name
for number one.
Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG) or Consumer Packaged Goods (CPG) are products
that are sold quickly at relatively low cost. Examples include non-durable goods such as soft
drinks, toiletries, grocery items etc.
COMPUTER ORGANISATION
BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS
A computer can perform basically five major operations or functions irrespective of their size
and make. These are 1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input, 2) it stores data, 3) it can
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process data as required by the user, 4) it gives results in the form of output, and 5) it controls
all operations inside a computer. The various stages of its operation are as follows:
1) INPUT
This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.
Computer is an electronic machine and takes inputs raw data and performs some processing
giving out processed data.
2) STORAGE
It is the process of saving data and instructions perma-nently is known as storage.
Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It is because the
processing speed of Central Proc-essing Unit (CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided
to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first stored in the storage unit for faster
access and processing.
This storage unit or the primary storage of the computer system (called RAM and ROM
memory) is designed to do the above functionality. It pro-vides space for storing data and
instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions :
All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3) PROCESSING
The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and
makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the type of data provided. It
is then sent back to the storage unit.
4) OUTPUT
This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information.
Similarly the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere
inside the computer before being given to us in human readable form.
Again the output is also stored inside the computer (Normally in secondary storage devices
like Hard disk etc for further proc-essing.
5) CONTROL
The manner how instructions are executed and the above operations are performed.
Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed by control
unit.
It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
A computer system accepts data as input processes that data and provides data as output.
During the processing the data must be stored. The processing is controlled by a sequence of
instructions - the program - which is stored in the computer. The basic components of a
computer system are therefore input devices, processor, backing storage devices and output
devices.
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SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

O
Each of the components shown in the above diagram have unique contribution to make.
These can be summarized as follows:
Input Devices
Input devices accept data, convert data into machine readable form and transmit data to the
processor unit. Ex Key Board, Mouse etc
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
In order to carry out the operations mentioned above, the computer allocates the task
between its various functional units. The Central processing unit is divided into two
units for its operation. They are 1) arithmetic logical unit (ALU), 2) control unit (CU). It is just
like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different
parts of the computer functions by activating and controlling the operations. CPU is thus
called as the brain of any computer system.
o Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
After we enter data through the input device, it is stored in the primary storage unit.
The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit.
The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, logic and comparison.
Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the output is
returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.
o Control Unit (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing
that things are done in proper fashion.
The control unit determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions
are executed.
Things like processing of programs stored in the main memory, interpretation of the
instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer to execute them etc are taken
care of by Control Unit.
It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously.
Thereby it coordinates the activities of computers
peripheral equipment as they perform the
input and output.
Therefore it is the manager of all operations within the computer.
The Memory unit
As discussed earlier that the basic function performed by a computer is the execution
of a program. The program which is to be executed is a set of instructions which are stored
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in memory unit. The central processing unit (CPU) executes the instructions of the program to
complete a task. The memory unit comprises the Main or primary memory unit and secondary
or back up memory unit
o The Primary Memory
This unit stores programs during their execution, stores data that are being used by
the current program, and stores the operating system which controls the operation of the
computer system.
The Primary Memory Primary memory consists of Random Access Memory (RAM), where
the programs (and their data) must be stored in order to be run, and
Read Only Memory (ROM), where permanent programs and data are built in by the
manufacturer for starting (Booting a computer).
o Secondary or backing Memory or storage Unit
It maintains a permanent record of data and programs, maintains a store for the program
and data being processed if the main memory cannot accommodate the data and program,
and acts as an input/output device. Ex: Hard disk, floppies etc
Output Devices
Accept data from the processor, and convert data into the required output format. In
other words, output devices translate the data in the processor into a human readable format
that means which is suitable for people to use. Ex: Monitor, Printer etc.
The hardware devices attached to the computer are called peripheral equipments. Theses
include all input, output and secondary storage devices which are attached externally to
a computer.
THE PROCESSING AND MEMORY STORAGE

Processing the digital data
Inside the computer, the steps followed are quite different from what we see on the monitor
or screen. How will it process data will depend on the program. In computers memory both
programs and data are stored in the binary form (Digits).
A computer program (also a software program, or just a program) is a sequence of
instructions written to perform a specified task for a computer
As human beings we all understand decimal system but the computer can only understand
binary system. The binary system has only two values 0 and 1. These are called bits (Binary
digits).
It is because a large number of integrated circuits inside the computer which can be considered
as switches, which can be meant ON, or OFF.
If a switch is ON it is considered 1 and if it is OFF it is 0. So 1 bit = one on or off position.
1 byte = 8 bits.
So 1 byte can be one of 256 possible combinations of 0 and 1.
Since Each 1 is a power of 2 so that the digits in the figure
( 10101100) represent the Decimal number:
= 2 7 + 0 + 2 5 + 0 + 2 3 + 2 2 + 0 +0
= 128 +0 +32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 172
Thus every command and every input is converted into
digital data, a string of 0s and 1s. So the computer takes
input in the form of 0 and 1 and gives output in the form 0
and 1 only.
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If the computer gives outputs as 0s & 1s only and it can very well be translated in to
human understandable decimal system, since every number in binary system can be converted
to decimal system and vice versa; for example, the above decimal number 172 meaning decimal
10101100.
Therefore it is the computer that takes information or data in decimal form from us, convert
it in to binary form, process it producing output in binary form and again convert the output to
decimal form.
How is the Processing done?
1. The central processing unit (CPU) is the portion of a computer system that carries out the
instructions of a computer program, and is the primary element carrying out the computers
functions so is called Brain of a computer
The central processing unit carries out each instruction of the
program in sequence, to perform the basic arithmetical, logical,
and input/output operations of the system
Thus the CPU, or Central Processing Unit, is the part of the
computer where work gets done finally. In most computers, there
is one processing chip.
Main Memory stores the commands (In the form of preloaded
software) that the CPU executes and the results.
Two typical components of a CPU are the following:
2. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations such as
add, subtract, multiply, divide or one of the logical comparisons such as greater than, less
than, equal to, not equal to etc. A command must be either a basic arithmetic operation.
Everything else has to be broken down into these few operations by ALU. Only one operation is
done in each Machine Cycle. The ALU can only do one thing at a time but can work very, very
fast
3. The control unit (CU), which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes
them, and calling on the ALU whenever necessary. It controls the entire Machine Cycle and
hence called Manager of a Computer.
PROCESSING: MACHINE CYCLE
When we run a program which is stored in a hard disk, here is what happens:
The program is a series of instructions, which are stored inside the hard disk drive, are
transferred to the RAM memory.
The CPU, using a circuit called memory controller, loads the program data from the RAM
memory.
The data, which is now inside the CPU, gets processed in a typical cyclic way.
The computer can only do one thing at a time. Each action must be broken down into the
most basic steps. One round of actions from getting an instruction and back to getting
the next instruction is called the Machine Cycle. It takes numerous cycles to do even a
simple addition of two numbers.
THE MACHINE CYCLE

Fetch
Decode
Execute
Store
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translate it into computer commands
actually process the command
write the result to Main Memory

