Professional Documents
Culture Documents
THE ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT OF HIGHWAYS
G UIDELINES
FOR
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL
M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
Published By
T HE I NSTITUTION O F
H IGHWAYS & T RANSPORTATION
F EBRUARY 2001
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL
M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
is sponsored by
The sponsors are listed above in alphabetical order. They are: Cleveland Potash Ltd; The Countryside Agency; English Heritage;
The Environment Agency; Highways Agency; Rees Jeffreys Road Fund; Roads Service Agency,
Department for Regional Development (NI), and Salt Union Ltd (The DeIcing Business).
2
G UIDELINES
FOR
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL
M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
M ESSAGE F ROM A LAN C RAIG
IHT P RESIDENT 20002001
Transport touches all our lives. It affects not only commerce, recreation and the environment, but lifestyle as
a whole. While it brings great social and economic benefits, the highway system and its management also
affects the environment. Minimising the adverse environmental effects of transport must be a top priority for
policy makers and practitioners alike.
The Governments recently published Transport 2010: The Ten Year Plan acknowledges the strong
economic, environmental and social case for investment in infrastructure in all modes of travel. It also
recognises that reducing the impact of transport on the environment, both locally and as part of wider
international efforts, is a central aim.
The Institution of Highways & Transportation is internationally acknowledged for its best practice
guidelines in the transportation field. The Guidelines on The Environmental Management of Highways
continue that tradition. It outlines the development of environmental policy in the UK and describes best
practice in a range of key environmental topics relating to transport.
Key issues covered include drainage and groundwater management; air quality and noise management;
landscape management; ecology, biodiversity and the management of highways within the context of the built
heritage. It also suggests a systematic approach to the environmental management of highways based on the
European Standard, ISO 14001, for Environmental Management Systems.
The aim of the Guidelines for The Environmental Management of Highways is to describe best practice
in managing and maintaining transport infrastructure, especially but not exclusively highways, in such a way
as to minimise potentially harmful environmental impacts and maximise environmental gains.
The emphasis is on planning, management, layout and engineering. Making the very best use of our
existing road network at least cost to the environment by knowing what to do and when and how to do it.
I would like to thank all those involved in the production of these Guidelines, particularly the Steering
Group members, the Managing Editor, authors, photographers and others who contributed material, those
who responded to the consultation, and the IHT staff. I must also particularly thank our sponsors.
On behalf of the Institution, I am pleased to commend The Environmental Management of Highways
to all with a professional interest in the future of our environment and the quality of the transport network.
President 20002001
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
C ONTENTS
PAGE N O
F ROM T HE M INISTER
THE
G UIDELINES
2. P OLICY C ONTEXT
2.1
Introduction
3
11
15
15
2.2
The Four Ages of transport policy in Britain
2.2.1 New Realism, The Great Transport Debate and towards a Fifth Age of transport policy
15
15
2.3
Global and European policy
2.3.1 Global policy
2.3.2 European transport policy
2.3.3 The European AutoOil Programme
18
18
18
19
2.4
Current UK transport policy
2.4.1 The 1998 White Paper
2.4.2 The Daughter Documents
2.4.3 Related documents
2.4.4 Transport 2010: The 10 Year Plan
19
19
21
28
30
2.5
31
2.6
Conclusions
2.6.1 The increasing influence of environmental issues
2.6.2 Some final conclusions
References
31
31
32
34
39
3.1
39
3.2
41
3.3
Organisational considerations
42
3.4
Key considerations
45
3.5
46
3.6
The environmental management framework
3.6.1 Choosing a standard
48
50
3.7
The ISO 14001 Standard
3.7.1 Organisational evaluation standards
3.7.2 Product evaluation standards
52
52
53
3.8
55
Building an EMS
3.9
The highways environmental management model
3.9.1 Stage 1. Know the environmental risks
3.9.2 Stage 2. Manage the environmental risks
3.9.3 Stage 3. Learn and improve
58
59
61
63
3.10
64
Future trends
References
4. D RAINAGE , R UNOFF
65
AND
G ROUNDWATER
Introduction
67
4.2
67
4.3
Classification of highway pollutant sources
4.3.1 Solids
4.3.2 Metals
4.3.3 Hydrocarbons
4.3.4 Inorganic salts, herbicides and bacteria
69
70
71
71
72
4.4
Sources of highway pollutants
4.4.1 Vehicle emissions, vehicle part wear and vehicle leakages
4.4.2 Road surface erosion
4.4.3 Accidental spillages
4.4.4 Atmospheric deposition
4.4.5 Seasonal maintenance practices
4.4.6 Regular maintenance practices
72
72
73
73
73
73
74
4.5
Legislation and responsibilities
4.5.1 Legislation and legal liability
4.5.2 Water quality objectives and standards
4.5.3 EU legislation
4.5.4 Groundwater regulations
4.5.5 Spillages and emergencies
4..5.6 Highway authorities
75
75
76
78
79
79
81
4.6
Treatment of highway runoff
4.6.1 Filter strips and swales
4.6.2 Filter drains
4.6.3 Infiltration systems
4.6.4 Storage facilities
4.6.5 Alternative road surfacings
82
82
83
85
87
91
4.7
Recommendations
4.7.1 Costings
4.7.2 Design selection
4.7.3 Specific recommendations
92
93
95
96
References
97
5. A IR Q UALITY M ANAGEMENT
5.1
Introduction
5.2
The problem of air quality
5.2.1 Historical perspectives
5.2.2 Current air quality
67
4.1
103
103
104
104
107
5.3
115
5.4
Issues
5.4.1 Vehicle emissions
5.4.2 Atmospheric dispersion and transformation
117
118
123
5.5
Legislation and responsibilities
5.5.1 Vehilce and fuel standards
5.5.2 Air quality standards
5.5.3 International agreements
5.5.4 Local air quality management
125
126
129
129
129
5.6
Review and assessment of air pollution
5.6.1 Air pollution monitoring
5.6.2 Air pollution modelling
130
133
136
5.7
Control and reduction of traffic pollution
5.7.1 Traffic management
5.7.2 The impact of reduced emissions on air pollution levels
139
139
141
5.8
Practical measures to reduce traffic pollution
5.8.1 Emission reduction measures
5.8.2 Reducing the impact of the emissions
141
142
144
5.9
145
Principal recommendations
References
6. N OISE M ANAGEMENT
147
149
6.1
Introduction
6.1.1 The extent of the problem
6.1.2 Sources of road traffic noise
6.1.3 Trends in road traffic noise
6.1.4 Impact of road traffic noise
149
149
149
149
150
6.2
Measurement of road traffic noise
6.2.1 Definition of noise
6.2.2 Measuring noise
6.2.3 Sound levels and decibels
6.2.4 Frequency selectivity of human hearing and Aweighting
6.2.5 Temporal variation of noise and noise indices
6.2.6 Equivalent continuous sound level, L Aeq,T
6.2.7 Percentile exceeded sound level, L An,T
6.2.8 Temporal variations outside the noise index averaging periods, T
6.2.9 Efffect of microphone location relative to reflective surfaces
150
150
150
151
152
152
153
153
154
154
6.3
Calculation of road traffic noise and its radiation to the environment
6.3.1 Calculation of environmental road traffic noise
155
155
6.4
Human response to noise
6.4.1 Noise activity and interference
6.4.2 Noise annoyance
6.4.3 Noise and sleep disturbance
6.4.4 Noise and nonauditory health
6.4.5 Noise and community response
157
157
157
158
158
158
6.5
Planning Issues
6.5.1 Policy background
6.5.2 Planning Policy Guidance Note PPG24 Planning and Noise
6.5.3 Land Compensation Act 1973
6.5.4 Noise Insulation Regulations 1975
6.5.5 Sound insulation and noise reduction for noise sensitive buildings
6.5.6 DoT Technical Memorandum Calculation of Road Traffic Noise
6.5.7 DMRB, Volume 11 (3,7), Traffic Noise and Vibration
159
159
159
161
161
162
162
162
6.6
Guidance on best practice and noise mitigation measures
6.6.1 Land use and planning
6.6.2 Road surfaces
6.6.3 Noise barriers and landscaping
6.6.4 Traffic management
6.6.5 Cuttings, tunnels and enclosures
6.6.6 Building design and layout
163
163
163
166
169
169
170
6.7
171
Principal recommendations
References
172
7. L ANDSCAPE M ANAGEMENT
175
7.1
Introduction
175
7.2
Overview
176
7.3
Issues
7.3.1 Improvements
7.3.2 Day and nighttime landscapes
7.3.3 Urban landscapes
7.3.4 Suburban landscapes
7.3.5 Rural landscapes
176
176
177
177
179
179
7.4
Guidance on best practice
7.4.1 Published information
7.4.2 Landscape design
7.4.3 Management plans
7.4.4 Management and maintenance contracts
7.4.5 Management operations
7.4.6 Mature trees and safety
7.4.7 Reinstatement after road works
7.4.8 Hard landscape and street furniture
7.4.9 Serendipity, sensitivity and selectivity
7.4.10 Nature conservation
181
181
182
183
184
185
187
188
188
188
189
7.5
190
7.6
Case studies
7.6.1 An urban road the A316 in West London
7.6.2 A rural road the A30 Okehampton Bypass, Devon
7.6.3 A suburban road the A6141 in Letchworth Garden City, Hertfordshire
7.6.4 Lighting A160/A180 Upgrade
191
191
191
192
194
7.7
Principal recommendations
7.7.1 Preventative measures
7.7.2 Palliative measures
194
194
195
References
195
8. T HE M ANAGEMENT
OF
E COLOGY
AND
B IODIVERSITY
197
8.1
Introduction
197
8.2
197
8.3
197
8.4
Highway management and nature conservation
8.4.1 Conflict between highway safety and nature conservation
8.4.2 Conflict between nature conservation and uses of the verge
8.4.3 Responsibility for environmentally led highway management
8.4.4 Costs of highway maintenance
8.4.5 Conflicting needs of different species
8.4.6 Lack of research
8.4.7 Possible conflict with visual and landscape aspirations
199
199
199
199
200
200
200
200
8.5
Issues
8.5.1 Frequency and timing of cutting
8.5.2 Use of chemicals
8.5.3 Deicing compounds and other pollutants
8.5.4 Erosion and disturbance
8.5.5 Economic and practical considerations
8.5.6 Communication
8.5.7 Other, nonhighway factors
201
201
202
202
204
204
205
205
8.6
Legislation and responsibilities
8.6.1 Statutory designations
8.6.2 Nonstatutory designations
8.6.3 Protected species
8.6.4 Role of English Nature
8.6.5 Role of local authorities
8.6.6 Role of county wildlife trusts and other naturalists
8.6.7 Role of landowners
206
206
206
206
207
207
207
207
8.7
Guidance on best practice
8.7.1 Assessment of roadside areas
8.7.2 Cutting regimes
8.7.3 Use of chemicals
8.7.4 Erosion and disturbance
8.7.5 Tree planting and seeding
8.7.6 Definition of special verges
8.7.7 New roads/roadside areas
208
208
208
211
211
211
211
211
8.8
Case studies
8.8.1 Striped Lychnic moth in Buckinghamshire
8.8.2 Roadside reserves and nature wardens: Kent
8.8.3 Special verges in Essex
212
212
213
215
8.9
216
8.10
Principal recommendations
216
References
217
9. M ANAGEMENT
H IGHWAYS
WITHIN THE
B UILT H ERITAGE
219
Introduction
219
9.2
219
9.3
Groups of buildings
9.3.1 Settings of groups of buildings
220
220
9.4
220
9.5
221
9.6
222
9.7
223
9.8
Why does heritage matter?
9.8.1 Cultural base of the community, national and local
9.8.2 Economic wellbeing
9.8.3 Contribution to regeneration
223
223
224
224
9.9
224
9.10
225
226
226
227
228
229
229
230
231
232
232
232
233
233
234
235
235
236
9.15
Repairs
237
9.16
237
9.17
Principle recommendations
238
References
I NDEX
10
OF
9.1
238
243
11
The Guidelines build on other advice that has been primarily intended for the construction of
new roads. It is recognised that there has been a major change in policy toward the transport
sector, the evolution of which is traced in Chapter Two. In very general terms the predict and
provide transport policies of previous generations have been replaced by an emphasis on
making the best use of what we have. In environmental terms, this means achieving best
practice in the maintenance, management and enhancement of the existing highway
environment: it is precisely here that these Guidelines are aimed.
It is important, however, that these Guidelines are not ignored for new highway provision where
appropriate. Pressure on scarce land resources in the UK means that a very substantial
proportion of new housing development will be on brownfield sites. Inevitably, this requires
that the associated new highway development (which includes, footways, cycle tracks and
reserved corridors for public service transport) integrate with existing provision.
distinction is made between different types of landscape: day and nighttime landscapes; urban
landscapes; suburban landscapes and rural landscapes. Chapter eight is concerned with the
ecological management of the roadside estate, and finally Chapter nine with the management
of highways within the built heritage.
The emphasis in these Guidelines is on planning, management, layout and engineering. Making
the very best use of our existing road network by knowing what to do and when and how to do it.
References
DETR, 1998a
DETR, 1998b
13
14
2.2.1 New Realism, The Great Transport Debate and towards a Fifth Age of
transport policy
In the late 1980s, the broad thrust of transport policy began to turn. Arguably, the defining
moment was the publication of the 1989 National Road Traffic Forecast, (NRTF Department of
Transport, 1989) which predicted, in rough terms, a doubling of road traffic between 1988 and
2025. It was the unsustainability of these forecasts that led to the Trunk Roads Review. Adams
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
15
(1993) calculated that simply providing one additional parking space for each of the 27 million
extra vehicles predicted to join the countrys motor vehicle population would require the
equivalent of a new motorway from London to Edinburgh 257 lanes wide. It is also worth noting
that the forecasts themselves have been revised. The 1997 NRTF projected traffic growth of
almost half that forecast in 1989, for example growth of between 43% and 82% between 1989
and 2026 compared to earlier forecasts of growth of between 83% and 142% between 1988 and
2025 (DETR, 1998a). More recent work by consultants WS Atkins and the DETR has revised the
forecasts back up. For example, the central forecast is now that road traffic will increase by 35%
between 1996 and 2010 compared to a 1997 NRTF forecast of a 28% increase from 1996 to
2011 (CfIT, 1999).
In an influential report (Goodwin et al , 1991), it was argued that there were two main policy
choices in transport planning. Either accept that the increase in car use is inevitable and try and
provide the necessary infrastructure (predict and provide) or control car use in order to keep it
in bounds defined by broader social objectives. Goodwin et al believed that the former policy
had led to unacceptable levels of congestion, accidents, local and global pollution and social
exclusion. They argued that there was a consensus emerging in favour of the second policy
choice that they referred to as the New Realism which supported:
a substantial improvement in the quality and scale of public transport;
increased traffic calming and pedestrianisation;
the use of advanced traffic management systems to increase the operational efficiency of
transport networks;
the adoption of a road pricing system that reflects congestion and other externalities, and
the construction of new roads only where it is desirable to meet demand.
This report was important for at least two reasons. First, New Realism revived interest in the
environmental capacity of roads examined by Buchanan et al (1963) and in road pricing which
had been expounded in the early 1960s by the Smeed Report (Ministry of Transport, 1964).
Secondly, it stimulated the Great Transport Debate that took place in 1995 initiated by the then
Secretary of State for Transport, Brian Mawhinney. This debate focused on three questions that
are worth reiterating because they highlight the potentially contradictory objectives of transport
policy. The questions were:
is the present balance right between economic growth, protection of the environment and
support for personal choice?
if the balance needs to be shifted (for example towards greater environmental protection
or towards enhancing competitiveness by reducing road congestion), what measures
need to be taken and how will they achieve their stated objectives?
are we prepared to accept the wider consequences (for the environment, for personal
choices, for industrial competitiveness, jobs and the economy as a whole) of any such
measures?
