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SAND TESTING
The need for systematic evaluation of the working qualities of molding sands has lead to the
development of a wide range of sand control tests. Molding sand is supposed to posses many
properties for its efficient functioning. These properties depend upon grain size, distribution,
content and type of binders, additives and moisture. Sand tests indicate the molding sand
performance and help the foundry men in controlling the properties of molding sands.
Production of sound casting largely depends upon uniform and good quality of molding
sands.
Sands are tested to know the following properties
1. Refractoriness
2. Permeability
3. Strength
4. Grain size and shape
5. Moisture content
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SIEVE ANALYSIS
Aim: Find the average grain fineness number of the given sand
Apparatus: Sieve shaker, Sieve set, Weighing balance, Soft brush
Theory: The size of sand grains is designated by a number called Grain Fineness Number
that indicates the average size of grains in the mixture. The size is determined by passing
the sand through sieves having specified apertures which are measured in microns.
Foundry sand usually falls into the range 150-400 microns. The fineness test of molding
sand is of great value to the foundry man because the fineness of sand affects the
permeability and bond strength very much. Small castings require fine sand and large
castings require coarse sand.
Average grain fineness number can be found by the equation,
GFN = e/c
Where e = Sum of products of percentage sand retained in the sieve and corresponding
Multiplying factor
c = Sum of % of sand retained in the sieve.
Procedure:
1. Weigh 100 grams of sample sand.
2. Place the sand into the top sieve of a nest of ISO sieves on a vibrator. Vibrate for 10
minutes.
3. Remove the sieves. Beginning with top sieve, weigh the quantity of sand retained on
each sieve.
4. Calculate the percentage of sand retained on each sieve.
5. Multiply the percentage retained by the appropriate multiplying factor and add the
products.
6. Divide the total of the percentage retained to give average grain size.
Graphs: Sieve fineness Vs % retained
Result: Grain fineness number of the given sand is .
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SIEVE SHAKER
MODEL - VGH
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%
Retained
(c)=(w2-wl)
Multiplying
factor
(d)
1700
850
10
600
20
425
30
300
40
212
50
150
70
106
100
75
140
53
200
Sieve pan
300
Product
(e)=(c x d)
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Sl No.
a-b
% of clay content = ------- x 100
a
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PERMEABILITY TEST
Aim: To determine the permeability number of the given green sand.
Apparatus: Sand rarnmer, Stripper, Weighing pan, Stop watch, Specimen tube,
Permeability meter.
Theory: Permeability is the ability of compacted sand to allow free escape of
gases. Permeability is measured by the quantity of air that passes through a sand sample in a
prescribed time under standard conditions. The instrument consists of a water tank, water
manometer, permeability chart, sealing boss with rubber, sleeve, 0 - P - D valve, syphon
attachment. The manometer scale is calibrated for 0 to 10 indicates pressure in grams per
sq.cm of water. There are two orifices, one orifice of 1.5 mm diameter and one orifice of 0.5
mm diameter. It is recommended to use small orifice for permeability number below 50
and large orifice for permeability number above 50.
Procedure:
I. Take 150 grams of green sand and prepare the specimen of size
5.08 cm diameter and 5.08 cm height by using sand rammer.
2. Take the specimen tube with rammed specimen and place it inverted over
the rubber sealing boss.
3. Put the valve on 'p' position. Read the height of the water column in the
manometer tube.
3. Find out corresponding permeability number from the chart
fixed on the instrument.
4. Start the stop watch simultaneously when the valve on 'p' position
5. Note down the time required to pass 2000 cc of air passed
through the specimen.
6. Calculate the permeability number by using the formula.
7. Put the valve on '0' position.
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PERMEABILITY METER
MODEL VP
Air Tank
Water
Tank
Manometer
Knob
Zero adjustment Screw
Permeability
Chart
Orifice
Rubber Boss
Valve
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Silica sand
%
grams
Moisture
%
gram
Time taken
for 2000cc
gram
of air to
pass
Clay
%
Orifice
pressure
grams/cm
Permeability
number
Calculations
VH
Permeability number, Pn = -----------PAT
Where
V = volume of air passing through the specimen i.e 2000 cc
H = height of the specimen = 5.08 cm
P = pressure applied by the machine (manometer reading) in grams/cm
A = area of the specimen = ( /4) x (5.08)2
T = time in minutes for 2000cc of air passed through the sand specimen.
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SL
NO.
% Green
Compression
strength%
grams/cm2
Dry
compression
Strength.
grms/cm2
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Result:
Green shear strength of the given molding sand is _____________ _
Dry shear strength of the given molding sand is ------------------------
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S.No Weight of
Silica Sand
%
grams
Moisture
%
grams
Clay
%
grams
Green shear
Strength
grms/cm2
Dry shear
Strength
grms/crn2
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Sl
No.
Weight of
silica sand
%
grams
Moisture
%
grams
Clay
%
grams
Green tensile
strength
%
grams/cm2
Dry tensile
strength
grams/cm2
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FOUNDRY
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CASTING
A metal Casting may be defined as a metal object produced by pouring molten metal in
to a mould which has the desired shape of the casting and allow the molten metal to solidify.