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What happens next will depend on the program. The CPU could continue to load and
executing the program or could do something with the processed data, like displaying something
on the screen.
Let us for example assume that computer has a program in the computer to add the
numbers 5 and 6 and on running that program the typical machine instructions will be as
follows.
1. Fetch instruction
:
Get number at address 123456 (From main memory)
2. Decode instruction.
3. Execute
:
ALU finds the number. (This happens to be 5)
4. Store
:
The number 5 is stored in a temporary spot in Main Memory.
5 - 8 Repeat steps for another number (= 6)
:
Add those two numbers
11. Execute
:
ALU adds the numbers.
12. Store
:
The answer is stored in a temporary spot.
:
Display answer on screen.
15. Execute
:
Display answer on screen.
How are the instructions held in memory?
Memory in a computer system is required for storage and subsequent retrieval of the
instructions and data. A computer system uses variety of devices for storing the instructions
and data which are required for its operations.
As already discussed that when we run a program which is a series of instructions, which
are stored inside the hard disk (A memory device), those instructions are transferred to another
memory location called RAM memory.
Primary memory consists of semiconductor memory chips and is used to store the data
and programs currently in use.
Since each storage element of memory is directly (randomly) accessible and can be
examined and modified without affecting other cells and hence such memory is called
Random Access Memory (RAM).
Main memory stores a variety of critical information required for processing by the CPU.
How does a computer store the information?
A computer works by electrical impulses. Hence a binary number system which uses only
two digits, namely, 0 and 1 is a convenient way to represent information inside a computer. We
would use the symbol 1 to represent the presence of an electrical pulse and the symbol 0 to
represent the absence of it.
Information in a computer consists of Data (numerical and non-numerical) and
Instructions which are made up of a large number of characters, namely, decimal numbers
0 to 9, alphabets A to Z, arithmetical operators like (+), (-) etc., relational operators like
(=), (<), etc. and many other special characters like (,), (;), etc.
Computers use eight binary digits or bits (Which make up 1 byte) to represent information
internally. This allows up to 28=256 different characters to be represented uniquely. A
collection of eight bits is called a byte.
The memory unit stores all the information in memory cells, also called memory
locations, in binary digits.
We need a method of naming the places where Main Memory stores data.
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Each location needs a unique name, just like houses in a town need a unique street address.
Each memory location has thus a unique address.
Now when the program is run, the instructions which are stored in memory location as bits
of data are provided to the central processing unit (CPU) by referring to the address of the
memory location. The amount of information that can be held in the main memory is known
as memory capacity. A memory address holds 1 byte of data where 1 bit
0 or 1, on or off
1 byte
8 bits
1 kilobyte (K or KB)
1024 bytes or 210 bytes
1 megabyte (MB)
1024 kilobytes or 10242 bytes or 220 bytes
1 gigabyte (GB)
1024 megabytes or 10243 or 230 bytes
terabyte (TB)
1024 gigabytes or 10244 bytes, or 240 bytes
petabyte (PB)
1024 terabytes or 10245 bytes 250 bytes
zettabyte (ZB)
1024 peta bytes or 10246 bytes 270 bytes
yottabyte (YB)
1024 zetta bytes or 10247 bytes 280 bytes
Factors affecting the Speed of Processing

Many different factors determine how fast the computer can get the things done. They areo Processor speed
Clock speed or rate is the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions.
Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are
executed and synchronizes all the various computer components.
The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction.
The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute per second.
Clock speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or millions of pulses a second/ or gigahertz
(GHz) where 1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second.
If a computer is a 6.4 GHz processor. Its clock rate is 6.4 billion cycles per second.
Clock speed depends on the internal architecture of a CPU
Some microprocessors are superscalar, which means that they can execute more than one
instruction per clock cycle.
o Bus width
A BUS is a collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another. We can think of a bus as a highway on which data travels within a
computer.
When used in reference to personal computers, the term bus usually refers to internal bus.
This is a bus that connects all the internal computer components to the CPU and main
memory.
Theres also an expansion bus that enables expansion boards to access the CPU and
memory.
All buses consist of two parts an address bus and a data bus. The data bus transfers
actual data whereas the address bus transfers information about where the data should
go.
The size of a bus, known as its width, is important because it determines how much data
can be transmitted at one time. For example, a 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data, whereas
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a 32- bit bus can transmit 32 bits of data.