The Great Debate culminated in the publication in 1996 of a Green Paper (Department of
Transport, 1996), which accepted that there was a need to pay increased attention to the
environmental impact of transport policy and reduce dependence on the car. Ways of achieving
this would include marketoriented measures, so that transport prices were more aligned with
social costs. Planning oriented measures would also be adopted, including a presumption
against planning permission for outoftown retailing (Planning Policy Guidance Note 6
Department of the Environment, 1996), and a switch in emphasis in investment from roads to
public transport.
The work of two other national bodies in influencing policy change should also be highlighted.
The first was the Standing Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment (SACTRA) which
16
originated from the Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment (ACTRA) which produced
the Leitch Report (ACTRA, 1977). The Leitch Report had examined the use of the COBA (Cost
Benefit Analysis) program in road appraisal and identified a major weakness in the assessment
of environmental procedures. Partially as a result, the Department of Transport produced the
Manual of Environmental Assessment (MEA) (1983) to supplement the conventional economic
appraisal. The MEA was substantially revised in 1988 and reformulated to become Volume II of
the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB) in 1993 (Department of Transport, 1993).
Two important reports were produced in the 1990s. The first (SACTRA, 1992) recommended that
the assessment of environmental impacts should take place within a costbenefit analysis
framework thus bringing the economic and environmental appraisals together. The second
(SACTRA, 1994) highlighted the need to take into account the fact that roads generate traffic
and move away from the assumption of a fixed trip matrix which had been standard practice
since the 1960s. The implementation of these two reports might be expected, in totality, to
weaken the case for the construction of new roads.
The second body was the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP), whose
eighteenth and twentieth reports considered transport and the environment (RCEP, 1994, 1997).
The eighteenth report identified eight clear objectives of a sustainable transport policy, along
with 110 detailed recommendations. The objectives were:
to ensure that an effective transport policy at all levels of government is integrated with
land use policy and gives priority to minimising the needs for transport and increasing
the proportion of trips made by environmentally less damaging modes;
to achieve standards of air quality that will prevent damage to human health and the
environment, including full compliance by 2005 with World Health Organisation air
quality guidelines for transport related pollutants;
to improve the quality of life, particularly in towns and cities, by reducing the dominance
of cars and lorries and providing alternative means of access. For example, it was
recommended that the proportion of urban journeys in London undertaken by car should
reduce from 50% to 35% by 2020. In other urban areas, a target of a reduction of the
cars share of journeys from 65% to 50% by 2020 was proposed;
to increase the proportions of personal travel and freight transport by environmentally
less damaging modes and to make the best use of existing infrastructure. For example
the proportion of passengerkilometres carried by public transport should be increased
from 12% in 1993 to 30% by 2020 and the proportion of freight tonnekilometres carried
by rail should increase from 6.5% in 1993 to 20% by 2010;
to halt any loss of land to transport infrastructure in areas of conservation, cultural,
scenic or amenity value unless the land for that purpose has been shown to be the best
practicable environmental option;
to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from transport so that emissions in 2020 are no more
than 80% of the 1990 level;
to reduce substantially the demands which transport infrastructure and the vehicle
industry place on nonrenewable materials. For example, the weight of scrapped
vehicles which is recycled should be increased from 77% to 95% by 2015, whilst the
proportion of recycled material used in road construction should be quadrupled by 2015,
and
to reduce noise nuisance from transport to not more than 65 dB L Aeq.16h at the external
walls of housing for daytime exposure and 59 dB L Aeq.8h for nighttime exposure.
The twentieth report reviewed progress and concluded that recent action has been too little
and too slow to provide a substantial shift in transport trends (page 12). It was concluded that
fuel price increases and improvements in vehicle technology so far planned would not in
themselves bring about the requisite improvements in air quality or reductions in emissions of
greenhouse gases. Needs were identified for rapid innovation in vehicle technology, better
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
17
integration of public transport systems, better integration of transport and land use planning,
better traffic management policies (including greater use of economic instruments) and policies
to encourage modal shift.
social provisions. Of particular importance to this chapter are the attempts to harmonise vehicle
emission standards, which are discussed below. Another example is the Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control Directive (61/96) which came into effect in October 1999.
19
3. Better policy at the regional level , with many decisions on transport issues devolved to the
Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland and Wales Assemblies. Strengthened planning
arrangements in the English regions will secure integration between transport and land use,
whilst the Mayor for London will be required to produce an integrated transport strategy.
4. Better policy at the local level , including new five year Local Transport Plans, new local
powers including road user charging and levies on parking, new sources of additional funding
for local transport and decision making on transport to be more accountable to local people.
5. Better buses , including upgraded quality partnerships and exclusive quality contracts, a
nationwide half price concessionary fare scheme for the elderly and special funding for buses
in the countryside.
6. Better trains , through the creation of a Strategic Rail Authority (SRA), passenger dividends
from passenger railway companies and tougher regulation.
7. A better environment , through greener, more fuelefficient vehicles promoted by better
standards, tax incentives and a cleaner vehicle task force; new powers to enforce noise controls
at airports; the promotion of traffic management, traffic calming and traffic reduction (an
aspiration to reduce traffic by ten percent is hinted at) and through making cycling and walking
easier and safer.
8. Better safety and security , through a root and branch review of transport safety; a new road
safety strategy and targets to reduce accidents; safe routes to school; a major review of speed
policy; safer public transport; changes in drivers hour legislation; a review of the role of the
British Transport Police and implementation of a secure stations scheme.
9. Better freight transport , through quality partnerships between local authorities and operators
on lorry routing and delivery hours; greater use of 41 tonne, six axle lorries; improvements in
best practice; impounding illegally operated lorries; facilitating shipping; extending freight
grants to include coastal and short sea shipping and promoting rail freight through the Strategic
Rail Authority.
10. A new deal for motorists , including improved management of the trunk road system through
Regional Traffic Control Centres; investment focused on improving reliability of journeys; better
maintained roads; an updated Highways Agency Road Users Charter; more help for motorists if
they break down on the motorway; a reduction in the disruption caused by utilities street work;
improved road safety and safer cars; quality information for the driver; dealing with car crime;
more secure car parks; better information and protection when buying a car; action on
cowboy wheel clampers; more fuelefficient cars and less congestion on the roads and less
pollution in cars.
11. A new deal for the public transport passenger through more and better buses and trains; staff
trained in customer care; a stronger voice for the passenger; better information including a
national public transport information system by 2000; better interchanges and connections;
enhanced networks with simplified fares and better marketing; more throughticketing and
travelcards; more reliable buses through priority measures and reduced congestion and easy
access to public transport.
12. Everyone doing their bit , including: Government departments taking the lead in introducing
green transport plans; local authorities, businesses, community organisations, schools and
hospitals encouraged to produce their own green transport plans; a major national awareness
campaign; a new initiative on school journeys and individuals/families/communities
considering their own travel habits.
20
Overall, the White Paper hopes that the new deal for transport will lead to more choice, a more
inclusive society, better places to live, a more sustainable economy and greater sharing of
decisions. The response to the White Paper was generally positive. For example, a straw poll of
17 experts in Local Transport Today (1998) found only one dissenting voice. However, there are
also some important concerns. Mackie (1998) raises four areas of concern. The first is that there
is some vagueness about the nature of the problem and hence about policy objectives. The
emphasis is on congestion and environmental externalities of transport but there is a danger of
swinging from one polar position that traffic growth is unequivocally good, a symbol of the
great car economy to the other in which traffic growth is unequivocally bad and must be
reined back always and everywhere. A moderated view might be that although total traffic
growth may be seen as undesirable, local growth might be more or less desirable within an
overall national limit. Secondly, there are some concerns about the strategic direction of policy,
with an overemphasis on pricing mechanisms and an underemphasis on capacity
enhancement, particularly for the inter urban roads network, for example the speed
management exercises on the M25. Thirdly, there are concerns about the potential of public
transport as an instrument for coping with traffic growth. Little attention has been paid to the
fact that the crosselasticity of car demand with respect to public transport attributes is, on
average, very low. The fourth issue is the need for action. Concerns include the lack of a firm
legislative programme, the lack of measurable targets, the lack of the necessary finance to make
change happen, the passing of responsibilities for difficult problems down to local authorities
and the danger that the new QUANGOs (such as SRA and CfIT) will slow down not speed up
policy implementation. These concerns have been partially addressed by the publication in
November 1999 of a 231 clause, 258 page Transport Bill, with the most important provision
being the granting of powers to local authorities to introduce road user charging and workplace
parking levies. Full details of Bills before parliament may be found at www.parliament.uk
21
Criteria
SubCriteria
Environmental Impact*
Noise
Local Air Quality
Landscape
Biodiversity
Heritage
Water
Safety
not subdivided
Economy
.
Accessibility
Integration
not subdivided
Table 2.1: Criteria and SubCriteria used in the New Approach to Appraisal.
for landscape , the approach involves a description of the character of the landscape and an
evaluation of what matters in the landscape and why. The latter is achieved by developing
a matrix of features against indicators (referred to as Worksheet 6.2). Features considered
are: pattern, tranquillity, culture, landcover and summary of character. Indicators include:
description, scale, rarity, importance and substitutability, impact and additional mitigation.
Impact is measured on an eightpoint scale, based on a sevenpoint scale devised by the
Countryside Commission but including a category for a very large adverse effect. The
impact of the scheme in Table 2.2 is judged to be slightly adverse.
for biodiversity , the approach involves a description of the nature conservation
evaluation of the habitats, species and natural features affected and an assessment of the
ecological features. A list of attributes should be considered (referred to as Worksheet
6.3) including site, scale, importance, rarity, substitution possibilities, nature
conservation evaluation and impact. Using a methodology derived from English Nature,
nature conservation evaluation is based on a fivefold classification illustrated by Table
2.3. Impacts are again measured on an eight point semantic scale. Nature conservation
evaluation and impact are combined to produce an assessment score as shown by Table
2.4. The scheme in Table 2.2 is judged to be slightly adverse.
Heritage is also assessed using a matrix, referred to as Worksheet 6.4. The rows are the
definition of features in terms of form, survival, condition, complexity, context and
period. The columns involve description, scale, significance, rarity and impact. Using
advice from English Heritage, an overall assessment score may be developed based on
the guidance matrix illustrated by Table 2.5. The scheme in Table 2.2 is judged to be
neutral.
22
23
Local air
quality
Landscape
Biodiversity
Heritage
Water
CO 2 tonnes added
20005000
COBA
I NTEGRATION
A CCESSIBILITY
E CONOMY
Severance
Public transport
Serves West and South Yorkshire Assisted Area and Yorkshire and
Humberside ERDF Objective 2 areas
Reliability
Regeneration
Cost
Journey times
& VOCs
S AFETY
Noise
Qualitative Impacts
SubCriteria
E NVIRONMENTAL
I MPACT
interpeak
1.4 mins
BCR 3.7
Neutral
Neutral
Large
+ve
Neutral
Yes
Large
Low rel to PVC
PVC 91m
PVB 300m
330% of PVC
PVB 39m
43% of PVC
Neutral
Neutral
Slight ve
Slight ve
236 PM 10 *
994 NO 2 *
net 670
properties
win with
scheme*
Assessment
NPV 245m
Route stress
before 142% after 53%
peak
3.1 mins
No. properties
experiencing (w/s):
Increase in noise 10
Decrease in noise 680
Quantitative Measure
72,000 vpd (27% HGV). Poor safety due to poor alignment and accesses/minor junctions on existing D2AP. Lengthy delays especially during maintenance. Community
severance in Ferrybridge and Fairburn where properties affected by high noise levels and air pollution.
A1 in this area caters mainly for long distance traffic, including many HGVs. Public transport solutions would not cater for sufficient traffic to relieve problem. Online
widening would require substantial demolition of properties.
Criteria
OTHER OPTIONS
PROBLEMS
Category A
Ramsar Sites (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat, 1971)
World Heritage Sites (Convention for the Protection of World Cultural & Natural Heritage, 1972)
Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO Man & The Biosphere Programme)
European Sites (EC Habitats Directive 1992 & UK Habitats Regulations 1994):
Special Areas of Conservation (SACs)
Special Protection Areas (SPAs)
Sites of Community Importance (SCIs)
Candidate SACs and potential SPAs
Sites hosting habitats/species of European Community interest (Annex 1 and 2 of Habitats
Directives)
Sites hosting species listed under the Bonn Convention (Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals)
Sites hosting species under the Berne Convention (Annex 1 and 2 of the Convention on the
Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 1979)
Biogenetic Reserves under the Council of Europe
European Diploma Sites under the Council of Europe
Category B
Sites of Special Scientific Interest and National Nature Reserves (Wildlife & Countryside Act
1981 as amended and National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1959)
Sites with Limestone Pavement Orders (Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981)
Nature Conservation Review Sites (NCR)
Geological Conservation Review Sites
Marine Nature Reserves (Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981)
Areas of Special Protection for Birds (Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981)
Sites hosting Red Data Book species
Sites hosting species in Schedules 1, 5 and 8 of the Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981.
Category C
Local Nature Reserves (National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949)
Other sites (not described above) with Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) priority habitats/species
Sites of Importance to Nature Conservation (SINCs) and other local designations
Regionally Important Geological Sites (RIGS)
Other natural/seminatural sites of significant biodiversity importance, not referred to above.
Category D
Sites not in the above categories, but with some biodiversity or earth heritage interest.
Category E
Sites with little or no biodiversity or earth heritage interest.
Note: Sites falling into more than one category should be classified into the most important
category.
Source: DETR, 1998e
Water Quality and Land Drainage/Flood Defence are assessed using a riskbased
approach to determine potential negative impacts, based on guidance provided by the
Environment Agency. Seven indicators are examined: General Quality Assessment (GQA)
grade (Chemical), EC Freshwater Fisheries Directive, water abstraction points,
groundwater vulnerability, location of boreholes, floodplain, watercourses, river
corridors and flood risk. These indicators are assessed in terms of sensitivity and the
potential of the proposal to cause harm, using a threepoint scale (high, medium and
low). These assessments are converted into an overall score using the information given
by Table 2.6. The approach is modified to take into account the scope for mitigation and
enhancement. The scheme in Table 2.2 is judged to be neutral.
Nature conservation
Evaluation
Impact
Assessment score
(1)
(2)
(3)
Category A
Category A
Category A
+ Major negative
+ Intermediate negative
+ Minor negative
(4)
(5)
(6)
Category B
Category B
Category B
+ Major negative
+ Intermediate negative
+ Minor negative
(7)
Category C
+ Major negative
(8)
(9)
Category C
Category C
+ Intermediate negative
+ Minor negative
= Large or Moderate
adverse (see note F)
= Moderate adverse
= Slight adverse
(10) Category D
= Slight adverse
(11) Category E
= Neutral
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
+
+
+
+
=
=
=
=
All
All
All
All
categories
categories
categories
categories
Neutral
Minor positive
Intermediate positive
Major positive
Neutral
Slight positive
Moderate positive
Large positive
Notes:
(A) Options that have a very large adverse effect are likely to be unacceptable on nature conservation
grounds alone (even with compensation proposals).
(B) There should be a strong presumption against options in the "large adverse" category, with more than
1:1 compensation (net gain within the Natural Area) for the very occasional cases where development
is allowed as a last resort.
(C) Options in the moderate adverse category should include at least 1:1 compensation (no net loss
within the Natural Area) if the development is allowed.
(D) See Annex 6A for the definition of nature conservation evaluation categories.
(E) See the main text for definition of impact.
(F) Circumstance (7) above should score large adverse if the habitats/species are not substitutable, or
otherwise should score moderate adverse.