Castings are always smaller in dimensions than the pattern from which they are made. This is
because thermal contraction occurs as the metal cools from its solidification
temperature to room temperature.
A pattern is a duplicate of the part to be cast. A pattern is made full size. A pattern is
made slightly larger in size, to compensate for the shrinkage and finish.
Pattern size = Actual size + Shrinkage allowance + Finish allowance
Types of patterns: There are several types of patterns used in the production of castings.
1. Solid pattern: Solid pattern is used for producing single or small quantity production.
2. Split pattern: This type of pattern is used commonly where two boxes are used and
pattern is split through joint line. The two halves are located with dowels.
Molding sand is used to fill the molding box. There are two types of moulding sand.
I. Natural sand i.e sand containing the silica grains and clay bond as found. 2. Synthetic
sand
i.e sand composed of washed and graded silica grains, with desired type and amount of clay
bond added. Molding sand must be capable of
a) Maintaining the shape of the pattern
b) Withstanding heat
c) Allowing gases to escape.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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MOULDING TOOLS
Flasks are made in various sizes and shapes to
accommodate various castings. Flasks are
usually rectangular In shape. Flasks are made
of cast metal or wood.
moulding board
Rammer
Rammers are used for packing the sand in a mould. Rammers have a flat end called the butt
and a wedge shaped end termed as the peen.
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spaces
Gate cutters are used to cut gates and sometimes runners. A gate cutter is usually a piece of
bent into a u shape.
A lifter has one end slightly flattened and bends to 90 degree. It is used for lifting and
removing loose sand from deep pars of the mold.
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Moulding tools
Trowels, slicks, spoons and lifters are finishing tools. These tools are used by the molder to
repair molds after the pattern has been withdrawn. There are over 60 different shapes of
finishing tools.
English Trowels
Molders Trowel
Scotch cleaner
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Sand Showel
Boss tool
Spoon tool
Scotch cleaner
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Straight bead
English cleaner
Girdar tool
Flange cleaner
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Smoothers
Flange cleaner
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FOUNDRY MODELS
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Required
Dimensions
Actual
Dimensions
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Required
Dimensions
Actual
Dimensions
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Required
Dimensions
Actual
Dimensions
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DUMBBELL
Aim: To prepare a mould of Dumbbell as per dimensions as Shown in the diagram.
Tools Required: Moulding box(2 no's), Peen and Butt Rammer, Strike of bar,
Trawel,
Shovel, Sprue, Lifter, Vent rod, Draw spike, Try square, Steel
rule
Sequence of operations:
1. Mix the moulding sand properly.
2.Apply bentonite mixture to all inner sides of the moulding
boxes
.
.,
-'. Keep the drag moulding box on the fallow board.
4. Keep the half pattern of the Dumbbell at the center of the moulding box
5. Fill the Drag moulding box with moulding sand with the help of Shovel.
6. Ram the moulding sand with peen rammer first, latter with Butt rammer.
7. The excess sand is removed by using a strike off bar.
8. Turn over the Drag moulding box.
9. Sprinkle the dry silica sand on the drag moulding box.
10..Keep the Cope moulding box on the top of the drag along with half pattern
perfectly
align.on the lower half pattern of the Dumbbell.
l l. Keep sprue and riser and filled with moulding Sand.
I2. Ram the moulding sand with rammer and latter strike off the excess sand from
the
cope
moulding box.
13. Keep the cope and drag moulding boxes separately.
I4.Remove the pattem(Dumbbell) from the drag and cope moulding boxes with the
help of
draw spikes.
15.Cut the runner and gate in the drag portion.
16. Keep the cope portion on the top of the drag with proper alignment.
17. Now the mould of Dumbbell is as per the dimensions shown in the diagram is
ready for pouring.
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DUMBBELL
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FORGING
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FORGING
Forging is the process of plastically deforming metals or alloys to a specific shape
by compression. The compressive force is exerted by hammer, a press or by rolls etc. It is a
process of producing machine or structural parts that must withstand shock or sudden impact
loads. Forging is made by heating the metal piece to plastic state and thereby hammering,
pressing or bending it into shape. Forging may be made by hand by blacksmith or by various
types of power operated machinery
Forging processes: The load requirement for forging has lead to several types.
1. Hand forging-smith forging.
2. Open die forging.( a. hammer forging. b. press forging)
3. Drop forging.
4. Upset forging
5. Roll forging.
Drop forging: Drop forging is the process of forming the desired shape by placing a heated
bar or billet on the lower half of a forging die and placing the top half of the die into the
metal by means of a power driven machine called a drop hammer.
Press forging: In this process the heated billet is squeezed between dies. The pressure is
applied by a forging press which completes the operation in a single stroke. Large forgings
are generally shaped by this method.
Roll forging: Roll forging involves the passing of a heated bar between revolving rolls that
contain an impression of the required shape. It is a process designed chiefly to reduce short
thick sections to long slender pieces.