Every bus has a clock speed measured in MHz. A fast bus allows data to be transferred
faster, which makes
applications run faster. On PCs, the old ISA bus is being replaced by
faster buses such as PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect, a local bus standard developed
by Intel Corporation).
Nearly all PCs made today include a local bus for data that requires especially fast transfer
speeds, such as video data. The local bus is a high-speed pathway that connects directly to
the processor.
o Word size
A word is the amount of data the CPU can process at one time. An 8-bit processor can
manipulate 8 bits at a time. Processors can be 8-, 16-, 32-, or 64-bit so far. So Bigger the
number = faster processing
The size of a word varies from one computer to another, depending on the CPU. For computers
with a 16-bit CPU, a word is 16 bits (2 bytes). On large mainframes, a word can be as long as 64
bits (8 bytes)
MEMORY HIERARCHY
Memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as Random-Access Memory,
and other forms of fast but temporary storage which is directly accessible by the CPU.
Similarly, Memory storage today more commonly refers to storage devices and their media
not directly accessible by the CPU which is called secondary or tertiary storage or Auxiliary
Memory. However Historically, memory has been called main memory, real storage or internal
memory while storage devices such as hard disc, have been referred to as secondary storage,
external memory or auxiliary/peripheral storage. A memory system in a computer can be
considered to consist of the following groups of memories. These are:
I. Primary Memory or Main Memory or System main memory:
Primary storage, simply known as memory, is the only memory directly accessible to
the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them.
This memory unit stores all the information in memory cells also called memory locations,
in binary digits. Each memory location has a unique address. The contents of the desired
memory locations are provided to the central processing unit by referring to the address of the
memory location.
Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the CPU via a memory bus, today
sometimes referred to as a front side bus (FSB).The CPU continuously reads instructions
stored there and executes them.
The amount of information that can be held in the main memory is known as memory
capacity. The capacity of the main memory is measured in kilobytes (KB) or Megabytes (MB).
All modern computers use semiconductor memory as its main memory.
The following are the sub-layers of the primary storage.
1) Random Access Memory (RAM):
It is a Primary memory consists of semiconductor memory chips and is used to store the
data and programs currently in use.
The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them. Each storage
element of memory is directly (randomly or in any sequence) accessible and can be examined
and modified without affecting other cells and hence primary memory is often referred to as
Random Access Memory (RAM).
This memory stores a variety of critical information required for processing by the CPU. RAM
is an immediate and temporary memory where data pertaining to the current program is
loaded temporarily for the CPU to interact with it, retrieve data stored therein, and to go
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2)
3)
4)
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through instructions and execute them as per the requirement of the current program.
Data and application are loaded there in uniform manner and CPU accesses (Read) and
modifies (Write) such data in any fashion (randomly), so called Random Access Memory.
However this memory is Volatile that means it requires continuous supply of power for
the memory to be retained or else the memory is lost/ erased automatically. If the computer
was to be turned off anything stored currently in RAM would be erased.
Because of RAMs volatile nature users must frequently save their work to a permanent
medium, such as a hard drive, which is non-volatile to avoid losing data if the systems power
is interrupted. The following are the different types of RAMs
I. Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of Random access memory that stores
each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. Because of this design,
these cells must be refreshed with new electricity every few milliseconds allowing the memory
to keep its charge and hold the data as long as needed.
II. Static random access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory where the
word static indicates that it, unlike Dynamic RAM (DRAM), does not need to be periodically
refreshed.
III. DDR RAM- Double Data Rate RAM is a double pumped, dual-pumped, and double transition
high speed data transfer used in high end computers.
IV. DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a
class of RAM to achieve nearly twice the bandwidth of the single data rated RAMs.
Internal Processor Memories (Registers)
These consist of the small set of high speed memory cells namely registers which are
located on a processor itself and are used as temporary locations where actual processing is
done.
Processor registers, are a kind of switching transistors integrated on the CPUs chip which
are the fastest forms of memory devices in a computer, and contain a word of data (usually
32 or 64 bits).
The CPU instructs and helps the Arithmetic and logic unit to perform a number of calculations
on this data or with the help of it.
Processor cache or Cache Memory or Buffer Memory
Cache Memory which is meant for enhancing the performance of the computer links the
fast registers to the slower main memory.
Cache is a memory unit used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the
average time to access memory.
The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from the most
frequently used main memory locations.
Cache memory loads the duplicated information that is used most actively and
repetitively.
When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory, it first
checks whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the processor immediately reads
from or writes to the cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to main memory
(RAM).
It is much faster than the main memory but relatively can store limited data. It is also
much slower but much larger than the processor registers.
Cache setup is further split into different levels with smallest and fastest primary caches
namely L1 cache, L2 cache, and L3 cache.
Non-volatile primary memory or Read-Only Memory (ROM)
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Usually known by its acronym, ROM is a class of Memory unit used in computers and other
electronic devices. ROM is the memory that is capable of holding data and being read from.
However, it is not capable of being written to or having its data modified by either the
User or the Processor.
Unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile and capable of keeping its contents regardless if it
has power or not. Because of that data stored in ROM, cannot be modified, it is mainly used in
BIOS which is a chip located on all computer motherboards that contains instructions and
setup for how our system should boot and how it operates.
It is also used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware
and is provided by the firm in a non modifiable format).
However, more modern types such as EPROM and flash EEPROM can be erased and
reprogrammed multiple times; they are still described as read-only memory because
thereprogramming process is generally infrequent, comparatively slow, and often does not permit
random access writes to individual memory locations, which are possible when reading a ROM.
Use of ROM for program storage :Every stored-program computer requires some form of
non-volatile storage to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or
otherwise begins execution (a process known as bootstrapping, often abbreviated to booting
or booting up)
Types of ROM
These are Classic mask-programmed ROM chips and are integrated circuits that physically
encode the data to be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their contents after
fabrication. Other types of non-volatile solid-state memory permit some degree of
modification. These are
Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time programmable ROM (OTP), can
be written to or programmed via a special device called a PROM programmer. Typically, this
device uses high voltages to permanently destroy or create internal links (fuses or anti fuses)
within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed once.
Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong
ultraviolet light (typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again
requires application of higher than usual voltage. Repeated exposure to UV light will
eventually wear out an EPROM
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is based on a similar
semiconductor structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected banks) to be
electrically erased, then rewritten electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer
(or camera, MP3 player, etc.). Writing or flashing an EEPROM is much slower (milliseconds per
bit) than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM (nanoseconds in both cases).
Electrically alterable read-only memory (EAROM) is a type of EEPROM that can be modified
one bit at a time. Writing is a very slow process and again requires higher voltage (usually
around 12 V) than is used for read access. EAROMs are intended for applications that require
infrequent and only partial rewriting.
Flash memory (or simply flash) is a modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984.Flash memory
can be erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high
endurance (exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Flash memory is sometimes called flash ROM or flash
EEPROM when used as a replacement for older ROM types, but not in applications that take
advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and frequently.
II. Secondary Memory/Auxiliary Memory/Backing Store
Auxiliary memory in fact is much larger in size than main memory but is slower than
main memory.
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It normally stores system programs (programs which are used by system to perform
various operational functions), other instructions, programs and data files. Hard disks, optical
disc, magnetic tape are some of the Secondary storage devices.
Some other examples of secondary storage technologies are: flash memory (e.g. USB flash
(Pen) drives or keys), floppy disks, magnetic tape, paper tape, punched cards, standalone RAM
disks, and Zip drives.
The secondary storage is often formatted according to a file system format, which
providesthe abstraction necessary to organize data into files and directories, providing also
additional information (called metadata) describing the owner of a certain file, the access
time, the access permissions, and other information.
The concept of virtual memory is one of the most important memory management scheme
adopted in modern computer operating systems.
Virtual memory is the process of allowing utilization of more primary storage capacity
than is physically available in the system. As the primary memory fills up, the system moves
the least-used chunks ( called pages) to secondary storage devices (to a swap file or page file),
retrieving them later when they are needed
In computer operating systems, paging is one of the memory-management schemes by
which a computer can store and retrieve data from secondary storage for use in main
memory. In the paging memory-management scheme, the operating system retrieves data from
secondary storage in same-size blocks called pages.
Different Characteristics of Memory devices
Non-volatile memory: Will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly
supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information. Nowadays
used for most of secondary, tertiary, and off-line storage. In 1950s and 1960s, it was also
used for primary storage, in the form of magnetic core memory. Ex: Memory in ROM,BIOS
chips etc
Volatile memory: Requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest
memory technologies of today are volatile ones (not a universal rule). Since primary storage is
required to be very fast, it predominantly uses volatile memory. Ex: RAM, Cache Memory etc.
Dynamic Memory: A form of volatile memory which also requires the stored information
to be periodically re-read and re-written, or refreshed, otherwise it would vanish. Ex: The
main memory (the RAM) in modern personal computers is Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static Memory: A form of volatile memory similar to DRAM with the exception that it does
not refresh on occasion. Ex: SRAM used in some personal computers, workstations, routers and
peripheral equipment like printer.
Read/write storage or mutable storage: It Allows information to be overwritten at any
time. Ex: Floppy Disc, Zip etc.
Read only storage It Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write
once storage (Write Once Read Many -WORM) allows the information to be written only once
at some point after manufacture. These are called immutable storage. Immutable storage is
used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include
i. CD-ROM which is a pre-pressed compact disc that contains data accessible to, but not
writable by, a computer
ii. CD-R. (Compact Disc-Recordable) is an optical medium, where the whole disk does not
have to be entirely written in the same session.
Slow write, fast read storage: It is a Read/write storage which allows information to be
overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read
operation.
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i. Examples include CD-RW (Compact Disc-Rewritable)