Source: DETR, 1998e
Table 2.4: Decision Rules to Assist the Assessment of Options on Nature Conservation.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
25
E FFECT
P HYSICAL
I NTERNATIONAL
Very Large
Large
Very Large
Large
Very Large
Very Large
M AJOR
PARTIAL
M AJOR
S LIGHT
M AJOR
S LIGHT
V ISUAL
S ETTING
C UMULATIVE
N ATIONAL
Large
Large
Large
Large
Very Large
Large
R EGIONAL
Moderate/Large
Slight
Large
Slight
Large
Large
Sensitivity of
the Environment
High
Medium
Low
Key:
3*
3
2
1
0
2
1
0
Low
2
2
1
Medium
Potential to Cause Harm
3*
3
2
2
High
Table 2.6: Determinants of an Assessment Score for Water Quality and Land Drainage/Flood
Defence.
26
More detailed advice on the application of the NATA to 17 of the 44 deferred schemes in which
multimodal solutions might be feasible has also been produced and is referred to as the
Guidance On Methodology for Multimodal Studies (GOMMS MVA et al , 1999). Particular
advice is given on public consultation, the generation of options, the formulation of strategies
and plans, objective setting and problem identification, effectiveness of policy instruments,
modelling and appraisal.
The advantages of the NATA include its attempt to bring together quantitative and qualitative
indicators together in one summary table. It is perhaps too succinct in this. It is also relatively
transparent as an appraisal process, although the policy prescriptions that have emerged in the
Roads Review are less transparent. According to Glaister (1999) it goes as far towards
multicriteria analysis as is sensible. However, despite warnings from the DETR, there may be
near irresistible temptations to bring together individual scores to form an aggregate overall
score, which would erroneously assume ordinal measures are cardinal. Dangers of double
counting would also seem to have increased.
The other five roadsrelated daughter documents may be discussed in slightly less detail. The
bus policy document, From Workhorse to Thoroughbred (DETR, 1999a) proposes to increase the
role played by the bus in transport policy and promote a shift in the planning and allocation of
road space from the car to the bus.
The daughter document on road user and workplace parking charging policy, Breaking the
Logjam (DETR, 1998f) is essentially a consultation document. It poses a number of
implementation questions concerning the proposals to grant local authorities powers to charge
for the use of congested roads and raise a workplace parking levy. There are also proposals for
charging on motorways and trunk roads. In conjunction with this consultation, trials of
electronic road pricing have been proposed in Edinburgh and Leeds. The Mayor of London and
the London boroughs have been given charging powers in the Greater London Authority Act
(1999). Details of this Act and all other Acts passed since 1995 may be found on
www.hmso.gov.uk
The daughter document on freight policy, Sustainable Distribution: A Strategy, sets out a series of
policies to promote the sustainable transport of goods (DETR, 1999b). This also involves integration
within the freight sector and with planning and road policies, the integration of distribution
infrastructure, and the promotion of rail freight, coastal shipping and inland waterways. One of the
important outstanding issues surrounds the case for the 44 tonne, six axle lorry, following the
authorisation for 40 tonne, five axle and 41 tonne, six axle lorries in January 1999.
Road safety policy has also been reviewed. New targets for casualty reduction have been set
(DETR, 2000a) to cover the next decade. Furthermore, greater emphasis is being given to speed
reduction (DETR, 2000b). Both documents will have implications for the highway environment
as local authorities aim to achieve slower vehicle speeds.
Local authorities are required to produce Local Transport Plans (LTPs) (DETR, 2000c and 2000d)
covering the fiveyear period 200102 to 20056 both to provide a strategy and to bid for funds
from central government. Funding will be awarded for the first year only with an Annual
Performance Review to determine funding subsequent funding levels. Key elements with respect
to the environment include the need to coordinate with any air quality action plan; action on
noise and action on climate change; the need to recognise the particular needs and special
character of the countryside and the promotion of measures to encourage voluntary adoption of
green transport plans. Appraisal is to be based on the guidance of the new approach to appraisal
(GNATA), discussed above, and on the appraisal summary tables exemplified by Table 2.2.
Table 2.7 shows the recommended approach to LTP appraisals. It is apparent that LTPs will be
the important delivery mechanism for the White Papers transport policies.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
27
Appraisals
LTP with no
major scheme
Simplified
AST for
additional
alternative
strategies
tested
Standard
Benzene
Objective
Sites at which standard was exceeded in 1995
5 ppb as running annual achieve standard by 2005 none, but likely to be exceeded at the side of
mean (EPAQS)
heavily trafficked urban roads
carbon
monoxide
10 ppm as running
8hour mean (EPAQS)
lead
nitrogen
dioxide
ozone
50 ppb as running
8hour mean (EPAQS)
fine particles
(PM 10 )
50 (g/m3 as running
24hour mean (EPAQS)
sulphur
dioxide
Table 2.8: National Air Quality Strategy: standards, objectives, reported exceedances in 1995.
29
regional, strategic and local levels to promote more sustainable transport choices and reduce
the need to travel, especially by car. Specific advice includes:
focus on the major generators of travel demand in city, town and district centres and near
to major public transport interchanges;
locate local facilities in local centres which are accessible by walking and cycling;
accommodate housing principally within existing urban areas, with increased densities
for both housing and other uses at locations which are highly accessible by public
transport, walking and cycling;
in rural areas, locate development for housing, jobs, shopping, leisure and services in
local service centres;
use parking policies to reduce reliance on the car for work and other journeys;
give priority to people over traffic in town centres, other areas with a mixture of land uses
and local neighbourhoods and give more road space to pedestrians, cyclists and public
transport in these locations;
ensure that the needs of disabled people are taken into account, and
protect sites and routes which could be critical in developing infrastructure to widen
transport choices.
30
As far as the highways sector is concerned a number of substantial targeted improvements are
outlined. These include:
bottlenecks eased by targeted widening of 360 miles of the strategic road network;
80 major trunk road schemes to improve safety and traffic flow at junctions;
100 new bypasses on trunk and local roads to reduce congestion and pollution in
communities;
130 other major local road improvement schemes;
completion of the 40 road schemes in the Highways Agency Targeted Programme of
Improvements;
60% of the trunk road network given lowernoise surfaces;
elimination of the maintenance backlog for local roads, bridges and lighting as part of a
30bn programme;
HGV lanes on congested strategic routes to provide priority for lorries and safer lanes for
cars;
smarter management of the trunk road network, giving drivers better information on
traffic conditions;
40% reduction in the number of people killed or seriously injured in road accidents, and
accelerated takeup of cleaner vehicles to reduce air pollution and CO 2 emissions.
2.6 Conclusions
2.6.1 The increasing influence of environmental issues
This review of transport policy in the UK has indicated that although there was some concern
for environmental impacts in the previous four ages of domestic transport policy, environmental
effects have probably only been given adequate weight in the last decade as the fifth age of
transport policy has emerged. Similar changes have occurred in other sectors of economic
activity, with the publication of This Common Inheritance being a key turning point
(Department of the Environment, 1990).
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
31
Accidents
Noise
Air Pollution
Climate change
Total
Mauch and
Rothengatter
0.58
0.08
0.17
0.03
0.86
1.84
0.28
0.70
0.46
3.28
1.33
0.39
0.43
2.18
Note: Mauch and Rothengatters results have been converted from ECUs to pounds using an
exchange rate of 1.4284 ( Source: Economic Trends Annual Supplement, 1994 Edition. HMSO London. Table 51).
Source: Peirson, Skinner and Vickerman (1994); Mauch and Rothengatter (1995) Quoted by Nash (1997)
environmental scientists would argue for a standards based approach. Current UK and European
policy appears to involve a mixture of the two measures. However, the important litmus test,
particularly in the UK, will be the extent to which road user charging is adopted. In any event,
particularly outside congested urban areas, it seems likely that there will be continued reliance
on standards based approaches which in turn has important implications for the design,
management and maintenance of transport infrastructure. To use the phraseology of Hyder
Consulting (1999), a considerable amount of work is required if we are to convert old roads into
green roads.
GB billion a year in 1994 prices
RCEP (1994)
Newbery
Maddison
and Pearce
Air pollution
Climate change
Noise and vibration
2.05.2
1.53.1
1.04.6
2.87.4
0.4
0.6
19.7
0.1
2.63.1
4.612.9
3.88.4
22.422.9
Road accidents
5.4
4.57.5
2.99.4
10.018.3
8.315.9
25.332.3
Congestion costs 1
not included
19.1
19.1
10.018.3
27.435.0
44.451.4
1. The costs of delays to road users and operators and increased running costs at slow speeds
in congested conditions.
2. Not including the costs of damage by vehicles to roads, which both Newbery and Maddison
and Pearce included in the total; the Eighteenth Report showed separately the costs of
providing, maintaining and operating roads.
Source: RCEP, 1997.
33
References
ACTRA, 1977
Adams J, 1993
Buchanan C et al , 1963
Button KJ, and
Gillingwater D, 1986
Cm2426, 1994
Department of Environment,
1990
Department of the Environment, T own Centres and Retail Developments. HMSO, London.
1996
34
Department of Environment,
1997
DETR, 1998a
DETR, 1998b
DETR, 1998c
DETR, 1998d
DETR, 1998e
DETR, 1998f
DETR, 1999a
DETR, 1999b
DETR, 1999c
DETR, 1999d
DETR, 1999e
DETR, 2000a
DETR, 2000b
DETR, 2000c
DETR, 2000d
DETR, 2000e
Glaister S, Burnham J,
Stevens H and Travers T,
1998
Glaister S, 1999
35
36
Hyder Consulting in
association with the British
Road Federation, 1999
Mackie P, 1998
Maddison D, Pearce D,
Johansson O, Calthrop E,
Litman T and Verhoef E
1996
Mauch SP and
Rothengatter SW, 1995
Nash C, 1997
Porter MC and
Linde van der C, 1995
Preston J, 1999
Price A, 1999
RCEP, 1994
RCEP, 1997
SACTRA, 1992
SACTRA, 1994
UK Round Table on
Sustainable Development,
1996
UNCED, 1992
37
38
39
Item
Aggregate
Extraction
Activity
Structural maintenance
materials require aggregate
that is generally quarried
locally. This is a non
renewable resource.
Effect
Adverse
Impact
Moderate
Comments
Recycling of old pavement layers is already
permitted under the specification. This is at the
contractors option but is not frequently used.
Central government may in future decide to
introduce an aggregate extraction tax and that
would encourage more recycling. If not, a more
proactive approach to increasing the amount
of recycling should be considered
The proposed NI Waste Management Strategy
includes mandatory targets for increased
recycling and reduced waste. This will be an
additional driver for recycled pavement
materials.
Adverse
Small
The only alternative to bituminous mixtures is a
(in terms of total
concrete pavement. While this would be
use of oil products) suitable for major reconstruction schemes
experience tends to favour flexible bituminous
materials.
There may be a small advantage in using
asphalt rather than bituminous macadam.
Asphalt has a higher bitumen content, lasts
longer and does not require bitumen-based
surface dressing every seven years. The
mitigating effect would be marginal.
Energy
Adverse
Noise
Positive
More frequent resurfacing
produces smoother surfaces
and means fewer potholes and
uneven reinstatements; this
results in less noise and
vibration.
Small
(in terms of total
energy use)
Moderate
Ride Quality
Positive
Small
Safety
Positive
High
41
The UK Environment Agencys (UKEA) enforcement and prosecution policy (UKEA, 1998), sets
out the principles to be followed across all areas regulated by the Agency. It lists the
circumstances in which the Agency will normally expect to prosecute. These include;
incidents or breaches of the law which have or could have significant consequences for
the environment;
carrying out operations without a relevant licence;
excessive or persistent breaches of regulatory requirements;
failure to comply or to comply adequately with formal remedial requirements, and
reckless disregard for management or quality standards.
It is the UKEAs usual practice to take action against an organisation where the offence results
from the organisations activities. However, their policy also recognises that poor environmental
practice is primarily a management responsibility. The UKEA acknowledges, therefore, that as
well as taking action against companies, it will also consider any part played by individual
officers of a company, including its directors, managers and the company secretary. It will take
action against them if the offence was committed with their consent, was due to their neglect
or turning a blind eye to what was happening.
Examples of penalties presently available (1999) to the courts for certain environmental offences
are:
Magistrates Courts; up to six months imprisonment and/or 20,000 fine.
Crown Court: up to five years imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine.
The cost of defending the prosecution, including legal defence teams, expert witnesses, staff
time and court costs will add considerably to the cost of noncompliance. The cost of
developing and implementing a clear and concise environmental management system that suits
the organisations management style is negligible by comparison.
English Nature and English Heritage (and their equivalent in Northern Ireland, Scotland and
Wales) will need to be consulted in relevant cases. Water authorities will need to be consulted
on relevant drainage matters.
The ethical argument for environmental management is presented in the UN Principles on
Environment and Development 1992 (Box 3.1).
The right to make use of the environment to the best advantage of all citizens comes with the
responsibility to ensure that the environment survives to benefit future generations the
principal of sustainable development.
Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are
entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
Principle 2.
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles
of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own environmental and
developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their
jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of
areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Principle 3.
Principle 4.
Principle 5.
All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty
as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the
disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the
people of the world.
Principle 6.
The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least
developed and those most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority.
International actions in the field of environment and development should also address
the interest and needs of all countries.
Principle 7.
States shall co-operate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore
the health and integrity of the Earths ecosystem. In view of the different contributions
to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated
responsibilities. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they
bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures
their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial
resources they command.
Principle 8.
To achieve sustainable development and a high quality of life for all people, States
should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption
and promote appropriate demographic policies.
Principle 9.
Principle 10.
Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens,
at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate
access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities,
including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and
the opportunity to participate in decisionmaking processes. States shall facilitate and
encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely
available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including
redress and remedy, shall be provided.
43
It is unlikely that any individual or organisation could claim to conduct its business without
harm or impact on the environment, therefore it is important that the situation is managed to
mitigate negative environmental impact. As the force behind environmental management within
a road authority the highway engineer must wear the consultants hat and market environmental
management as a product that the chief officer cannot be without.
Environmental issues are not new to senior management. Local Authorities are committed to the
fulfilment of Local Agenda 21 while sustainable transportation is high on the UK governments list
of priorities. Examples of performance indicators for current environmental initiatives may include:
A properly constructed EMS will clearly identify the level of management responsibility
necessary for the successful operation of the system. The architect of the system must endeavour
to integrate specific tasks closely with current management responsibilities. Involving those
who will operate the system in its development will increase the level of buyin when the
EMS is launched.
5. What are the training implications?
It will be essential to give staff an overview of the EMS and to promote ongoing commitment to
environmental management. The extent and method of delivery of this training will depend on
how the EMS has been developed. The EMS must also identify areas of specialist training and
EMS developers should be aware of the need to keep this to the optimum.
6. Is it acceptable to the public? (of particular relevance to local authorities)
Protecting the environment has become a mainstream issue for the public. Awareness of the
issues has increased greatly over recent years and with it the level of tolerance of pollution or
environmental damage has decreased. Whilst people might be united under the environmental
banner to oppose a particular project their reasons for doing so cannot be generalised. Some
protestors, opposing a road realignment, will be fighting to protect a rare species of flora or
fauna. Others will be concerned to protect an established way of life or the value of their
property. All concerns are legitimate, and rather than being confrontational, it will be better to
show commitment to protecting the environment through consultation and environmental
management, where necessary.
7. How does it fit with sustainable policy objectives?
Environmental legislation and government policy seeks to achieve sustainable development.
The UN Principles on Environment and Development speak of the right to develop and the
obligation to protect the environment for future generations. Business activities need to be
managed in a way that gives environmental concerns their proper place, alongside key
management issues. This will ensure the protection of the environment and the elimination,
reduction or control of the amount of environmental damage caused.
8. Where does it fit with best value principles?
Best value seeks to ensure that the views of an organisations stakeholders are considered as part
of the business planning process. Stakeholders, through the best value program, are likely to
identify some, if not many, environmental concerns that they expect to be resolved. In the
absence of a strategic approach to such demands organisations could find they are being pushed
from one high profile environmental issue to another (fad chasing). Using the EMS, particularly
environmental risk management, an organisation can demonstrate, to its stakeholders, that it is
tackling environmental issues in a structured and reasonable fashion. The best value program
permeates all of an organisations activities on a fiveyear cyclical basis. The EMS should be a
fundamental factor in any review of services undertaken by an organisation.