Advantages of forging:
1. Forged components have good strength.
2. The forged components have high toughness and good fatigue properties.
3. Forged parts are characterized by a fibrous structure.
4. Forgings are free from porosity, surface inclusions or other defects.
5. When metal is forged, both strength and ductility increase considerably along the
lines of flow.
6. Forged parts are uniform in size and shape.
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FORGING TOOLS
6.
Swage Block: Swage block is a rectangular block with varying sizes of vee and half round
notches on its edges. Round, Square and rectangular holes through its face. The holes in the
face may be used for punching and bending and the grooves on its edges may be used for
accommodating work of various sections.
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Swaees: Swages are used in pairs to shape hot metal. They are supplied in pairs ,top and
bottom. The bottom swage is placed in the square hole of the anvil and the top swage
is hit with a sledge hammer. Between them the work is brought down to size and is given a
good cylindrical finish.
Fullers: Fullers are blunt nosed chisels. They are used to reduce the thickness of hot metal.
They may be held with hand or fitted with a rod handle. Bottom fullers may be inserted in the
square hole of the anvil.
Chisels: Chisels are used to cut metal. There are two types of chisels. I) cold chisels for
cutting cold metal. Its edge is hardened and tempered, and 'its point angle is 60 2) 1101
chisels are used for cutting red hot metal and do not have to be as sharp as cold chisels. The
hot chisel has a point angle Df 30 and is soft.
..
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FORGING MODELS
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Calculations
Volume of the given round bar,
V= d2xl
4
When d= diameter of the bar
l=length of the bar
Volume of square rod = a x a x h
Volume of the given round bar = volume of square rod
d2xl
=axaxh
4
Equating the two, any unknown can be calculated.
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Aim: To prepare a model of square shaped cross section from the Round bar.
Tools Required: Anvil, Tongs, Flatteners, Swage block, Sledge Hammer.
Sequence of operations:
1. First the given specimen is heated in a furnace to a red hot state below its
recrystallization temperature.
2. With the help of Tong, work piece is taken out from the furnace, place on the
anvil and do the hammering operation. .
3. The process is continued till it get the required hexagonal shape and
dimensions.
4. . Then using flatteners finishing is done on the given job.
5. Then using scale and try square the accuracy of dimension is checked.
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Calculations
Volume of the given round bar,
V= d2x l
4
When d= diameter of the bar
l=length of the bar
Volume of hexagonal rod = area of base with side of length a multiplied by its height
Volume of the given round bar = volume of hexagonal rod
d2x l
= 6 3 x a2 x h
4
4
Volume of the given round bar = volume of hexagonal rod
Equating the two, any unknown can be calculated.
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Calculations
Volume of the given round bar,
V= d2xl
4
When d= diameter of the bar
l=length of the bar
Volume of the bolt = volume of bolt head + volume of shank
=a x a x h + d2 x L
4
Volume of the given round bar = volume of the bolt
Equating the two, any unknown can be calculated.
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Aim: To prepare a model of Hexagonal head bolt from the Round bar.
Tools Required: Anvil, Tongs, Flatteners, Swage block, Sledge Hammer.
Sequence of operations:
1. First the given specimen is heated in a furnace to a red hot state below its recrystallization temperature.
2. With the help of Tong, work piece is taken out from the furnace and do the
upsetting operation.
3. Before doing Upsetting operation, 3/4th of the work piece is quenched in water to
avoid buckling.
4. Diameter of the one end of the bar is increased by 30mm up to a length
of20mm by upsetting operation.
5. Then the specimen end of30mm diameter is hammered to form a Hexagonal head.
6. Finally the specimen is placed in the swage block and with the help of flatteners; the
top of the Hexagonal head is finished by slight hammering.
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Calculations
Volume of the given round bar,
V= d2x l
4
When d= diameter of the bar
l=length of the bar
Volume of the bolt = volume of bolt head + volume of shank
d 2x l
= 6 3 x a2 x 20 + d2 x 70
4
4
4
Volume of the given round bar = volume of the bolt
Equating the two, any unknown can be calculated.
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L-SHAPE NAIL
Aim: To prepare a model of L-shape nail from the Round bar.
Tools Required: Anvil, Tongs, Flatteners, Swage block, Sledge Hammer.
Sequence of operations:
1. First the given specimen is heated in a furnace to a red hot state below its recrystallization temperature.
2. With the help of Tong, work piece is taken out from the furnace and do the
drawing operation.
3. Keep the specimen on the Anvil and apply force by using sledge hammer and
convert the round bar to the square bar.
4. Keep the square bar in the swage block square hole and bend the bar into L-shape by
applying force by using hammer at 3/4th of its length.
5. Finish the L-shape using set hammer.
6. The shorter side of the rod is hammered at an angle to form sharp edge of the four
sides.
7. Finish the model using set hammers.
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Calculations
Volume of the given round bar,
V= d2xl
4
When d= diameter of the bar
l=length of the bar
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(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
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