ii. Flash memory which is a non-volatile computer storage chip that can be electrically
erased and reprogrammed. Ex: Flash drives, Jump drives and pen drives are USB storage
devices based on flash memory. It is primarily used in memory cards, USB flash drives, MP3
players
Random Access Memory: Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in
approximately the same amount of time in any fashion or order. Such characteristic is well
suited for primary and secondary storage. Ex: RAM, Hard disk drive etc
Sequential Access Memory
It allows the accessing of information in a serial order, one after the other; therefore the
time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece of information was
last accessed. Ex: A tape drive is an example of a sequential access drive, where the drive must
move the tape forward or backward until it reaches its destination.
Types of Secondary storage devices
R Semiconductor storage
Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated circuits to store information.
A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny transistors or capacitors. Both
volatile and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist. In modern computers, primary
storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor memory or dynamic
random access memory (DRAM).
R Magnetic storage
Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to
store information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. In modern computers, magnetic storage
comprises of :
o Floppy disk, used for off-line storage
o Hard disk drive(HDD),used for secondary storage
o Magnetic tape data storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage In early computers,
magnetic storage was also used for primary storage in a form of
magnetic drum, or core memory.
R Optical storage
Optical storage is the typical optical disc, which stores information in deformities on the
surface of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a
laser diode and observing the reflection.
Optical disc storage is non-volatile. The deformities may be permanent (read only media),
formed once (write once media) or reversible (recordable or read/write media). The following
forms are currently in common use
Y CD, CD-ROM, DVD, Blue ray Disc (BD-ROM): Read only storage, used for mass
distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs)
Y CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R, BD-R: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
Y CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM, BD-RE, High Definition RE (HD-RE) : Slow write,
fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
Y Ultra Density Optical or UDO is similar in capacity to BD-R or BD-RE and is slow write,
fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.
R Network Storage
A secondary or tertiary storage may connect to another computer utilizing computer networks.
Y Direct-attached storage (DAS) is a traditional mass storage that does not use any
network. This is still a most popular approach.
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Y Network-attached storage (NAS) is mass storage attached to a computer which another