There will be other questions that arise as the process develops, however if the reasoning
expressed above is accepted there is every chance that the production of an EMS will proceed.
45
Air
Quality
Vehicle driving
Vehicle maintenance
Machinery operating
Cable laying
Drainage
Pavement repair
Hedge/ tree trimming
Weed control
Verge maintenance
Painting street
furniture
White lining
Transporting, using
and storing
substances
Winter service
Street lighting
Water
course
Landscape
Built
Environment
Ecology
Energy
Noise
Example only. There may be other activities to be added or other effects to be considered.
new way of thinking about the environment is compelling organisations to take stock of their
environmental performance, creating a desire to do the right thing, rather than to live with the
consequence of errors.
An EMS is the vehicle for delivering sound environmental practice but the design of the system
must be adapted to suit the needs of a particular industry or public sector activity. In this context
it must be remembered that highways maintenance engineers can only manage those aspects of
the environment over which they exert a controlling influence. Therefore, global issues such as
tropical deforestation and ozone depletion, important though they are, are not for discussion in
this chapter.
An EMS developed for a highway maintenance organisation will focus on issues such as
environmental noise, air quality, watercourse pollution, recycling, wildlife protection, energy
efficiency and protection of the natural and built heritage. Good environmental practice can
only be established by examining the:
risks;
root causes and effects;
controls, and
links between the various risks.
47
Effect
Current Position
Related legislation
Vehicle maintenance
Air quality
Refer to
environmental policy
Environmental Protection
Act 1990
Ecology
Refer to environmental
work practices manual
Energy
Noise
No action planned
When managing the environment, the engineer will be faced with many uncertainties about
which predictions have to be made. Actions taken to mitigate environmental impact in one
respect could have a counter effect on another. For example thin surfacings and stone mastic
asphalt have a positive benefit in areas where traffic noise is a significant problem but these
materials require more nonrenewable high PSV aggregates than hotrolled asphalt (Orr and
Crilly, 1998). Also actions taken to protect or enhance the environment for one species could
have a detrimental effect on another.
The key to success will be maintaining a balance between each of the influences, recognising
that at times different influences will have prominence. It is this balance or tradeoff that is
challenging and there will be times when the engineers will need specialist advice, particularly
when faced with critical environmental decisions. Although the highway engineer will have to
wrestle with these issues, many of them have been addressed already. Among other things the
environmental legislation deals with waste management, protection of species, habitats and
parts of the built environment.
Whatever method is chosen to pursue environmental management it must fit with the
organisational vision and integrate with national policy. The DETRs guidance on a New
Approach to Appraisal (NATA) is a case in point (see also section 2.4.2 and Tables 2.1 and 2.2
in Chapter Two). The approach includes the identification and assessment of problems and the
options for resolving them. The approach taken throughout the process is to work within the five
objectives of accessibility, safety, economy, environment and integration (Box 3.2).
48
49
Source of Pollution
Direct
or
Indirect
High or Low
significance
Controls
Effect
Cause
Environmental effect
High or Low
significance
Older roads have become an attractive and valued part of the natural environment the Antrim Coast Road,
Northern Ireland.
3.6.1 Choosing a standard
There was a time when the environmental practitioner had three standards to choose from;
British Standard BS 7750, Europes EcoManagement and Audit Scheme Regulation (EMAS) and
ISO 14000. While BS 7750 and EMAS are both process and performanceorientated, ISO 14000
standards are limited to processtype management standards. BS 7750, which had a
considerable influence on the development of ISO 14000 standards, is no longer applicable.
EMAS, designed to fulfil the regulatory objectives within the European Union, exceeds the scope
of the international ISO committee (TC207) tasked with drafting the ISO 14000 standards. The
debate on bringing EMAS and ISO 14000 into alignment has continued for some time with
50
ISO 14001
EMAS
Type of Standard
Voluntary
Voluntary, EU Regulation
Applicability
1. EU
2. Individual facilities and
industrial activities
Focus
Process orientated
Policy Commitment
1. Continuous
improvement of
environmental
performance, and
Audits
1. EMS, and
2. Monitoring and measuring key
environmental characteristics.
3. Frequency not specified
1. EMS.
2. Processes data, and
3. Environmental
performance
4. Every three years
Public communication
1. Environmental policy
1.
2.
3.
4.
2. Compliance with
applicable legislation
Environmental policy.
Programme
EMS
Environmental
statement
5. Annual performance
data
nonEuropeans arguing that ISO 14000 is intended to complement national regulatory regimes
not replace them. Many exponents of ISO 14000 view national regulation as unnecessary and
believe that EMAS, if implemented, could present a barrier to trade. This would be particularly
true for developing countries should international environmental performance standards be set
at unattainable levels.
EMAS applies to individual facilities or specific industrial activities whereas ISO 14000
standards are applicable to an organisations activities, products and services. Since the
introduction of either the ISO 14000 standards or EMAS is voluntary the practitioner, when
considering which path to follow, should consider carefully the consequences for their
organisation. The EMAS route is much more onerous (Table 3.2) in that its audits are more
widespread and there is a greater degree of public consultation required.
The solution is to use ISO 14000 standards as the initial basis for developing the organisation's
EMS. If the organisation desires it, or the EU demands it, then additional performanceorientated
standards can be added to the ISO 14000 standards to satisfy the EMAS criteria.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
51
The nature of highway maintenance means that engineers must interact with the environment.
Number
Title
ISO 14001:1996
ISO 14002
ISO 14004:1996
ISO 14010:1996
ISO 14011:1996
ISO 14012:1996
ISO
ISO
ISO
ISO
14014
14015
14020
14021
ISO 14022
ISO 14023
ISO 14024
ISO 14025
ISO
ISO
ISO
ISO
ISO
ISO
14031
14040
14041
14042
14043
14050
53
General Information
a Description of organisation
b Manual distribution arrangements
c Arrangements for control and revision of documents
Section 2
Policy
a Environmental policy statement
b Key groupings - policy makers (Boardroom), planners (senior/ middle managers) and
implementers (all staff)
c Key tasks and major outputs for each grouping
Section 3
Planning
a Environmental aspects of highway maintenance
b Register of relevant regulations
c Objectives and targets
Section 4
Implementation
a Dissemination of information
b Training arrangements
c Communication arrangements
d Specific environmental management procedures (see sample layout below)
e Emergency response arrangements
Section 5
Section 6
Management review
54
Planned
Not addressed
Sample
Current position
In business plan
Completed
Completed
In development
Under review
In development
With the Board
Later
3. Life cycle assessment (LCA). Used to evaluate the environmental impact of all aspects of a
product; its materials, method of manufacture, use, disposal and other applicable elements.
The most significant of the series is ISO 14001 entitled Environmental Management Systems
Specification with Guidance for Use (Box 3.4). Organisations that want their environmental
management system to be recognised, as conforming to an international standard, will be
assessed against this standard. The remainder of this chapter will concentrate on the
development of an EMS with reference to each of the other evaluation standards where they
have an effect.
Continual
Envir
Mana
gem
Revie ent
w
onme
Polic ntal
y
Plann
Chec
Corre king and
ctive
Actio
n
ing
Imple
ment
a
Oper tion and
ation
Box 3.4: Environmental management system model for the ISO 14001 International Standard.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
55
A team, with representation from managers and those who actually do the work on the ground,
should be convened to identify and assess issues, opportunities, and existing processes. It may
be appropriate to consider including contractors, suppliers, and other external parties in the
team, particularly in a partnering environment. This team will need to meet frequently,
especially in the early stages of the project. A crossfunctional team can help to ensure that
reasonable procedures are developed and engender commitment to the EMS.
Employees are a great source of knowledge on environmental and health & safety issues related
to their own work areas as well as on the effectiveness of current processes and procedures.
They can help the project team in drafting procedures. Employee ownership of the EMS will be
greatly enhanced by meaningful employee involvement in the EMS development process.
The next step is to conduct an initial review of the organisations current environmental
arrangements and compare these to the criteria for the EMS (ISO 14001). Evaluate the
organisations structure, its policies and procedures, training programs, and other factors to
determine which elements may need additional work. The review should identify opportunities,
such as waste minimisation, and help the organisation to set its environmental objectives. It
should also identify any ongoing work to lessen environmental impact, for example, standing
56
EMS make
system is
to allow modification over time. Try to avoid making the EMS so rigid that
frequently to reflect the realities of your activities.
The EMS can be implemented once the procedures and other documents have been prepared.
As a first step, provide the employees with training on the EMS, especially with regard to:
the environmental impacts of their activities;
any new or modified procedures; and
any new responsibilities.
After the EMS is operational, and following a sufficient bedding in period, the system
performance should be assessed. This can be accomplished through periodic EMS audits and
ongoing monitoring and measurement. EMS performance assessment gives an organisation the
opportunity to ascertain whether the EMS helps it to meet the required standards of
environmental performance, fulfil its legal obligations and achieve what it claims to be
achieving. It should also be looked upon as an opportunity to identify any weaknesses in the
system and to make any necessary improvements.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
57
Environmental Risk
Assessment
Environmental
Management Systems
(EMS)
58
proven otherwise. The time is right for the issues to be proactively managed within a structure
that can be independently verified. Risks need to be managed in health & safety, likewise there
are environmental risks that need to be addressed. Therefore it is possible to develop a model
for highways environmental management (Figure 3.4), similar to safety management, using a
three stage approach as follows:
Stage 1.
Stage 2.
Stage 3.
59
Box 3.5: Legislation relevant to the environmental management of highways (nonexhaustive list).
National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949
Fisheries Act (NI) 1966
Countryside (Scotland) Act 1967
Forestry Act 1967
Countryside Act 1968
Mines and Quarries (Tips Act) 1969
Town and Country Amenities Act 1974
Control of Pollution Act 1974
Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1975
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
Food and Environment Protection Act 1985
Control of Pollution (Amendment) Act 1989
Town and Country Planning Act 1990
Environmental Protection Act 1990
Water Industry Act 1991
Water Resources Act 1991
Protection of Badgers Act 1992
Clean Air Act 1993
Noise and Statutory Nuisances Act 1993
Radioactive Substances Act 1993
Clean Air Act (NI) 1994
Environment Act 1995
Finance Act 1996
Noise Act 1996
Water Resources (Succession to Licences) Regulations 1969
Control of Noise (Appeals) Regulations 1975
Clean Air (NI) Order 1981
Access to the Countryside (NI) Order 1983
Wildlife (1985 Order)(Commencement) Order (NI) 1985
Town and Country Planning General Development Order 1988
Trade Effluent (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1989
Control of Asbestos in the Air Regulations 1990
Control of Pollution (Silage, Slurry and Agricultural Fuel Oil) Regulations 1991
Controlled Waste (Registration of Carriers and Seizure of Vehicles) Regulations 1991
Disposal of Controlled Waste (Exceptions) Regulations 1991
Environmental Protection (Applications, Appeals and Registers) Regulations 1991
Environmental Protection (Authorisation of Processes)(Determination of Periods) Regulations 1991
Environmental Protection (Duty of Care) Regulations 1991
Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1991
Controlled Waste (Registration of Carriers and Seizure of Vehicles) Regulations 1991
Controlled Waste Regulations 1992
Environmental Information Regulations 1992
Town and Country Planning (General Permitted Development) (Scotland) Order 1992
Trade Effluent (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1992
Conservation (Natural Habitats etc.) Regulations 1994
Roads (Assessment of Environmental Effects) Regulations (NI) 1994
Transfrontier Shipment of Waste Regulations 1994
Waste Management Licensing Regulations 1994
Statutory Nuisance (Appeals) Regulations 1995
Wildlife (1995 Order) (Commencement) Order (NI) 1995
Carriage of Explosives by Road Regulations 1996
Control of Pollution (Applications, Appeals and Registers) Regulations 1996
Environmental Licences (Suspensions and Revocation) Regulations 1996
Environmental Protection (Controls on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer) Regulations 1996
Landfill Tax Regulations 1996
Landfill Tax (Qualifying Material) Order 1996
Special Waste Regulations 1996
Waste Management Regulations 1996
Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packing Waste) Regulations 1997
Town Country Planning (Assessment of Environmental Effects) Regulations 1998
Highways (Assessment of Environmental Effects) Regulations 1999
Control of Accident Major Hazards Regulations 1999
60
knowledge and engineering practices are in a state of continual development. For example,
providing bat roosts underneath highway structures may not be needed to mitigate
environmental impact but it will improve the environment and allow the organisation to
increase its environmental credit balance. A process for compliance improvement is
illustrated in Figure 3.5 (Crognale, 1999).
By using the above three questions an organisation can readily establish the current state of its
environmental control activities. An environmental risk analysis form has been developed to
assist highway engineers in this process (Figure 3.3). It contains a comprehensive, although not
exhaustive, list of environmental issues pertinent to the industry. It may be used as an aid when
undertaking environmental risk assessments.
Title.
Purpose: Background and objectives.
Scope: Activity, location or persons affected (including members of the public).
Definition: Any necessary technical jargon.
Procedures: Short, numbered, bullet points/ charts or graphs.
Responsibility: Which staff member or staff group has responsibility.
Documentation: Forms, control sheets, performance standards etc. that makes the system
auditable.
References: Related procedures, instructions and guidance.
A sample environmental management procedure is shown in Box 3.3.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
61
Review Environmental
Performance
Modify the
process
No
Do we
conform?
Yes
Could we
improve?
No
Yes
Develop an implementation
plan
Is the
costbenefit
acceptable?
No
Yes
Implement the
improvement
62
An essential management function is to ensure that responsibilities are being implemented. This
can be achieved through auditing the environmental management system. The opportunity can
be taken when auditing to examine:
the extent to which the environmental management system helps the organisation meet
the required standards of environmental performance;
the extent to which the organisation is fulfilling its legal obligations; and
the extent to which the organisation is achieving what it claims to be achieving.
The major outcomes from the environmental management system audits should be:
the identification of the strengths and weaknesses of the environmental management
system, and
any recommendations for improvements or future action.
63
64
References
Cascio J et al , 1996
DETR, 1998
Whitelaw K, 1997
65
66
67
Direct input
Deicing compounds
Domestic sources
including litter,
paint and plastics
Dustfall and
Rainfall
Vegetation debris
Atmospheric
movement via
wind
Atmospheric
losses through
splash and spray
Transport to road
gully pots and
storm sewer pipe
Surface washoff
Discharge to
surface and/or
groundwaters
Road surface
erosion
Removal by
road cleaning
Figure 4.1: Major sources and pathways of pollutants in the highway environment.
68
Vehicles
/day
(ADT)
<5000
kg/ha/year
Total
solids
5000
15000
2218
3640
479
7289
15000
50000
848
873
>50000
1930
10410
g/ha/year
COD
Pb
Zn
Cu
Cd
Oil
0.30
0.40
0.39
207
0.360.68
0.7
0.89
0.13
0.87
0.007
4.9
557
672
1.1
1.3
2.3
2.9
0.5
0.6
0.03
1.68
3.0
2.06
5.8
3.19
2743
69
Contaminant
Total
suspended
solids
1.111.8
(41)
11105
(261)
1105700
8156289
(17)
825
(24)
12.232.0
90172
77011610
1.327
(386)
1592174
Total Zn
(0.08)
0.021.9
(0.41)
0.173.55
1.919.0
0.0030.04
Total Pb
(0.07)
0.010.15
(0.96)
(342.41)
1.113.
00.0060.024
(0.04)
0.010.12)
(0.15)
0.050.69
0.43.7
0.0150.163
0.0143.3
0.0010.17
2.831.0
(28)
7.5400
BOD5
Chloride
Total Cu
Oil/Total
hydrocarbons
4.3.1 Solids
Solids collect on road surfaces and are held within the pores of the road surface structure but, in
particular, they collect adjacent to the kerbside. Their impact is both in terms of their physical
nature, particularly particle size and also in relation to the variety of chemical pollutants,
including metals and organic pollutants, which can be attached, with different affinities to the
surface of the particulate material. The particle size influences the efficiency of removal of road
sediments during cleaning processes (see Section 4.4.6) and the ease with which the particles are
removed in runoff as suspended solids during rainfall events. Typically wide gradations of solids
ranging in size from finer than 1m to larger than 10,000m are found in the runoff from paved
surfaces (Sansalone et al , 1998). The same study found that particles in the size range, 425m to
850m, presented the greatest total surface area for pollutant adsorption with associated
implications for pollutant treatment strategies. Highway derived solids which are washed into
receiving waters can exert detrimental ecological effects due to substrate smothering, reduction
of light penetration due to increased turbidity, and a lowering of the oxygenation potential. In
addition, any weakly adsorbed toxic pollutants may be released into the aqueous phase and
become more directly available for uptake by the existing flora and fauna.
70
4.3.2 Metals
The metals that have been most widely studied due to their occurrence in road dusts are
aluminium (Al), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), manganese
(Mn), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn). More recently interest has been raised with regard to those
metals which are used as catalysts in catalytic converters that is platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd)
and rhodium (Rh). The most commonly reported metals in street dusts are Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn for
which the following ranges of concentrations have been reported for all types of highway during
the past 25 years: nondetectable 11.4g/g, 25g/g 1700mg/g, 35mg/g10700g/g and
96g/g3173g/g, respectively.
The impact of metals in environmental samples is not only influenced by their overall
concentration but also by their distribution between different physicochemical forms. Metal
speciation results are particularly relevant for determining the origin, mode of occurrence,
physicochemical availability, mobilisation and transport of metals in the highway
environment. In addition, important information regarding the bioavailability and possible
potential toxicity of particulate associated metals, in a receiving water following washoff, can
be deduced. The relevant water quality standards with which aqueous metal concentrations
should be compared are discussed in Section 4.5.2.
Significant concentrations of metals especially Zn, Cu and Fe are mobilised during the initial
firstflush period of a storm event and elevated metal levels can occur also with snow
accumulation alongside highways (see Section 4.4.5). The dissolved metal fraction, which is
influenced by the acidity, total organic carbon content and hardness (expressed in terms of
CaCO 3 ) of highway runoff, exerts the greatest ecotoxicological impact on receiving waters.
However, a recent study relating to East Anglian rivers has found that the Zn, Pb and Cd
concentrations in sediments and selected invertebrates did not differ significantly between sites
upstream and downstream of road runoff discharges which was consistent with minimal
differences in ecological diversity (Perdikaki and Mason, 1999).
4.3.3 Hydrocarbons
The hydrocarbons found in the highway environment are normally those associated with the
petrochemical products used in road construction (for example, bitumen) and those more
volatile products used as fuels and engine additives. Because of their nonpolar characteristics
the different hydrocarbons become firmly attached to road sediments and remain in this
condition when transferred to the aqueous environment with typically 70%75% of the total
hydrocarbon load in highway discharges being associated with suspended solids. Methyl
tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), which is used as an additive in unleaded fuels, is of significant
concern because of its elevated solubility in water compared to other vehicle derived organic
compounds. Environmental levels of MTBE arise mainly from spillages and concentrations in the
range of 0.1g/l0.2g/l have been recorded in groundwaters underlying motorways in SE
England. Total hydrocarbon (oil) levels in road runoff are shown in Table 4.2 with elevated
levels (up to 400mg/l) having been recorded during short, intense storm events when suspended
solids levels are high (Colwill, 1984).
Hydrocarbons can cause problems in receiving waters due to the build up of a surface film,
which can reduce the efficiency of oxygen transfer to the water body. There is a tendency for
hydrocarbons to accumulate in bed sediments and to be either gradually released by natural
leaching processes or to be released in high concentrations during times of sediment
disturbance. Both aliphatic and aromatic fractions are List I substances under the terms of the
Groundwater Directive (see Section 4.5.4), and can be highly toxic leading to suppression and
mortality of key invertebrate organisms (such as the freshwater shrimp Gammarus pulex ) at the
bottom of the food chain (Boxall and Maltby, 1995). Through the use of a range of toxicity
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
71
measurements, Marsalek and Rochfort (1999) have demonstrated that acute toxicity can be
frequently detected in highway runoff with the main toxicants being PAHs, metals and
chlorides.
increasing from 0.01m. A variety of metal compounds are used as fillers in tyres including Pb
oxides as well as Zn and Cd compounds. Copper is present in brake linings at high
concentrations (for example, 30,600g/g) to provide added mechanical strength and to assist
heat dissipation. Other vehicle parts which produce metals due to erosion/abrasion processes
include metal plating and bodywork (Cu, Cr, Fe and Ni), moving engine parts (Cu, Cr, Fe and
Mn), and bearings/bushes (Pb, Cu and Ni).
Leaks from lubrication and hydraulic systems during normal vehicle operation can provide a
consistent source of hydrocarbons to highway surfaces. Running losses of total hydrocarbons
have been reported to be in the range of 0.2g2.8g per mile driven (Wixtrom and Brown, 1992).
Used engine oil also contains metals such as Ba, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, Cd and Pb (ZiebaPalus,
1998) with zinc dithiophosphates being added to motor oil as stabilising additives.
73
waters with the onset of snowmelt. Subsequent hydrolysis to unionised ammonia, even at very
low concentrations, can create a toxic environment for fish (see Section 4.5.2). Glycols are
extensively used within airports to prevent the icing of both runways and aircraft (Ellis et al ,
1997) but their cost inhibits widespread use in the highway environment. Accumulated snow at
the sides of busy roads has been shown to be an efficient collector of inorganic pollutants
derived from vehicular sources (Viskari et al , 1997). Within the snow deposits, pollutants have
been shown to be mainly particulate associated but more than 50% was transferred to the
soluble phase within the melt waters (Viklander, 1996). The practice of snow piling at the sides
of roads for extensive winter periods should therefore be avoided.
Rock salt, which is used for deicing purposes on roads, is subject to a British Standard (BS
3247:1991). The currently recommended application rates for deicing salt are 10g/m 2 as a
precaution against ice (increased to 15g/m 2 if the salt is wet due to open storage) and
25g/m240g/m 2 if freezing conditions are expected after rain or snow (DoT, 1992). The
advantages of using salt have to be balanced against its corrosive impact on vehicles and street
furniture that can lead to enhanced deposition of metals on to highway surfaces. Rendahl and
Hedlund (1998) have shown that cosmetic corrosion decreased by 50% on cars used on
unsalted roads compared to those driven on salted roads. Salt is known to have harmful physical
and chemical effects on vergeside vegetation and aquatic ecology although both effects are
normally shortlived and associated with winter salting events.
In spite of winter salt concentrations discharged from the highway surface reaching high levels
(see Table 4.2) there have been no reports of increased chloride concentrations in British
groundwaters (Luker and Montague, 1994). Although concentrations above 400mg/l in receiving
waters can stress sensitive fish and invertebrate species, the existence of high dilution ratios
minimises such impacts and it is rare for chloride levels greater than 200mg/l, the maximum
acceptable value for drinking water, to occur.
The control of weeds in the highway environment during the growing season is necessary to
prevent structural engineering damage, to maintain safety aspects and provide an appropriate
aesthetic impact. A typical annual load of herbicides applied by local authorities in the UK is
186 tonnes of which 94% are used in the weed control programmes of roads and highways,
parks, amenity grass and municipal paved areas. The key factors that affect the movement of
herbicides applied to hard surfaces, in storm runoff are persistence, adsorption, rainfall
intensity, and the time period between application and rainfall. Although herbicide degradation
will commence immediately, the ideal application programme will involve frequent
applications of low doses, and preferably during dry weather conditions. The excessive use of
pesticides (in all environments) has led to concerns about their increasing presence in surface
waters, groundwaters, and drinking water resources. The EC Drinking Water Directive
(80/778/EEC) became UK law in 1989 with its incorporation into the Water Supply (Water
Quality) Regulations and specifies a maximum admissible limit of 0.1g/l for individual
pesticides and 0.5g/l for total pesticides. Research in an urban catchment in Essex has
consistently shown diuron concentrations in excess of these levels in surface waters receiving
runoff from highway and other urban hard surfaces (Revitt et al , 1999).
numbers of runs over the surface area and pollutant removal is also dependent on the method
employed. Vacuum sweeping has been shown to be most effective followed by manual
techniques and with mechanical sweeping being the least effective (Ellis, 1979). Hydrojetting is
also used although studies in Paris have shown the existence of highly variable efficiencies for
solids (20%65%) and metals (0%75%) with no significant removal for PAHs (Bris et al , 1999).
Another problem with this technique is that pollutants are transferred directly from the highway
surface to the gully pot and the belowground drainage system.
There are over 17 million roadside gully pots in service within England and Wales, each 450mm
standard diameter pot having a nominal capacity of 80 litres for a typical catchment area of
200m 2 280m 2 per gully. Design criteria for gully pots are given under British Standards 6367
(BSI, 1983). The total solids trapping efficiency of road gully pots ranges between 15%95%
depending on inflow, pot size and maintenance condition but for a typical particle size
distribution, the overall total solids reduction (for sizes greater than 300m) might be expected
to be 70%75% (Butler and Karunaratne, 1995). Trapped gullies are more efficient at separating
oil but require more regular maintenance than untrapped gullies. An untrapped gully can retain
much more silt by virtue of the greater sump depths and can store up to 20% of the mean annual
volume discharged by runoff events from the highway surface.
During dry weather periods and especially during summer, rapid drops in dissolved oxygen can
lead to the establishment of anaerobic conditions and the release of soluble organics,
ammoniacal compounds, dissolved metals as well as sulphides into the supernatant liquor of the
gully pot. The next storm event rapidly displaces this standing liquor into the stormwater sewer
pipe with intense flow events (exceeding 3l/s4l/s) causing hydraulic disturbance in the sump
chamber which can overturn the settled sludge and also discharge this septic material into the
surface water sewer. In this way, the gully pot can comprise a major source of highway pollution
and be a significant contributor to the firstflush shock load experienced by the receiving
water. Butler and Memon (1999) have modelled the typical wet weather processes which occur
within gully pots (including dilution, dispersion, sedimentation, washout of suspended and
dissolved pollutants, and reaeration). Recommended procedures for the management and
cleaning of gully pots to achieve control of pollutant outflows from the chamber into the storm
water drainage system can be obtained from a previous report (CIRIA, 1998). Required cleaning
frequencies will be location specific and therefore careful monitoring is needed to identify
critical pollutant and sediment accumulations. Individual highway maintenance authorities will
need to assess the costbenefit of implementing a regular cleaning protocol.
75
(which include ditches, gutters, soakaways, culverts and pipes) is established in the 1980
Highways Act ( s.100 ) and under s.89(5) of the 1991 Act the highways authority does not require
the statutory defence of a discharge consent (see Box 4.1). However, under a liaison agreement,
the measures required to prevent or alleviate pollution will be agreed through consultation
between the EA and the highways authority or its agent prior to construction under the various
provisions contained in the 1990 Town & Country Planning Act and the 1991 Town & Country
Planning (Development Plan) Regulations. Similarly in Scotland, road drains serving trunk roads
and motorways are owned by the Scottish Office and as such, are subject to Crown exemption
from control by the regulator.
The planning legislation allows the EA to make representation opposing development projects
(including new or improved highways), which are likely to have an unacceptable impact upon
the aquatic environment and a series of Planning Policy Guidance (PPG) notes on pollution
prevention and surface runoff control have been published by the former National Rivers
Authority (see Box 4.2) including a policy implementation guidance note (SC/CC/014;
September 1992) for highway discharge. Additionally, local authority Unitary Development
Plans (UDPs) are required to take into account the environmental implications of direct
discharges to ground (see Box 4.2) and specific requirements may be imposed by the EA in
relation to groundwater protection (see Section 4.5.4). However, the EA could choose to apply
the provisions of s.86 WRA 1991, to serve a Conditional or an Absolute Prohibition Notice to
an existing or proposed highway drain if it saw fit to do so because of some particular pollution
hazard. This could either require that a consent be obtained (under Schedule 10, para. 5(1),
WRA 1991) or alternatively it may specify the conditions to be observed prior to the making of
the discharge.
The criminal defence against highway discharges embodied in s.89(5) of the 1991 Water
Resources Act does not hold against liability arising under civil case law for flood damage or
pollution resulting from discharge of road runoff (s.100 WRA 1991). This potential for strict civil
liability arises where pollution from highway drains is caused or knowingly permitted into
controlled waters. The 1993 Cambridge Water Company case also confirmed that foreseeability
is an essential element in establishing civil liability in respect of pollution of controlled waters.
The court decision on the case means that if it can be established that a surface water runoff
event from highways is known to have a potentially contaminating effect upon surface or
groundwater sources then the potential for strict liability arises.
More persistent watercourse pollution is often associated with highway construction activities
and in the past either little formal action has been taken against such offenders or the fines
imposed have been derisory. Regulatory authority attitudes towards negligent construction
contractors and site agents are now becoming harder as evidenced by legal proceedings
instituted by SEPA against contractors involved in the construction of the M74 in SW Scotland.
Persistent pollution incidents during the summer of 1993 of the Class 1 salmonid waters of the
Rivers Annon and Kirtle Water (with TSS concentrations varying between 103mg/l46800mg/l
compared to an imposed standard of 60mg/l), resulted in successful prosecution under s.31 (1)
of the 1974 Control of Pollution Act.
77
Fair
4. AESTHETIC
QUALITY
Poor
Fairly
Good
GRADE
Water
Quality
Very
Good
3. BIOLOGICAL QUALITY
2. NUTRIENTS
GENERAL QUALITY
ASSESSMENTS (GQA)
(For survey assessment
purposes)
Will consist of FOUR separate
WINDOWS as given below
20
50
60
70
80
DO
% Sat
10%ile
15
9.0
2.5
1.3
0.60
300
2000
300
2000
30
300
1. CHEMICAL
BOD
Total
Total
mg/l Ammonia Zinc
90%ile
mg/l
g/l
90%ile 95%ile
2.5
0.25
30
500
5
112
5
112
5
112
Dissolved
Copper
g/l
95%ile
5
112
10
>100
10
>100
10
>100
10
>100
Hardness
mg/l
CaCo3
RE5
RE4
RE3
RE2
RE1
RIVER
ECOSYSTEM
(RE) WQOs
1b
1a
Former
NWC
System
WATER QUALITY
OBJECTIVES (WQOs)
(On pass/fail basis for
management purposes)
Particular attention should be paid to the protection of groundwater resources which are
susceptible to a wide range of threats arising from land use policies. Changes in land use
may affect the availability of groundwater resources by restricting recharge or diverting
flows.
Para.3.6 Guidance Notes for Local Planning Authorities (LPA) on the Methods of Protecting
the Water Environment through Development Plans. 1994 National Rivers Authority (NRA).
The LPA, in consultation with the NRA, will assess the surface water runoff implications of
new development proposals. New developments will only be permitted where the LPA is
satisfied that suitable measures, designed to mitigate the adverse impact of surface water
runoff, are included as an integral part of the development.
Box 4.2: Para. 6.19 Planning Policy Guidance Note 12. Development Plans and Regional
Planning Guidance. 1992 Dept of the Environment.
the Biological Window are shown in Figure 4.2 which also illustrates the structure of and
relationships between the new water quality assessment approaches and the previous NWC
system. In the event that both a WQO and a GQA exists for a particular water, then the EA will
be legally obliged within a specified period, to improve the water quality such that the GQA is
similar or better than the WQO equivalent parameters. As such therefore, the statutory WQO of
the receiving water will dictate the treatment level required for highway runoff. Where statutory
WQOs do not exist, either the GQA or interim, nonstatutory WQOs will be used. Where a
stream reach supports more than one usefunction, and where both statutory and nonstatutory
water quality requirements pertain, the most stringent of the combined specifications will apply.