computer can access at file level over a local area network, a private wide area network(PWAN),
or in the case of online file storage, over the Internet.
Y Storage area network (SAN) is a specialized network that provides other computers
with storage capacity. The crucial difference between NAS and SAN is the former presents and
manages file systems to client computers, whilst the latter provides access at block-addressing
(raw) level, leaving it to attaching systems to manage data or file systems within the provided
capacity. SAN is commonly associated with Fibre Channel networks.
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
WHAT IS SOFTWARE?
We know computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In order to
do any specific job we have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer. This set of
instructions is called a computer program.
Software refers to the set of computer programs, procedures that describe the programs,
how they are to be used.
It is the collection of programs, which increase the capabilities of the hardware.
Software guides the computer at every step where to start and stop during a particular job.
The process of software development is called programming.
Software and hardware are complementary to each other. Both have to work together to
produce meaningful result.
SOFTWARE TYPES
Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.
o Application Software
o System software
I. Application Software
Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a specific application.
For example, payroll is application software for an organization to produce pay slips as an
output. Application software is useful for word processing, billing system, accounting, producing
statistical report, analysis of numerous data in research, weather forecasting, etc.
Most applications allow the production and editing of documents (which are the data files
created by the application programs). The document files (such as a report created in Word, or
a PowerPoint presentation, or a excel spreadsheet) can then be printed, displayed on a
screen.
Applications (and other programs) are stored in computer as executable files (.exe files
which contain program steps that the computer can understand and execute) documents
are stored as data files.
Some programming languages are suitable for developing some application programs. Among
the programming languages COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is more suitable
for business application whereas FORTRAN (Formula Translation) is useful for scientific
application.
Some common application software on personal computers include:
a) A word processor- A word processor (such as MS Word or Word Perfect) allows us to type
and format text (as well as some graphics) to create reports, letters, etc. Formatting options
include changing the text size, font (typeface), line spacing, and page margins. We may also
define styles. We can also use document templates that contain pre-made formatting, styles,
and content which allows us to create a document quickly without repeating work unnecessarily.
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b) Word and the other products of the Microsoft Office Suite of programs (including Excel,
Access, and PowerPoint) can exchange data using OLE (Object Linking and Embedding).
This integration of the programs allows us to copy a chart from Excel into a Word document
c) Desktop Publishing software (such as QuarkXPress and Adobe) go beyond word processors,
giving us more control over the typesetting and graphic placement of a document. DTP software
is used to layout books, magazines, newsletters, complex reports, etc.
d) Spreadsheet software (such as MS Excel) allows the user to do numerical calculations
and produce charts of the results.
In a spreadsheet program, the user works in a worksheet consisting of rows and columns
(labeled with numbers and letters).
The intersection of each row and column is a cell that can contain text, numbers, or
formulas. The formulas use the contents of other cells to calculate new results; but the
formulas use the cell reference (the row & column location of the cell) and not the contents
of the cell so if the contents of a cell is changed, all dependent formulas automatically
recalculate their results. This gives the user to perform what if experiments with a complex
calculation.
e) Database management software (such as MS Access or FileMaker Pro) allows users to
manipulate large amounts of information and retrieve any part of the information that is
of interest.
A structured database contains data tables that are arranged in a uniform structure of
records and fields. An example would be a listing of a companys customers (and the information
about each one), and a listing of all orders placed by those customers.
A different type of database is free-form, and does not have the rigid structure for
categorizing the information (the World Wide Web, for example, is a huge collection of data
archives with no common structure).
f) Graphics software (such as Adobe Photoshop, coral draw and Illustrator) are used to
create digital media art images and illustrations, or to edit digital images from scanners or
digital cameras.
g) Presentation software (such as MS PowerPoint) is used to create presentations of slides
containing text and graphics (and also incorporating sound and visual effects). These
presentations can be projected from a computer display projection unit, or the slides can be
printed out onto transparencies.
h) Web authoring software (such as Dream weaver or GoLive) allows users to create complex
web pages without the user having to know XHTML or CSS or JavaScript. The user simply
inserts text and graphics into a WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) editing window to
layout the material as desired, and the application software write the necessary web page code
in the background.
i) Integrated software packages (such as AppleWorks or Microsoft Works) combine several
different application program functions (such as word processor, spreadsheet, database,
graphics, and presentation) into one application. The individual modules of the packages
are not as powerful as the separate applications in the MS Office Suite, for example, but they
may provide the home user with the functionality they need at a much cheaper price.
II. System Software
This is a set of programs that has to be fed to the computer for operation of computer
system as a whole.
When we switch on the computer the programs written in ROM is executed which activates
different units of computer and makes it ready for us to work on it. This set of program can
be called system software.
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Therefore system software may be defined as a set of one or more programs designed to
control the operation of computer system.
System software controls a computers operations and manages a computers resources.
System software includes the operating system (OS), utilities, and computer programming
tools.
System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling
all operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It communicates with
printers, card reader, disk; tapes etc. monitor the use of various hardware like memory, CPU
etc.
Also system software is essential for the development of applications software. System
Software allows application packages to be run on the computer with less time and effort.
It is not possible to run application software without system software.
Some of the important system software
Operating system (OS)
The operating system (OS) controls the allocation of hardware resources such as memory
space and CPU processing time, and handles the basic input and output (I/O) for data flowing
from and to storage devices (such as hard disks) and peripherals (such as your keyboard).
The operating system allows application software to access system resources without
the applications having to know the details about the system hardware.
The operating system often allocates resources and processing time between several
programs which are running at once, which is called multitasking.
Multitasking allows us to perform multiple tasks at the same time, such copying a
chart from an open Excel document and pasting it into a report you have open in Word, all while
your web browser is downloading a large file from the Internet in the background.
It is the OS that plays traffic cop in this situation, deciding which program gets time on the
CPU when, and handles the flow of data.
The operating system also includes software that provides the user with an operating
environment for interacting with the computer. An operating environment could be a
command-line interface (requiring the user to type in commands to control the computer),
or it could be a graphical user interface (GUI) that allows users to interact with the computer
using a mouse to point and click on icons, buttons, menus, etc.
IBM PC computers originally used the PC-DOS operating system also by Microsoft as MSDOS. DOS is a general term that means Disk Operating System which is a command-line
interface Operating system.
Modern PCs use (Graphical user Interface) GUI user environment like Microsoft Windows
operating system such as Windows 2000 or Windows XP, Linux operating system, Unix
etc.
Macintosh computers use some variation of the Macintosh OS, which is a GUI operating
system. Older macs may use Mac OS 9, but newer Macs use Mac OS X
High-end microcomputer workstations, file servers, and mainframes often run some variation
of the UNIX operating system.
DEVICE DRIVERS
System software also includes the software needed to access a peripheral device connected to
the computer. Such software is called a device driver, and it controls I/O instructions to the
peripheral devices. The device drivers may come already installed in the OS, or we have to
install or update a driver when we add a new peripheral device.
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Virus checker
System software may also include security software, such as Virus checkers and firewalls. A
virus checker searches files for potentially harmful programs such as viruses, worms, or Trojan
horses that are written by malicious programmers.
Firewall
A firewall, or similar program like virus checker, protects computer from unauthorized access
over a network or telecom connection and also prevent users from doing such actions
which may pose potential threat for the system resources. Now a days firewalls come in built
with Operating Systems.
Utilities
Utilities are programs that perform a very specific task, usually related to managing system
resources such as disk drives, printers, etc. Unlike application software, utilities tend to be
smaller in size and perform activities related to the computer system (scanning for viruses,
manipulating file settings, scanning for disk errors, etc.). Some utilities are memory-resident
programs that are loaded into RAM and operate in the background.
Software tools
System software also includes the tools used to write other programs. These include compilers,
assemblers, and debuggers for various computer programming languages. A programming
language allows a person to write computer instructions in a language that is easier for a human
to understand, but which is then converted into the low level numerical instruction codes
that a computer processor unit can understand and execute. Some programming languages
include C, C++, Java, FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, BASIC, and Visual Basic.
EXTENDED STUDY CONCEPTS
OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)
It is a software that manages computer resources and provides programmers/users with
an interface used to access those resources. Between the hardware and the application software
lies the operating system. The operating system is a program that conducts the communication
between the various pieces of hardware like the video card, sound card, printer, the
motherboard and the applications.
An operating system processes system data and user input, and responds by allocating and
managing tasks and internal system resources as a service to users and programs of the system.
the operating system is not the first code to run on the computer at startup (boot) time.
The initial code executing on the computer is usually loaded from firmware, which is stored in
Flash ROM called the BIOS or boot ROM.
The firmware loads and executes the operating system kernel (usually from disk) and is
usually responsible for the first graphics or text output the user sees onscreen.
The kernel is the central component of most computer operating systems (OS). Its
responsibilities include managing the systems resources (enabling the the communication
between hardware and software components).
Functions of Operating System
All operating systems must handle the same basic tasks. These functions can be divided into
four groups:
1) Allocating System Resources
The operating system directs the traffic inside the computer, deciding what resources will be
used and for how long
a) Time: Time in the CPU is divided into time slices which are measured in milliseconds. Each
task the CPU does is assigned a certain number of time slices. When time expires, another task
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2)
3)
4)
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gets a turn. The first task must wait until it has another turn. Since time slices are so small.
Tasks can be assigned priorities so that high priority (foreground) tasks get more time slices
than low priority (background) tasks.
b) Memory: Memory must be managed also by the operating system. All those rotating turns
of CPU use leave data waiting around in buffers. Care must be taken not to lose data. One way
to help out the traffic jam is to use virtual memory. That means creating some memory
space in hard disk to be used as a part main memory. While it is slower to put data on a hard
disk, it increases the amount of data that can be held in memory at one time. When the memory
chips get full, some of the data is paged out to the hard disk. This is called swapping. Operating
system uses a swap file for this purpose
Input and output (I/O) control
a) I/O Flow control is also part of the operating systems responsibilities. The operating system
must manage all requests to read data from disks or tape and writes all instructions to printers.
b) To speed up the output to printers, most operating systems now allow for print spooling,
where the data to be printed is first put in a file. This frees up the processor for other work in
between the times data is going to the printer. A printer can only handle so much data at a time.
Without print spooling we have to wait for a print job to finish before you can do anything else.
With it you can request several print jobs and go on working. The print spool will hold all the
orders and process them in turn.
Monitoring System Activities
a) System performance: System performance would include response time (how long it takes
for the computer to respond when data is entered) and CPU utilization (comparing the time the
CPU is working to the time it is idle.)
b) System security Some system security is part of the operating system For multiple users
who are not all allowed access to everything, there must be a logon or login procedure where
the user supplies a user name or ID and a secret password. An administrator must set up the
permissions
list of who can have access to what programs and what data.
File and Disk Management
a) File management Keeping track of what files are where is a major job. So an operating
system comes with basic file management commands. A user needs to be able to create
directories for storing files. A user needs to copy, move, delete, and rename files. This is the
category of operating system functions that the user actually sees the most.
b) Disk management A more technical task is that of disk management. Under some operating
systems hard disk can be divided up, or partitioned into several virtual disks. The operating
system treats each virtual disk as though it were a physically separate disk. OS takes care
of this function.
Common Operating Systems
MS-DOS, Microsofts Disk Operating System, and its twin at IBM, PC-DOS, also written by
Microsoft are Text command interface OS
Microsoft Windows versions (95, 98, Me, NT, 2000, XP, Vista, and 7) are the most widely
acclaimed OS in the world.
Windows XP is an upgrade to Windows 2000. It is the worlds most popular Operating
system. It comes in two versions - Home and Professional. The word XP stands for Experience.
The Professional version contains all the features of the Home version plus more business features,
like networking and security features.
Windows Vista was released in early 2007. It has higher requirements for memory and
processor speed than previous versions of Windows. Vista comes in several different flavors for
home and business purposes.
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Windows 7 was released in late 2009. There are several versions with differing prices.
Apple Macintosh is a multitasking operating system that was the first graphical interface
to achieve commercial success. The Mac was an immediate success in the areas of graphics
production and DTP applications.
The current version is Mac OS X, which is version 10. Since January 2002, all new Mac
computers use Mac OS X. Subversions are named Jaguar, Panther, Tiger, Leopard.
IBMs 32-bit operating system, OS/2, was a popular system for businesses with complex
computer systems from IBM. It is no longer available.
UNIX is an operating system developed by Bell Labs to handle complex scientific
applications. University networks are likely to use UNIX, as are Internet Service Providers. A lot
of people have experience with UNIX from their college work. Many computer old-timers love
UNIX and its command line interface. But all those commands are not easy to remember for
newcomers.
Linux is an operating system similar to UNIX that is becoming more and more popular. It is
an open-source program created by Linus Torvalds at the University of Finland, starting in
1991. Open source means that the underlying computer code is freely available to everyone.
Programmers can work directly with the code and add features. They can sell their customized
version of Linux, as long as the source code is still open to others.
Operating system types
The Concept of operating systems progressed and developed a lot that so many features are
being added to improve their functionalities. The following is the list of OS with categories of
their own. Many computer operating systems will fall into more than one of the below categories.
A command-line interface (CLI) operating system: command line is a user interface that
is navigated by typing commands at prompts. A prompt is either a text or symbols used to
represent the systems readiness to perform the next command. For example, a MS-DOS prompt
or Windows command prompt may look like the below example. C:\Windows>
GUI Short name for Graphical User Interface. a GUI Operating System contains graphics
and icons and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. Ex: windows all versions,
GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM, Aqua
Some operating systems contain both features of GUI and CLI. Ex: Linux, UNIX. Theses
are command user interface in personal computers but can be graphical interface in X Window
System. The X Window System (commonly X or X11) is a computer software system and network
protocol that provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for networked computers.
Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same
computer at the same time and/or different times. With a multi-user system, a time-slice is the
set amount of processing time each user gets. Below are some examples of multi-user operating
systems.
Ex: Linux, UNIX, Windows 2000
Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than
one computer processor. Ex: Linux, UNIX, Windows 2000
Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software processes
to run at the same time. Ex: Linux, UNIX, Windows 2000/XP
Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of software program to run
concurrently. Ex: Linux, UNIX, Windows 2000/XP
Real-time operating system (RTOS) is a computer operating system designed to handle
events as they occur. Real-time is a term used to describe a process or event that occurs
immediately or without being waited for. Real-time operating systems are commonly found
and used in robotics, complex multimedia and animation, communications and has various
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military and government uses. Some examples of real-time operating systems are Windows
CE, Chimera, Lynx, MTOS, QNX, RTMX, RTX, and VxWorks.
Server operating systems: It is the operating system that is widely used in servers or in the
central computer of a network EX Windows NT/Server 2003/ Windows Server 2008, OS/2, OS/
4 (By IBM)
Time sharing Operating System: The process of giving multiple users access to a system
or group of systems at the same time. With a time sharing setup, a computer gives users a
small portion of its processing power in pieces. This enables the computers processing power to
be more evenly distributed. Ex:Windows NT
Networking operating system an operating system designed to allow shared file and printer
access among computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or
to network. Examples include: Novell Netware, Windows NT.
64-bit operating system for mainframe computers - z/OS, produced by IBM
Chrome is an operating system based on the Linux kernel and designed by Google. Chrome
targets computer users that spend most of their time on the Internet
How does the sysytem boots?
The first screen that we see when we turn on our computer will be about the BIOS (Basic
Input/Output System). The BIOS is a set of instructions on a ROM chip (Read-Only Memory)
that controls how the hardware and the operating system communicate. Its a very limited
set of instructions.
After the BIOS have gone through its start up routine, it runs the POST (Power on Self
Test). This is a set of tests of the hardware. If, for example, a keyboard is not plugged in or is
broken, a message about Keyboard failure will be beamed and the computer will stop where it
is in the POST.
Next the computer looks for some kind of operating system that we have loaded earlier in
the computer and down load it from its destination disk(Either a hard disk or a bootable
CD). This part of the operating system has various names. Kernel, master program, supervisor,
control program are a few. In PCs using DOS or Windows the term kernel is used.
When the kernel is loaded, the computer looks for following three files:
Command language interpreter- The command language interpreter is the program that
turns our key board strokes into all those 1s and 0s for the processor to understand.
config.sys-From the config.sys the computer finds what devices are connected to the
computer, such as a mouse, CD drive, or scanner. The file tells where to look for the directions,
called drivers, for using these devices.
autoexec.bat -This file does optional tasks like loading programs that we want to start
every time the computer is turned on (Called custom settings). This file also tells the computer
where to look for files, called the path. Many programs add their own directories to the path
when they
are installed. The more the custom settings the more time will it take for booting.
COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Programming Language Concepts
Language is a system of communication between people. These are the languages used to
communicate among various categories of persons. But the computer will not understand any
of these natural languages for transfer of data and instruction. So there are artificial programming
languages specially developed so that we could pass data and instructions to the computer to
do specific job. A programming Language is a set of vocabulary and grammatical rules for
instructing a computer to perform specific tasks. So instructions or programs are written
in a particular language based on the type of job. Each language has a unique set of keywords
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called Semantics (words that a computer understands) and a special syntax (Grammar for
writing program) for organizing program instructions. BASIC, C, C++, COBOL, FORTRAN, Ada,
and Pascal etc are some of the examples of Programming Languages.
Programming Languages
There are two major types of programming languages. These are Low Level Languages and
High Level Languages. Low Level languages are further divided in to Machine language and
Assembly language.
1) Low Level Languages
The term low level means closeness to the way in which the machine has been built. Low level
languages are machine oriented and require extensive knowledge of computer hardware
and its configuration.
(a) Machine Language
It is also considered to the first generation language
Sometimes referred to as machine code or object code, machine language is a collection
of binary digits or bits that the computer reads and interprets. Machine language is the only
language a computer is capable of understanding.
It does not need any translator program and is called machine code/Native code and it is
written as strings of 1s (one) and 0s (zero).
When this sequence of codes is fed to the computer, it recognizes the codes and converts
it in to electrical signals needed to run it. For example, a program instruction may look like
this: 1011000111101
This is a sequence of instructions written in the form of binary numbers consisting of
l s, 0s to which the computer responds directly.
An instruction prepared in any machine language will have at least two parts. The first
part is the command or Operation, which tells the computer what functions, is to be performed.
All computers have an operation code (op code) for each of its functions.
The second part of the instruction is the operand or it tells the computer where to find or store
the data that has to be manipulated.
Advantage
The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no translation
program is required for the CPU.
Disadvantages
1) It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know details of
hardware to write program.
2) Anybody going through this program will have a difficult task understanding the binary
coded instructions.
3) The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which results in program
errors.
4) It is difficult to detect and remove program errors (called debugging) from the program.
(b) Assembly Language/Symbolic Language.
It is called second generation Language since it had improved the programming structure
and made it moderately easy programming language.
We know that computer can handle numbers and letter only. Therefore some combination
of letters can be used to substitute for number of machine codes which are called Mnemonics.
As we employ symbols (letter, digits or special characters) for the operation part, the address
part and other parts of the instruction code, this representation is also called symbolic
language. This is considered to be the second-generation language.
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Assembly language uses structured commands as substitutions for numbers allowing