Therefore the assessment of new roads or road improvements must include consideration of all
the uses (both upstream and downstream) to which the watercourse is put.
4.5.3 EU legislation
The Framework Dangerous Substances Directive (76/464/EEC) and its daughter directives
identify toxic List I and II substances that are defined not exclusively in terms of their presence
but more by their effects. Highway runoff pollutants under List I would include hydrocarbons in
addition to asbestos from brake linings as well as Cd and Pt from vehicular sources such as
batteries, tyres and exhaust systems. List I substances also include herbicides and pesticides
which are applied to highway verges for weed and pest control (see Section 4.4.5). The Quality
of Freshwaters Directive (78/659/EEC) in respect of the protection of fish life includes water
quality standards for suspended solids, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, herbicides, hydrocarbons and PAHs; all
of which are frequently present in highway runoff.
Annex II of the Environmental Assessment Directive (85/337/EEC) and its subsequent
amendment (97/11/EC) requires that a full environmental assessment is undertaken prior to
development consent being given for those projects (including highways) which are deemed
likely to have a significant effect upon the environment. The statutory instrument which
transposes Directive 85/337/EEC and amendment 97/11 into highways legislation is the
Highways (Assessment of Environmental Effects Regulations) 1999.
Under the 1992 Local Government Act, the powers of local authorities may be delegated to
individual officers who can make decisions on whether assessments are needed for road
projects of local significance. A very recent High Court case (see Box 4.3) however, resulted in
the quashing of a local authoritys decision to approve a minor road scheme for which no formal
environmental assessment was carried out and may well cause authorities to be more careful in
dismissing the need for environmental assessment where only local impacts are involved. One
78
A planning application submitted by a Bury St Edmonds company for an access road to its
brewery depot was reviewed by a planning officer who judged that no assessment was
required and permission for the road was then granted by the councils planning committee.
The access road was intended to relieve the town centre of further heavy goods congestion
but the route would cross water meadows of historical and local amenity value.
The original application was not accompanied by any formal environmental statement but
did include commissioned expert reports on landscape, traffic and ecological impacts. A
local resident challenged the validity of both decisions by way of judicial review and the
court held that both decisions were legally defective and argued that, a road may have a
significant effect albeit that its effect is local.
79
80
Non Aquifer
OI*
RE3/RE4
L S M
RE5
S M
L, S and M; Low, Significant and Major Potential Impact (see text for
detail)
No treatment required
RE1/RE2
L
S M
Options to
Surface Water
Deep
Watertable
Other Areas
of Aquifer
Shallow
Watertable
Deep
Watertable
Shallow
Watertable
Inside Groundwater
Protection Zone
Inner Zone
Outer Zone
Discharge to Ground
Options
to Ground
Discharge
of Highway
Runoff
summary of the law relating to the carriage of dangerous goods which covers load shedding as
well as spillage. The total number of reported pollution incidents in inland waters has risen
continuously over the last ten years with substantiated incidents reaching some 33,000 in
1995 within England and Wales (with a further 3580 in Scotland). However, the number of
incidents which can be directly related to transport sources and which are also of major
(Category 1) or serious (Category 2) concern are small numbering between 50 to 100 per
annum with the larger majority being minor petrol spillages of Category 3 status. Analysis
suggests that on motorways and trunk roads, about three serious spillages occur for every 1000
HGV personal injury accidents, compared with two for every 1000 HGV on nontrunk roads.
Notification procedures for pollution incidents on highways are included in the Health & Safety
Executive RIDDOR Regulations and the Fire Service has a statutory duty under s. 87 of the 1991
Water Resources Act to mitigate the effects of pollution caused by its own emergency actions
such as water flooding to avoid fire or explosion risks. Such pollution control measures
normally involve a shutdown or sealing of drain entries. A Memorandum of Understanding
has been agreed between the Environment Agency, the National Assembly for Wales, the
Highways Agency and the Local Government Association on behalf of the Fire Service (see also
the Department of Transport Circular 7/87, Spillages of Hazardous Substances on the Highway ).
Where the installation of pollution control valves (for the emergency storage of spillages), at the
outlet of highway drainage systems is not feasible, specific provision can be made through the
installation of pollution traps of approximately 20m 3 capacity to be incorporated on outfalls
to surface waters. There should be suitable isolation valves fitted at both inlet and outlet to
provide the necessary storage. This will enable oily materials to be retained and will also trap
water soluble chemicals in the event of a major spillage. Installation of such facilities should be
considered at roundabouts and interchange junctions and on sections of highway where the
receiving water is judged to be particularly sensitive. When considering the installation of such
pollution traps, an assessment of the risks and consequences of spillages (such as location,
accident potential and emergency response times) should be carried out to evaluate the need for
such facilities. Appropriate advice and methods are contained in of the Design Manual for
Roads and Bridges Volume 11 (DETR, 1998). Signs indicating the location of any pollution
control valves and related devices should be installed at the roadside and the valves should be
regularly maintained as part of the routine highway maintenance programme.
81
development when flows to a watercourse from highway drains is substantial. There is provision
under s.21 of the 1936 Public Health Act and the 1991 Water Industry Act, for the dual use of
highway drains or public sewers for the combined drainage of surface waters from roads and
domestic (noncommercial) properties. The jointuse procedure and costapportionment is
covered by the 1981 National Water Council (NWC) Guideline Memorandum on Relationships
between Water Authorities and Highway Authorities . The ownership arrangements and
continued use of such highway drains is covered by s.264 of the 1980 Highways Act. Where
road drains are used jointly for highway and property drainage, the sewerage undertaker
normally adopts those lengths in joint use under s.38 of the 1980 Highways Act. However, many
developers favour the construction of highway drains in parallel with public sewers for domestic
surface water drainage with each discharging separately to the same watercourse. In these
circumstances, a highway drain is a private drain owned by the highway authority and may not
be requisitioned.
Whilst there may still be some misunderstandings between, and lack of knowledge about, the
specific powers and roles of the various highway authorities due to the complex enveloping
legal and administrative frameworks, it is quite evident that all the agencies are becoming
increasingly aware of their responsibilities in respect of pollution control from highway
discharges. The concern of the national regulatory bodies is reflected for example in the 1993
NRA guidance notes (SC/CC/014) on Drainage from Motorways, Highways and Other Roads
intended to facilitate integration of specialist engineering, geomorphological and ecological
knowledge into the design and implementation of highway drainage structures. The Thames
Region EA has also recently published (1998) an interim guidance manual on the Treatment of
Highway Runoff Using Constructed Wetlands intended to encourage alternative control and
treatment approaches for highway drainage. The water service companies are also becoming
increasingly committed to such surface water source control approaches which seek to divert
and control rainfallrunoff at source and a preliminary design manual supported by the industry
for urban drainage systems is now available (CIRIA, 2000a, 2000b).
The minimum residence time should be at least five minutes, which would represent a flow of
0.2m/s travelling through a 60m swale. The overall length should not be less than 20m25m.
Walsh et al (1997) have confirmed that in addition to the swale length and flow rates, the
vegetation density and type (open channel vs sheet flow) as well as size of contributory area are
significant controlling factors with regard to pollutant removal. Vegetation resistance reduces
flow velocities and increases contact opportunities between the flow and the vegetation and
therefore enhances pollutant removal efficiency. Water quality improvements can be assisted by
the introduction of a level spreader at the inlet and the use of check dams on long swale lengths
or with longitudinal gradients above three percent.
Simple, shallow and broad Vshaped grass troughs (five to eight metres wide with side slopes
up to 9%12%) have been shown to demonstrate better pollutant removal efficiencies (Walsh et
al , 1997; Murfee et al , 1999) compared to the conventional trapezoidal crosssection swales.
Such forms would also be more convenient for routine maintenance. The range of pollutant
removal efficiencies that can be expected for grass swales receiving highway runoff are shown
in Table 4.3. It is clear that whilst in general, good removal rates can be achieved by such
systems, there is still considerable variability in performance. Very little removal is achieved for
soluble metal species and nutrients. Pollutant loadings in conventional swale channels are
generally below most national criteria for biosolid disposal to land and would suggest
operational site lives of well beyond 50 years especially if given regular and proper
maintenance.
Swales should be regularly inspected (at least twice each year) with particular attention paid to
erosion damage, buildup of silt deposits, excessive waterlogging, and poor vegetation growth.
A minimum grass height of 100mm should be maintained with the frequency of mowing being
dependent on the species of grass and the climatic conditions. Ideally, clippings should be
removed from the site as these can cause blockage of downstream structures or add excessive
nutrients to the storm flows. Excessive silt deposits should be removed to prevent damage to the
vegetation and to maintain the infiltration capability. Easy access to the swale for mowing and
other maintenance equipment needs to be provided.
4.6.1.2 Filter Strips
Filter strips can take any natural vegetated form and although normally consisting of grassed
areas, they can also be in the form of wooded areas. In addition to the characteristics of the
vegetation (ideal height of between 50mm and 100mm) the major factors influencing pollutant
removal efficiency are the longitudinal and cross slopes, and the interaction of the vegetation
with the highway runoff flow. Barrett et al (1998) have recommended the use of filter strips with
side slopes of less than 12% and flow paths of at least eight metres for maximum pollutant
removal effectiveness from highway runoff, which reached 85% for suspended solids. The
actual depth of filter strips may be dependent on the land available but minimum residence
times should be between three and five minutes for the mean annual storm. The use of side kerb
entry slots along the full swale length may be useful to achieve an even flow distribution as may
a gravelfilled trench across the top length of the strip. Yu et al (1987) found that sheet flow over
the grass surface of a filter strip could be achieved using a level spreader and produced average
percentage removal efficiencies of 71%, 38%, 10%, 25%, and 50% for TSS, Ptot, Ntot, Pb and
Zn, respectively in the runoff from a car park.
83
84
Moderate visual
appeal
Can enhance
habitat value
Moderate
High
Extended (Dry)
Detention
Basin
Wetland
7095
5090
High
Moderate
High
4080
High
3060
3070
3050
2040
2040
520
1015
1020
7595
6075
4050
1035
3565
4580
5085
5075
3060
3050
4080
6090
6075
40 75
4585
3060
2050
3060
6090
7090
1540
1025
510
05
05
2030
1525
Moderate to high
Costly to replace
plants
Moderate to high
High aesthetic
appeal
Moderate to high
habitat value
especially
if vegetated
None
Moderate to high
Costly to maintain
Low
Moderate
Oil/Grit
Interceptor
5085
3060
Moderate to high
Some aesthetic
value
Moderate to high
Costly to desludge
Low
Moderate
Sedimentation
Lagoon
Retention Basin
610 hour
retention
1624 hour
retention
Moderate
visual appeal
Selective planting
can enhance
habitat value
1035
2035
1020
1040
7090
7090
1020
High
7090
7090
510
Swales
7080
2040
Limited habitat
value
2050
2030
Susceptible to
clogging
6090
6090
1030
Basin/Trench
Dissolved
Inconspicuous,
unobtrusive
Total
Metals
Moderate to high
Costly to reinstate
LowHigh
Infiltration
Hydro
carbons
Inconspicuous
Unobtrusive
No habitat value
Bacteria
Habitat and
Aesthetic Value
Low to moderate
Costly to replace
Clogging potential
Low
Moderate
Filter
(French Drain)
Total
Nitrogen
Maintenance
Requirements
None
High
Gully/Carrier
Pipe System
TSS
% Removal Efficiency
Low to moderate
Costly to replace
Hydraulic
Design
Robustness
Treatment
Facility
aggregate. The traditional role of filter drains has been to intercept highway discharges and
transport the flow to a suitable outlet point. However, they also provide a treatment facility
(through adsorption and biodegradation processes) and the expected removal efficiencies of
both conventional and toxic pollutants are shown in Table 4.3.
The identified disadvantages of filter drains (costs of backfill and replacement at approximately
ten year intervals due to aggregate blocking by oil/grease combined with sedimentary material;
maintenance requirements; softening of pavement foundations; groundwater pollution risks for
unlined trenches) have resulted in a policy of nonrecommendation of use (Highways Agency
Advice Note 39/38). However, they are being retained in respect of reconstruction works
dealing with large groundwater flows from highway cuttings and on long road lengths with very
flat gradients. Ellis and Revitt (1991) have reported on the practices of enhancing the drainage
capability and the siltabsorbing capacity of filter drains, and hence the lifetime, by using a
backfill with wider and coarser grading than in standard specifications. Such practices would
clearly compromise the potential pollutant removal performance of the treatment system.
85
rigorous containment and treatment approach may be applicable. On the M40 and M25
motorways, followon soakage lagoons have been installed to accept drainage overspill if all
the soakaways should fill. The careful design and construction of soakaways is essential to avoid
high maintenance costs and the possible necessity of regular replacement of the infiltration
media which can negate the advantages associated with the relatively low initial costs of these
systems. Soakaways should be inspected annually with specific attention being paid to the
removal of debris from the base of the inspection tube or chamber and the cleaning of any
pretreatment systems.
4.6.3.2 Infiltration trenches
Infiltration trenches are essentially a linear version of soakaways but require lower volumes of
infiltration material (stone or rubble) for a given water inflow. Narrower systems save on
construction costs but one reason for their lower popularity, compared to soakaways, in the UK,
is the commonly perceived design problem associated with accommodating the required trench
length and width into the land area available. However, the ability to maximise the infiltration
surface area in these systems enables high treatment efficiencies to be achieved (see Table 4.3).
Maintenance practices are the same as have been described for soakaways (see Section 4.6.3.1).
A recently trialled system in the US involves a partial exfiltration trench containing sand
modified with an oxide coating to remove metals through adsorptionfiltration mechanisms.
Mass metal removal efficiencies greater than 80% are claimed for a prototype system receiving
highway runoff (Sansalone et al , 1998).
4.6.3.3 Infiltration basins
Infiltration basins are designed to store runoff and to allow it to slowly percolate through the
basin floor, which is either soil or a specially constructed underdrainage system containing
gravel and/or sand filter beds. Infiltration basins can be constructed to the required aesthetic
shape and are generally between 0.5m and 3.0m in depth. It is common practice to incorporate
vegetation cover throughout the basin and to assist with regular mowing (ideal grass lengths
should not exceed 150mm) the basin should have a flat base with side slopes which are not
steeper than 1:4. As for other infiltration systems, one half of the total volume should be available
within 24 hours of a runoff event and the maximum emptying time should be 96 hours.
Infiltration basins are best suited to soils with infiltration rates exceeding 15mm/hour (for
example, sandy loams, sands, sandy gravels). An overall filtration rate of five m 3 /ha/m 2 should
provide for total solids removal efficiencies of up to 90%. Soils should also exhibit a high
sorption capacity and a high resistance to desorption at low pH (Barbosa and HvitvedJacobsen,
1999). As for other infiltration systems, maintenance is an important consideration with the
grassed surface needing to be kept clear of silt, organic debris and general litter. Where the
runoff to be treated contains elevated levels of suspended solids it is recommended that a
sedimentation basin, designed to hold the first flush of polluted runoff should be positioned
upstream of the infiltration basin.
The US experience of both online and offline infiltration basins identifies the potential for
effective removal of a range of soluble and fine particulate associated pollutants but raises a
question mark against their long term capability (Schueler, 1987). An offline sand filtration
system receiving runoff from a shopping mall and car park in Austin, Texas demonstrated
removal efficiencies for faecal coliforms, TSS and BOD of 76%, 71% and 70% respectively
(Austin City Dept. of Public Works, 1986). Metal, nutrient and hydrocarbon removal efficiencies
were less encouraging ranging between 45%50%, 10%35%, and 5%48%. Urbonas et al ,
(1996) have reported cumulative TSS removal rates declining by 70% within one year of
installation for sand filter basins with flowthrough rates being throttled from an initial one
metre/hour to less than 0.02m/hour causing frequent and severe flow bypassing. Ellis (2000) has
86
87
Pollutant
TSS
Pb tot
Zn tot
Zn diss
COD
Oil
PAH
Box 4.5: Mean percentage annual removal efficiencies for a UK motorway sedimentation
tank treatment system.