humans to read the code more easily than looking at binary. Although easier to read than
binary, assembly language is still a complex language. For example a instruction in binary to
add some numbers looks like full of number jargaon. Instead to improve writing a program
some abbreviated words can be used such as sub (subtract), div (divide), add (add) and
mul (multiply).
However Mnemonics are the set of symbols and letters such as forms the Assembly
Language and a translator program is required to translate the Assembly Language to machine
language(Binary code). This translator program is called Assembler.
The following program is an example of an assembly language program for adding two
numbers X and Y and storing the result in some memory location.
From this program, it is clear that usage
of mnemonics in our example LD,
ADD,HALT are the mnemonics) has
improved the readability of program
significantly.
Commonly used Assembly language
architecture are ARM, MIPS, x86
Advantages:
1) The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves a lot of
time and effort of the programmer.
2) It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions than Machine language.
3) Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level language. Because
this is one-to-one translator between assembly language program and its corresponding machine
language program.
Disadvantages:
1) One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent. A program
written for one computer might not run in other computers with different hardware configuration.
That means that it has no portability of being run on some other different configuration computer.
I. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
Assembly language and machine level language require deep knowledge of computer hardware
where as in higher language we have to know writing instructions in any human language
like English and logic of the problem irrespective of the type of computer we are using.
A programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal that enables a programmer to
write programs those are more or less independent of a particular type of computer.
Such languages are considered high-level
because they are closer to human languages
and further from machine languages. In
contrast, assembly languages are considered
low-level because they are very close to
machine languages.
Higher level languages are simple languages that use Natural Languages and mathematical
symbols like +, -, %, / etc. for its program construction. The following is the sample program
written in BASIC language to add two numbers.
However Instructions that were written in higher level language has to be converted
to machine language for the computer to understand. Programs written in a high-level
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language must be translated into machine language by a compiler or interpreter.

a) Compiler
It is a program translator that translates the instruction of a higher level language to
machine language.tions for every program instructions of higher level language. Thus compiler
is a program translator like assembler but
more sophisticated. It
scans the entire program first and then translates instructions into
machine code.
During the process of translation, the Compiler reads the source programs statement
wise and checks the syntax (grammatical) errors. If there is any error, the computer generates
a printout of the errors it has detected. This action is known as diagnostics.
The programs written by the programmer in higher level language is called source program.
After this program is converted to machine languages by the compiler it is called object
program.
A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been written, in that
language for which the compiler is meant for. For example FORTRAN compiler will not compile
source code written in COBOL language.
b) Interpreter
An interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating higher level
language into machine language.
It takes one statement of higher level languages line by line, and translate it into
machine language line by line and then executes it.
Translation and execution are carried out for each statement. It differs from compiler, which
translatethe entire source program where as it does involve in line by line translation.
The advantage of interpreter compared to compiler is its fast response to changes in
source program. It eliminates the need for a separate compilation after changes to each program.
Interpreters are easy to write and do not require large memory in computer.
The disadvantage of interpreter is that it is time consuming method because each time a
statement in a program is first translated and then executed. Thus compiled machine language
program runs much faster than an interpreted program.
Difference betweenCompiler and Interpreter
Compiler
Interpreter
1. Scans the entire program first and then

1. Translates the program line by line.
Converts the entire program to machine code;
2. when all the syntax errors are
removed execution takes place.
2. Each time the program is executed, every line is

checked for syntax error and then converted
to equivalent machine code.
3. Slow for debugging (removal of

mistakes from a program)
3. Good for fast debugging
4. Execution time, is less
4. Execution time is more.
Advantages of High Level Languages

Higher level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly languages that higher
level languages are easy to learn and use. It is because that they are similar to the languages
used by us in our day to day life. The following are the main advantages of high-level programming
languages. These are:
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i. Readability: Programs written in these languages are more readable than assembly and
machine
language.
ii. Portability: Programs could be run on different machines with little or no change. We can,
therefore, exchange software leading to creation of program libraries.
iii. Easy debugging: Errors could easily be removed (debugged).
iv. Easy Software development: Software could easily be developed. Commands of programming
language are similar to natural languages like English
Generation of Programming languages
1. The first generation languages or 1GL are low-level languages that are machine language.
2. The second generation languages or 2GL are also low-level languages that generally consist of
assembly languages.
3. The third generation languages or 3GL are high-level languages such as C.
4. The fourth generation languages or 4GL are languages that consist of statements similar to
statements in a human language. Fourth generation languages are commonly used in database
programming and scripts. Ex: SQL
5. The fifth generation languages or 5GL are programming languages that contain visual tools to
help develop a program. A good example of a fifth generation language is Visual Basic.
Extended study concepts
List of the Different Types of High Level Programming Languages
1) Interpreted Programming Languages
The programming languages that are implemented by means of an interpreter are known as
interpreted languages. Interpreters execute the source code directly by translating the source
code into a binary representation.
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is a family of high-level
programming languages. The original BASIC was designed in 1964, by John George Kemeny
and Thomas Eugene Kurtz to provide access for non-science students to computers. BASIC
remains popular for business applications and in developing tools for banking industry.
Lisp: (List Processing) It is the second-oldest high level computer programming language.
Lisp is a general purpose programming language.
Pascal: It is programming language that was intended to use data structuring and structured
programming. Niklaus Wirth, a Swiss computer scientist designed this language and
it was named after Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher.
Perl: Perl is a high level interpreted programming language that supports dynamic
programming and supports writing scripts
PostScript: It is used in the desktop publishing field and is known as a page description
language.
Python: It is a high-level programming language that supports writing scripts.
2) Compiled Programming Languages
These programming languages make use of a compiler for the execution of code. Compilers can
translate source code into machine code and thus bring out the implementation of the
programming language instructions
Ada: It is a statically typed, structured, imperative programming language that is based on
Pascal and is an internationally standardized computer programming language.
ALGOL: (Algorithmic Language) It proved instrumental in the creation of Programming
languages like C.
C: Dennis Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories developed C to be used on the UNIX
platform. It is a general purpose, cross-platform, procedural, imperative programming language.
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It is used for implementing system software and application software and is one of the mostused computer programming languages of today.
C++: It consists of a combination of high-level and low-level language features and is hence
considered as a middle-level programming language. Bjarne Stroustrup developed C++ as an
extension of the C language.
COBOL: The name stands for Common Business-Oriented Language that is designed for the
business and finance domain. It is one of the oldest programming languages still in active use
FORTRAN: It is the oldest procedural, imperative, general purpose computer
programming language that works well for scientific computations and numeric operations.
After IBM developed it in the 1950s, it soon gained popularity in programming. It is very popular
in the field of high- performance computing and such intensive areas such as climate modeling],
numerical weather prediction, finite element analysis, computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
computational physics, and computational chemistry. It is one of the most popular languages in
the area of High- performance computing and programs to benchmark and rank the worlds
fastest supercomputers are written in Fortran.
Java: Sun Microsystems developed Java. Java applications are compiled to byte code, which
can run on any virtual machine, thus making Java programs platform-independent. It is very
popular language of the modern times for applications on internet.
Visual Basic: It inherits many of its features from BASIC. Its graphical development features
make it easy for beginners to learn VB.
3) Procedural Programming Languages
Procedural programming is synonymous with imperative programming, which implies specifying
or sequencing the steps that the programs should take to reach to an intended state. Apart from
the very well-known languages like COBOL, BASIC, FORTRAN, Ada, C, C++, C#, Visual Basic
and Java, there are many other languages that follow procedural programming.
RPG :( Report Generator) this programming language is used for business applications
4) Scripting Languages
Scripting languages are programming languages that control an application in which they are
embedded. Scripts can execute independent of any other application. They are mostly embedded
in the application that they control and are used to add functionality to web pages. For
example,Dynamic pop ups/Advertisements that appear while browsing a web page are the
scripts written in Scripting Languages. Ex: JavaScript, ASP, JSP, PHP, Perl, Tcl
AppleScript: It is a scripting language that is built into the Mac OS.
PHP: PHP is one of the very popularly used general purpose scripting languages. It is developed
for creating dynamic web pages and supports a command line interface capability.
Tcl: It is a scripting language, which is believed to be easy to learn. It is used for rapid
prototyping and has found utility in embedded systems.
VBScript: It is an active scripting language that Microsoft developed as a variation of Microsoft
Visual Basic. VBScript is a default component with each of the Desktop releases of Microsoft
Windows.
Markup Languages:
A markup language is an artificial language that uses annotations to text that define how the
text is to be displayed. The language specifies code for formatting, both the layout and
style, within a text file. The code used to specify the formatting is called tags.
Curl: It is a reflective object-oriented programming language. It is a markup language similar
to HTML and also an object-oriented programming language supporting multiple inheritances.
SGML: Standardized General Markup Language.
HTML: Hypertext Markup Language, abbreviated as HTML, is the most prominent markup
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language that is used for web pages. It is written in the form of HTML tags that are surrounded
by angular brackets. HTML tags describe the appearance of the text in a document and can be
embedded into certain other code to affect the web browser behavior.
XML: The name stands for Extensible Markup Language. It is extensible because it allows
the users to define their own XML elements.
XHTML: It is a markup language that is similar to HTML and follows the XML syntax. It is
midway between HTML and XML. XHTML documents allow automated processing of data.
Logic-based Programming Languages
Logic programming is the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. Logic-based
programming languages specify the attributes for a solution and also the steps to arrive at the
solution.
Prolog: It is a general purpose programming language that supports logic programming and
is often linked with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics.
MICROSOFT OFFICE SUITE