4.6.4.2 Lagoons
Lagoons differ to sedimentation chambers in that they are constructed by excavating natural earth
basins which can be covered with vegetation and which may be lined where it is necessary to
prevent infiltration. The predicted pollutant removal performances of a sedimentation lagoon are
shown in Table 4.3. In addition to sedimentation processes for particulate associated pollutants,
soluble pollutants can be removed by filtration and adsorption on vegetation. Stotz (1990)
investigated a lagoon operating in both dry and wet modes when receiving runoff from a German
highway. There were increases in the removal efficiencies of TSS (45%54%), COD (18%39%),
Pb and Cd when the lagoon was operating under wet conditions. Regular maintenance is
essential to retain the longterm effective performance of sedimentation lagoons with the
maintenance frequency being dependent on the storage provision made for silt.
4.6.4.3 Extended detention basins
Extended detention basins are dry, naturally vegetated impounding systems which are dry
during normal conditions but provide storage of storm runoff during periods of heavy rainfall. A
liner or membrane may be incorporated into the design if it is essential to avoid infiltration to
groundwater. The maximum depth of water should not exceed three metres and the basin should
be constructed with shallow side slopes (no steeper than 1:4) to allow access for maintenance.
If the basin is online, an overflow structure will need to be provided to deal with very large
storms and to ensure that a minimum freeboard of 0.5m is maintained. Associated with their
flow attenuation characteristics, detention basins also encourage sedimentation of the coarser
suspended materials although fine solids will be resuspended during high flows. They also
demonstrate low removal efficiencies for soluble pollutants (see Table 4.2). Ideally, an extended
detention pond should be designed to fully contain the design treatment volume and to allow
this to be discharged through the outlet control structure over a period of at least 24 hours.
The longterm performance of extended detention basins requires the provision of an upstream
or inlet settling basin or forebay (12%20% of the total basin area) to capture coarse sediment
loads. Sediment traps should have shutoff facilities to contain spillages. The inlet structure
should also incorporate energy dissipation to reduce turbulence with flow velocities of less than
0.25m/s being recommended to prevent particle resuspension from sediment pretreatment
facilities. Maintenance procedures should involve regular inspection of the inlet and outlet
structures and safe removal of collected sediments at intervals of between seven and ten years.
Onsite bunded facilities for the dewatering of the contaminated sediments may also be
necessary and final disposal may need to be to a scheduled landfill site.
88
Stahre and Urbonas (1990) have quoted long term efficiencies for extended detention basins
having 48 hour detention times of 50%70% for TSS and hydrocarbons, 20%40% for BOD,
75%90% for Pb and 30%60% for Zn. Lower detention times of four to ten hours provide up
to 50%60% TSS removal but as most dry basins often have less than two hours detention times,
the pollutant removal efficiencies are usually rather mediocre with TSS in the range of
15%20% and BOD/COD generally less than 10%. A recent study concerning runoff from the
London Orbital M25 motorway has indicated high removal efficiencies (84%95%) for a range
of 11 metals by a 500m 2 detention pond preceded by a grit trap and an oil interceptor (Hares
and Ward, 1999).
4.6.4.4 Retention basins
Retention
basins
(or
balancing ponds) contain a
permanent pool of open
water (maximum depth two
metres to three metres;
surface area equivalent to
one percent of the total
contributing area) around
which edge planting of
emergent
macrophyte
vegetation
may
be
introduced. Such planting
assists in the treatment
process
by
providing
biological
removal
of
Vegetation balancing pond adjacent to the Newbury Bypass.
pollutants, particularly those
in the dissolved phase. This reinforces the removal of particulate associated pollutants through
sedimentation within the relatively still water body, which should be sized to contain at least
four times the treatment volume in order to provide maximum retention. The inlet and outlet to
the pond should be situated so as to reduce the possibility of shortcircuiting which is also
assisted by designing the system with flow path length to width ratios of at least 3:1. Full design
detail for retention (balancing) ponds is provided in Hall et al (1994) who advocate the fitting
of a sediment forebay (or upstream sediment trap or diversion structure) to maximise pollutant
removal efficiencies and extend operational lifetimes. Retention basins can be readily adapted
to provide temporary storage in the event of accidental spillage by installing isolation devices
at the outlet.
From a study of nine retention ponds in the Florida area, Yousef et al (1994) have recommended
the need to remove sediments every 25 years, based on monitored accumulation rates, and to
protect groundwaters from potential contamination from elevated heavy metal levels. Copper,
Pb and Zn accounted for over 75% of the heavy metal sediment content with average
accumulation rates of 1.3 kg/ha yr, 13.8 kg/ha yr and 6.9 kg/ha yr (Yousef et al , 1996). Similar
elevations of sedimentary heavy metal levels have been observed in French studies of retention
basins (Lee et al , 1997). It is clear that, in all cases, detention ponds require regular inspection
and maintenance.
4.6.4.5 Constructed Wetlands
Wetlands (both natural and constructed) have been widely used for the treatment of sewage and
for urban, industrial and agricultural runoff (Cooper and Findlater, 1990) but experience of their
use for highway runoff is relatively limited. The potential pollutant removal capabilities are
based on a number of mechanisms including biofiltration, sedimentation, adsorption, biological
uptake and physicochemical interactions. The widely used designs of constructed wetlands are
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
89
Box 4.6 indicates the average range of pollutant removal efficiencies that have been reported in
the literature for constructed wetlands receiving highway runoff in the UK, France, Canada and
the US. The variability in performance noted in Box 4.6 has been attributed to shortcircuiting,
short detention and contact times, pollutant remobilisation, and seasonal vegetation effects
(Strecker et al , 1992). A recent study (Hares and Ward, 1999) has found elevated metal removal
efficiencies of consistently around 90% for a combination of a 3900m 2 wet biofiltration pond
and a 1000m 2 sedimentation pond receiving motorway runoff.
Wetland Type
TSS
Faecal
Ntot
Coliforms
Ptot
Pbtot
Zntot
BOD/TOC
Subsurface Flows
85
(6797)
88
(8097)
44
(2598)
50
(2097)
83
(594)
42
(1082)
Free Surface
Flows
73
(1399)
92
8699)
33
(1099)
43
(298)
69
(4183)
58
(3175)
15
(532)
concern with wetlands is the possibility of the plants being deprived of water during prolonged
dry periods and to counteract this the outlet structure should be set to maintain a water level
which is not lower that 300mm below the substrate surface. A substrate depth of at least 600mm
is recommended for subsurface wetlands to allow sufficient rooting depth for species such as
the common reed ( Phragmites australis ). The other widely used plant species is reedmace ( Typha
latifolia ) and it has been recommended that these two species are ideally suited to the treatment
of highway runoff in constructed wetlands (Shutes et al , 1999).
The ideal constructed wetland treatment system for highway runoff would incorporate the
following cellular structures arranged in series; oil separator and silt trap; spillage containment;
settlement pond and associated control structures; constructed wetland and associated control
structures; final settlement pond; and outfall into receiving watercourse. In addition, full access
would be required for the necessary maintenance activities. These will include sediment
removal from the initial and final settlement ponds and the control of weeds in the early stages
of plant growth. It is envisaged that after periods of 15 to 25 years of operation, the
contaminated substrate within constructed wetlands will require cleaning or replacement to
regenerate the hydraulic conductivity and pollutant removal capacity of the system.
91
The specific advantages of porous paving are outlined in Box 4.7. It has excellent potential for
use in driveways, residential culdesacs, vehicle parking and service areas and can possess a
loadbearing strength and longevity similar to conventional pavement. A 1500m 2 porous paved
car park in Edinburgh, although costing 15% more than conventional blacktop asphalt, has
shown significant attenuation of the outlet hydrograph with first discharges only occurring
several hours after the start of rainfall. In addition, TSS, COD and BOD outflow values were
consistently below 20mg/l, 10mg/l and 2mg/l respectively with hydrocarbons below detection
levels. Pratt et al (1999) have also shown that pilot scale permeable pavement performed as an
effective in situ aerobic bioreactor reducing petroleum contamination in the effluent to 2.4% of
that applied. The results of these and similar studies elsewhere in Scotland have led SEPA to
accept that oil interceptors are not required on permeable car parking areas which have an
approved engineering subbase. However, a minimum sixmonthly 'brush and suction' cleaning
is recommended in order to maintain the performance efficiency of the porous paving surface.
Grasscrete type modular pavement is well suited to car parks and possesses infiltration rates
(0.2mm/s to 1.0mm/s) which are well in excess of most design storm rainfall intensities.
Filtrationsedimentation and adsorption processes within the structural reservoir of the
surfacing material can limit TSS outflows from near zero to 50mg/l and typically remove
between 40%60% bacteria, 70%90% heavy metals and hydrocarbons. Precast pavers over
lattice slabs offer the dual advantages of onsite infiltration and easy maintenance. The
inevitable accumulation of silt in the surface layers of the reservoir construction and
claybridging between particles during wettingdrying cycles can lead to clogging and failure
of the structure although minimum lifetimes for properly installed and maintained structures can
be of the order of 10 to 15 years.
4.6.5.2 Porous Asphalt
Porous asphalt (or macadam) pavements consist of an opengraded asphalt mix
(powdered/crushed stone with a bitumen binder) with a coarse surface texture and a high void
ratio. The open texture with continuous pore spaces allows rainfall to immediately infiltrate the
surface. It is usually laid some 50mm thick over new or existing impermeable road surfaces with
stormwater flowing laterally across the highway within the porous asphalt layer to the kerb or
to a filter drain. Further guidance on the design and application of porous asphalt surfacing can
be obtained from the 1994 DoT Design Manual for Roads and Bridges Volume 7, Section 1 (3).
Because of the shallow crossfall gradients and the amount of fine silt present on highway
surfaces, the pore spaces within the asphalt often block within five years except where the
passage of vehicle tyres pump the pores clear of silt. Porous asphalt surfacing has become
popular because it forms a highway surface which generates less vehicle noise; reduces splash
and spray and hence also reduces aquaplaning whilst enhancing driver visibility; and provides
a durable, highspeed road surface. The pollutant removal capabilities of porous asphalt have
been investigated by Stotz and Krauth (1994) who found that yearly filterable solids were 50%
lower than in the drainage leaving impervious surfaces and that mineral oil and PAHs were
detained more efficiently. Legret and Colandini (1999) have demonstrated the ability of porous
asphalt to retain heavy metals with removal efficiencies of 84%, 77% and 73% for Pb, Cd and
Zn respectively.
4.7 Recommendations
The selection of a particular type or combination of controls for the management and treatment
of highway runoff will depend very much on the local and site circumstances. The final design
criteria will include consideration of the highway carrying capacity, the size and character of
the site drainage, the sensitivity of the receiving surface and/or groundwater (in terms of both
flow volumes and quality), landscaping and planning concerns in addition to normal safety,
operational and maintenance requirements. Weighted evaluation of these characteristics will
92
Treatment
Device
Capital Cost
(000s)
Maintenance Cost
(/per yr)
Comments
Gully/Carrier
Pipe System
150220
1000
No fin drainage
allowed for in costs
Filter/
French Drains
160180
Requires replacement
after 1012 years
Grass Swale
1540
350
With no offsite
disposal of cuttings
Oil Interceptors
(with grit chamber)
830
300400
Sedimentation Tank
3080
300350
Sedimentation
Lagoon/Basin
45100
5002000
Infiltration
Trench/Basin
2050
20002500
Requires infill
replacement every
510 years
Retention
(Balancing) Basin
15300
3501000
With no vegetation or
offsite dewatering and
disposal of sludge and
cuttings
Wetland Basin
15160
20002500
Annual maintenance
for first 5 years. (declining
to 8001000 p/yr
after 3 years)
Combined
TreatmentTrain
System
100300
20003000
Table 4.4: Capital and Maintenance Costs for Highway Treatment Systems.
indicate which types of techniques and what level of expenditure can be justified for the
particular site. Such an evaluation could take place withn the framework of the highways
environmental management model outlined in Chapter 3 (section 3.9).
4.7.1 Costings
There is very little data available on the relative costs of differing treatment systems to remove
pollutants from highway runoff. Such costs will vary between sites depending upon local
conditions and because of:
engineering constraints site access, topography and size; lining requirements;
construction techniques; and
land constraints legal and land purchase costs; access provision; the size, type and
layout of treatment devices.
In general terms, engineering constraints will tend to increase the design costs whilst land
constraints will decrease costs but at the same time reduce performance. Table 4.4 provides a
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
93
94
Infiltration
Soakaway
4.5
4.5
4.5
1.5
1.5
4.5
3.5
to Site
Conditions
Sensitivity
Volume
O&M
Reduction
Runoff
Pollution
Groundwater
Potential for
Potential
Failure
Overall
Table 4.5: An Assessment of the Overall Effectiveness Potential of Treatment Systems for Highway Runoff.
Filter Strip
Trench
4.5
3.5
Grass Swale
Pipe System
Gully/Carrier
Interceptor
Oil/Grit
Basin
Infiltration
Lagoon
Sedimentation
Pavement
Porous
Basin
(Balancing)
Retention
Basin
Wetland
Basin
Detention
(Dry)
Extended
Quality Control
Facility
Flow Rate
Water
Treatment
Hydraulic
Quality
Water
Design Robustness
2.5
0.11
0.00
0.06
0.06
0.17
0.22
0.33
0.89
1.22
1.17
1.11
Averages
Rating
12
11
10
Order
Rank
firstorder cost estimation of the ranges of capital and maintenance costs associated with
various treatment systems although the combined use of individual devices in a
treatmenttrain would give reductions of about 20%25% in overall costings. The costs are
based on a one kilometre length of six lane motorway and some scalingdown would be
required for major roads and other highways. The large range in costings shown for some
treatment systems largely reflects local sizing requirements for particular devices that can
particularly influence for example, the final costs of retention basin and wetland systems.
<5,000
5,000 - 15,000
>15,000
AADT
<5
S
M
M
Dilution Ratio
5 20 >20
L
L
S
L
MS
into three categories; Low (L), Significant (S) and Major (M) Impacts. The basis for these impact
categories are defined in terms of annual average traffic densities (AADT) and/or receiving water
dilution ratios (see Box 4.8). The impact categories cannot be strictly adhered to as other factors
also influence the receiving water sensitivity including the ecological status and physical
characteristics but the categorisation provides some initial guidance which can be checked
against field surveys. Site specific surveys will also be required for discharges to surface waters
using the approaches recommended in Volume 11 of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
(DETR, 1998).
numbers is recommended and, where possible, the use of alternative systems involving in-situ
bioremediation should be investigated.
9. The problems associated with the use of deicing salt have been highlighted in this Chapter.
It is essential that this is used carefully and wisely so as not to leave excessive deposits on
highway surfaces. The use of alternative de-icing agents, such as calcium magnesium acetate,
should be fully investigated.
10. The application of herbicides to highway environments for weed control should only be
used after a full assessment of the impact on adjacent surface waters and groundwaters has been
made. Application rates should be carefully controlled and, where possible, the timing of
application arranged to coincide with extended dry weather periods
References
Amrhein C, Mosher PA,
and Strong JE, 1993
Barbosa AE and
HvitvedJacobsen T, 1999
Boxall ABA and Maltby L, 1995 The characterisation and toxicity of sediment contaminated
with road runoff. Water Research, 29(9), pp20432050.
BRE, 1991
Butler D and
Karunaratne SHPG, 1995
97
98
CIRIA, 1998
CIRIA, 2000a
CIRIA, 2000b
DETR, 1998
Department of Transport,
1991
Department of Transport,
1992
EA, 1998
Lange G, 1990
Lord B, 1989
99
100
Novotny V, Muehring D,
Zitomer DH, Smith DW
and Facey R, 1998
Price M, 1994
Ruperd M, 1987
Schueler T, 1987
Stotz G, 1987
Stotz G, 1990
101
102
Viklander M, 1996
Yousef YA,
HvitvedJacobsen T, Sloat J
and Lindeman W, 1994
ZiebaPaulus J, 1998
Box 5.1: Some statistics and trends on road traffic emissions (based on Salway et al, 1999).