Microsoft Office is an office suite of inter-related desktop applications, servers and
services for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X operating systems, introduced by Microsoft..
Initially it was a bundled set of applications, the first version of Office contained Microsoft
Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Additionally, a Pro (Professional) version
of Office included Microsoft Access and Schedule Plus. Over the years, Office applications
have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, OLE
data integration and Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications scripting language. Microsoft
also positions Office as a development platform for line-of-business software under the Office
Business Applications (OBA) brand.
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word is a word processor and was previously considered to be the main program
in MS Office suit. It has a file extension .DOC format is considered a de facto standard for any
word processor. Word 2007 now uses a new Microsoft Office-optimized format called .DOCX.
A word processor more formally known as document preparation system is a computer
application used for the production including composition, editing, formatting, and possibly
printing of any sort of printable material.
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program which originally competed with the dominant
Lotus 1-2-3. A worksheet, a spreadsheet is a data file made up of rows and columns that are
used to sort data and allow a user to manipulate and arrange data easily, commonly numerical
data. What makes a spreadsheet software program most unique is its ability to calculate
values using mathematical formulas and the data in the cells. A good example of how a
spreadsheet may be used is creating an overview of a banks balance. It is available for the
Windows and Mac platforms and now a dominant spread sheet programme.
Microsoft Outlook
Microsoft Outlook is a personal information manager (PIM) from Microsoft available a
part of the Microsoft Office suite. A personal information manager (often referred to as a PIM
tool or, more simply, a PIM) is a type of application software that functions as a personal
organizer. The acronym PIM is now, more commonly, used in reference to Personal information
management as a field of study. MS Outlook Although often used mainly as an e-mail
application, it also includes a calendar, task manager, contact manager, note taking, a
journal and web browsing applications useful foe marketing and management executives in
their daily routine business applications.
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Compurter Material
Microsoft PowerPoint
Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular presentation program for Windows and Mac. It is
used to create slideshows, composed of text, graphics, movies and other objects, which can
be displayed on-screen through over the head projector or through a computer. It also prints
out the presentations on transparencies or slides. This is convenient for school or work
presentations.
Microsoft Publisher
Microsoft Publisher is a program mostly used for designing brochures, labels, calendars,
greeting cards, business cards, newsletters, and postcards.
Microsoft Access
Microsoft Access provides an inexpensive yet powerful database solution for smallscale projects. Microsoft Access is used to create simple database solutions. Access tables
support a variety of standard field types, indices, and referential integrity. Simple tasks can
be automated through macros with point-and-click options. Microsoft Access is very popular
among non-programmers who do not have the knowledge of programming and RDBMS
concepts and yet want to create advanced data base solutions on their own.
Other desktop applications (Windows version only)
Y Microsoft Access Database manager
Y Microsoft Info Path an application to design rich XML-based forms
Y Microsoft One Note Note-taking software for use with both tablet and conventional
PCs
Y Microsoft Project Project management software to keep track of events and to create
network charts and Gantt charts (not bundled in any Office suite)
Y Microsoft Share Point Workspace (formerly known as Groove) a proprietary peer-topeer collaboration software leveled at businesses
Y Microsoft Visio Diagram and flowcharting software (not bundled in any Office suite)
Y Microsoft Office Document Imaging an application that supports editing scanned
documents.
Y Microsoft Office Document Scanning a scanning and Optical character
recognition(OCR) application.
Y Microsoft Office InterConnect business-relationship database available only in Japan
Y Microsoft Office Picture Manager basic photo management software (similar to
Googles Picasa or Adobes Photoshop Elements), replaced Microsoft Photo Editor.
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VIMS

Sri Maheshwari CCE

College of competitive exams

..... sT>T m+|

Vizag || Gajuwaka || N.A.D X Roads

COMPUTERS AND BASIC CONCEPTS

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Sri Maheshwari CCE

right instructions in right sequence.

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OTHER IMPORTANT COMPUTERS OF FIRST GENERATION

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Fourth Generation Computers (1971-Present)

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Sri Maheshwari CCE

1st lane Dwarakanagar, Vizag - 16.

Cell : 9291 753 853

Sri Maheshwari CCE

1st lane Dwarakanagar, Vizag - 16.

Cell : 9291 753 853

Sri Maheshwari CCE

1st lane Dwarakanagar, Vizag - 16.

Cell : 9291 753 853

Sri Maheshwari CCE

1st lane Dwarakanagar, Vizag - 16.

Cell : 9291 753 853

Sri Maheshwari CCE

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

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THE PROCESSING AND MEMORY STORAGE

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THE MACHINE CYCLE

get an instruction from Main Memory

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Sri Maheshwari CCE

1st lane Dwarakanagar, Vizag - 16.

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Sri Maheshwari CCE

1024 bytes or 210 bytes

1024 kilobytes or 10242 bytes or 220 bytes

1024 megabytes or 10243 or 230 bytes

1024 gigabytes or 10244 bytes, or 240 bytes

1024 terabytes or 10245 bytes 250 bytes

1024 peta bytes or 10246 bytes 270 bytes

1024 zetta bytes or 10247 bytes 280 bytes

Factors affecting the Speed of Processing

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Sri Maheshwari CCE

a 32- bit bus can transmit 32 bits of data.

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Assembly language uses structured commands as substitutions for numbers allowing