5.1a: NO x emissions.
Many of the compounds emitted by road vehicles are known or suspected to damage health if
their concentrations are high enough. In 1991, the Secretary of State for the Environment
established the Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards to consider the evidence on the health
effects of air pollutants and to recommend standards for ambient air quality. To date, they have
reported on benzene, ozone, 1,3-butadiene, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, particles,
nitrogen dioxide, lead, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Expert Panel on Air Quality
Standards, 1994 a,b,c,d; 1995 a,b; 1996; 1998; 1999). Road transport is a major source, directly
or indirectly, of all of these compounds except of sulphur dioxide. Other types of impact are
also important. Oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons take part in chemical reactions that
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
103
Box 5.1: Some statistics and trends on road traffic emissions (based on Salway et al, 1999).
5.1b: CO emissions.
produce acidic pollutants that can damage forests and freshwater ecology. Carbon dioxide is the
most abundant manmade greenhouse gas, and its increasing concentration in the atmosphere
is responsible for most of the enhanced global warming.
It is not surprising, then, that efforts have been made for many years to gain a better
understanding of the emission, propagation and impacts of vehicle pollutants and to develop
improved control methods. This chapter reviews the history of that process in the UK, examines
the current situation and looks forward to future developments.
to comment on, and recommend any changes in, the Departments method of appraising trunk
road schemes and their application, taking account both of economic and environmental
factors, and of the extent to which these methods give a satisfactory basis for comparison with
investment in alternative methods of transport; and
to review the Departments method of traffic forecasting, its application of the forecasts and to
comment on the sensitivity of the forecasts to possible policy changes.
104
As a result of their review, the committee proposed a standard framework for the assessment of
trunk road schemes (Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment, 1977). They intended that
the framework should be generally comprehensible to the public, that groups and individuals
should be easily able to see how they would be affected, that it should comprehensively address
all the effects of the scheme and that it should balance costs and benefits in a rational manner. They
identified the five groups, and the ways in which they might be affected, as shown in Box 5.2.
Their conclusion on air pollution was:
As well as its pure nuisance value, air pollution has the added and more serious disadvantage
that it may prove a permanent health risk to those constantly exposed to it. It is unlikely to be
a serious problem in the rural context. Where air pollution is likely to be a problem we
recommend that a special air quality report be prepared. Otherwise it should be excluded from
the assessment.
While this was helpful in clarifying the basic requirements it raised a major problem. Who
would determine whether air pollution was likely to be a problem, and how would they reach
their decision?
The framework approach recommended by the Leitch Committee was adopted, and formalised
in a Departmental Standard on frameworks for trunk road appraisal (Departmental Standard
TD/8/80) and an Advice Note on the preparation of frameworks for trunk road appraisal
(TA/7/80), both issued in 1980. These documents were supported by the Manual of
Environmental Appraisal (MEA, Department of Transport, 1982) which gave guidance on
methods of assessing a schemes potential impacts on noise, visual impact, air pollution,
community severance, agriculture, heritage and conservation areas, ecology, disruption due to
construction, pedestrians and cyclists, the view from the road and driver stress. The section on
air pollution impacts attempted to address the Leitch requirement (for an air quality report
where a problem was likely) by providing a method to indicate whether pollution was likely to
be of concern.
Road users directly affected by the scheme who are concerned over the whole network to
reduce accidents, save time and vehicle operating costs, and perhaps to increase their
general comfort and the attractiveness of the view from the road.
Nonroad users directly affected by the scheme including occupiers of land and buildings
adjacent to the route, whose objective is to minimise the environmental disadvantages it
might entail whilst ensuring that any associated benefits are maximised. For example, this
group clearly includes those on a route which is bypassed and affected by reduced traffic
flows as a result of a scheme.
Those concerned with the intrinsic value of the area through which the scheme passes whose
concern is that it should disturb that area as little as possible or in some cases for example
an area of industrial dereliction actually enhance it.
Those indirectly affected by a scheme whose concern is with its general land use effects,
with resource consumption, with its effects on other modes of transport and on business
initiatives.
The financing authority whose objective in this context is to ensure that the best possible
programme is completed at the least net cost to public funds
105
For this purpose, a problem was defined as exposure more than once a year to an 8hour
average concentration of carbon monoxide greater than 9 ppm, in accordance with the US
National Ambient Air Quality Standard. As was the case for lead, it was considered that carbon
monoxide would provide a reasonable indication of other traffic derived pollution. A graph was
provided that showed the carbon monoxide concentration as a function of the distance from a
road carrying 1000 veh/h at a speed of 100 km/h, and this concentration was corrected for the
actual flow and speed.
The MEA procedure was used for a number of years, but during that time changes took place in
the characteristics of traffic pollution, in the understanding of its effects on health and the wider
environment, and in its perception by the public and politicians as well as the scientific
community.
In the 1970s and 80s, the traffic pollutant that caused the greatest concern and controversy was
lead. Lead additives have been used for many years to improve the combustion properties of
petrol and result in the emissions of lead compounds in the form of fine particles. Research was
suggesting that lead could cause behavioural problems at low levels, especially in young
children, and the Government embarked on a programme of phased reductions in the maximum
lead content of petrol. Unleaded petrol became commercially available in 1987, and it was
required that all new cars registered after 1 April 1991 should be able to use unleaded petrol.
Since January 2000, with very limited exceptions, its use has been banned in EU countries.
The result of these changes in policy and regulations is that concentrations of lead in air no
longer approach the most recent health standards, which are themselves substantially lower
than their predecessors (EPAQS, for example, recommended an annual average of 0.25 (g/m 3 )
compared with the earlier EC value of 2 (g/m 3 ). Box 5.3 shows trends in the maximum lead
content of petrol since 1977, the emissions of lead, and the clear relationship with the trend in
airborne lead concentrations.
As concern about lead from petrol declined, attention focused on other pollutants. The major
gaseous emissions from road vehicles, carbon monoxide, volatile hydrocarbons and oxides of
nitrogen are all environmentally damaging in some way. Carbon monoxide is rapidly taken up
by the hmoglobin in the blood, and reduces its oxygen carrying capacity. It can be fatal at high
concentrations. Some hydrocarbons such as benzene and 1,3butadiene are recognised
carcinogens, and nitrogen dioxide damages the respiratory system. Moreover, reactions in the
atmosphere involving hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen lead to the formation of ozone,
another respiratory irritant, and acidic compounds.
Airborne
lead
concentrations
have
fallen in step with
emissions of lead from
petrol vehicles. Although
the maximum permitted
lead content of petrol has
been unchanged since
1987, emissions and
concentrations
have
continued to reduce as
the use of unleaded petrol
has increased.
Box 5.3: Changes in lead emissions and concentrations since 1977 (adapted from
Hickman, 1989).
106
So, in much the same way as measures were taken to reduce lead pollution, controls were also
brought in to reduce other exhaust compounds. In this case, the legislation was introduced at
the European Community level through a series of emission control Directives and amendments
to them. The first was published in 1970 and concerned emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons from petrol cars. The technical details of the Directive were adopted from the
Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Regulation 15, and the early standards are often
referred to in that way. A sequence of four amendments were made to the legislation in the
1970s and 80s. The amendments introduced improvements to the test procedure, extended the
Directives coverage to include diesel as well as petrol cars, included oxides of nitrogen in the
pollutants that were controlled and, above all, reduced allowable emissions.
None of this series of standards, however, necessitated a fundamental change to the emission
control systems used on the cars, but this changed when an EC Directive was published in 1991
that dramatically reduced maximum allowable emission rates. Following its implementation in
1993, it was necessary for petrol cars to use closed loop, three way catalysts in order to achieve
the required emission standards (see Box 5.4). Subsequently, further reductions have been
required for cars registered in 1996 and 2000, and they will continue to be made more stringent
in further stages.
Air
Exhaust
Fuel
Box 5.4: Schematic representation of a closed loop three way catalyst (from Bosch, 1993).
Although they were first introduced at a later date, an analogous set of regulations also control
emissions from the engines used in heavy duty vehicles. The regulations for both light and
heavy duty vehicles require that an example be tested and certified to comply with the
necessary emission limits before the model may be marketed in the EU.
The success of these standards may be seen in the results of emission tests carried out on
engines and vehicles manufactured at different times and under different regulations. Broadly,
the rates of emission from the most modern vehicles are lower by an order of magnitude when
compared with those of the 1970s. A few examples are given in Box 5.5.
107
Changes to EU emission
regulations for cars have
been made periodically
since they were introduced
in 1970. Their cumulative
effect has been to reduce
permissible
levels
of
exhaust emission by about
90% for the gaseous
pollutants, CO, HC and
NO X .
oxide and nitrogen dioxide, and the proportions of each vary depending on their concentration
and their equilibrium with oxidising agents (mainly ozone) in the air. Where there is an excess
of ozone, it will react with nitric oxide to produce nitrogen dioxide, but when it has been
depleted by the reaction, no more nitrogen dioxide will be created even if more nitric oxide is
emitted. Fine atmospheric particles arise from many natural sources and human activities, so a
change in road vehicle emissions will only affect a relatively small part of the total
concentration.
Consequently, although significant gains have been made in the control of pollutant emissions
from all types of road vehicle, it is not yet possible to conclude that all air pollution problems
have been resolved. Thus, the 1995 Environment Act introduced a nationwide system for local
air quality management in which local authorities are required to review and assess air quality
in their areas and to develop a remedial action plan where air quality objectives are not
Pollutant
Objective
Concentration
Benzene
1,3butadiene
Carbon monoxide
Lead
Nitrogen dioxide
Ozone
Particles (PM 10 )
Sulphur
dioxide
Date to be
achieved by
Measured as
16.25 /m 3 (5 ppb)
running annual mean
3
2.25 /m (1 ppb)
running annual mean
11.6 /m 3 (10 ppm)
running 8 hour mean
3
0.5 /m
annual mean
0.25 /m 3
annual mean
200 /m3 (105 ppb)
1 hour mean
not to be exceeded
more than 18 times
a year
annual mean
3
40 /m (21 ppb)
100 /m 3 (50 ppb)
daily maximum of running
not to be exceeded
8 hour mean
more than 10 times a year
50 g/m 3 not to be exceeded
more than 35 times a year
40 /m 3
350 g/m 3 (132 ppb)
not to be exceeded
more than 24 times a year
125 g/m 3 (47 ppb)
not to be exceeded
more than 3 times a year
266 g/m 3 (100 ppb)
not to be exceeded
more than 35 times a year
31
31
31
31
31
31
December
December
December
December
December
December
2003
2003
2003
2004
2008
2005
31 December 2005
31 December 2005
24 hour mean
31 December 2004
annual mean
1 hour mean
31 December 2004
31 December 2004
24 hour mean
31 December 2004
15 minute mean
31 December 2005
109
Exceedences of the NO 2 standard are seen at many sites. Indeed, the only sites with levels well below the AQS
objective are at remote and rural locations. The highest concentrations are at roadside and kerbside locations, though
similar levels are found at urban background and centre sites.
Box 5.7: Air pollution concentrations in the UK, 1996. 5.7a: Nitrogen dioxide.
The standard for ozone is exceeded at all of the sites where it was measured. There is little difference between
concentrations recorded at rural and remote locations and those at urban sites. Only one of the sites is at the roadside,
and the concentration there is one of the lowest shown.
Box 5.7: Air pollution concentrations in the UK, 1996. 5.7b: Ozone.
110
achieved. The Act also required the preparation of a National Air Quality Strategy (NAQS) to set
out in detail the objectives to be achieved. This was published in March 1997 (Department of
the Environment et al ). The Strategy identifies eight priority pollutants and, for each of them, it
provides an air quality standard and objective, defined as:
Standards are the concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere which can broadly be taken
to achieve a certain level of environmental quality. The standards relating to the quality of air
are based on the assessment of the effects of each pollutant on public health.
The objectives provide policy targets by outlining what the Government intends should be
achieved in the light of the air quality standards.
Following a review of the Strategy, revised objectives were defined and published in January 2000
(Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions et al). They are listed in Box 5.6.
With reference to these objectives, an overview of the current situation in the UK can be
obtained from the extensive network of pollution monitoring stations operated on behalf of the
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. In Box 5.7, graphs are shown
displaying the concentrations of these priority pollutants measured in 1996 (Broughton et al
1998). The concentrations are given in terms appropriate to the NAQS objective, and the
objectives concentration value is shown as a horizontal line. In this way, the general frequency
of exceedences can be seen. The DETR network has sites in a wide variety of locations, from
remote sites such Strath Vaich in the Scottish Highlands to busy kerbside locations such as the
Cromwell Road in West London, and encompassing suburban, urban background, central urban
and industrial sites. The sites are ordered, from the most remote at the left to kerbside at the
right of each graph. Thus, the position of each bar gives an approximate indication of the traffic
influence at each site.
All carbon monoxide sites are in urban areas, so none of the results shows the very low values that would be expected at a
rural location. Only one exceedence occurs, at the roadside site, and the amount by which the standard is exceeded is small
(10.2 ppm, with a standard of 10 ppm).
Box 5.7: Air pollution concentrations in the UK, 1996. 5.7c: Carbon monoxide.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
111
A wide range of results is shown for sulphur dioxide. The highest level was actually measured in Belfast, where there is
still much use of coal for domestic heating (coal has a high sulphur content). Levels at roadside locations show little
difference from those elsewhere: the second lowest is at roadside site, while that at another roadside site is among the
highest.
Box 5.7: Air pollution concentrations in the UK, 1996. 5.7d: Sulphur dioxide.
The PM 10 standard is exceeded at all but two sites. Although all of the sites are suburban or urban, there seems to be
little difference between levels at different types of location. 1
Box 5.7: Air pollution concentrations in the UK, 1996. 5.7e: PM 10.
1 The data and observations on PM concentrations were made with reference to the NAQS of 1997. The 2000 revision makes the
10
objective somewhat less stringent, so the likelihood of exceedences is lower. Nevertheless, PM 10 is still regarded as one of the most
serious pollutants, and there appears not to be a level below which there are no health risks, so the general conclusion is not altered.
112
While measurements of benzene are made at relatively few locations, it is clear that concentrations are well below the
standard. The highest concentrations are at an urban centre location and at a roadside site in London. At the rural site
the concentration is lowest.
Box 5.7: Air pollution concentrations in the UK, 1996. 5.7f: Benzene.
The pattern of 1,3butadiene concentrations is identical to that for benzene, though concentrations are about 5 times
lower. All are well below the standard of 1 ppb.
Box 5.7: Air pollution concentrations in the UK, 1996. 5.7g: 1, 3 Butadiene.
113
The locations at which lead is monitored include a group of rural sites, several sites near to industrial sources, urban
centre sites and a group of roadside sites. The only sites at which the standard is exceeded are those associated with
industrial emissions. Those at the roadside sites are generally higher than the urban centre and rural concentrations,
but nevertheless well below the standard.
Box 5.7: Air pollution concentrations in the UK, 1996. 5.7h: Lead
On the basis of these observations, it is possible to draw the following conclusions on the
priorities of the various pollutants, the extent to which road traffic is involved and the necessity
or otherwise of supplementary controls:
Ozone concentrations are higher than is desirable, and the reactions of vehicle emissions
contribute to the formation of ozone. On a very local level, however the main impact of
traffic is to reduce ozone concentrations by emitting nitric oxide with which it quickly
reacts. Ozone pollution is a regional phenomenon and is caused by pollution from many
sources in the UK and mainland Europe. The control options likely to be most successful
are those presently being pursued, that is the control of ozone precursors at their
emission source.
Nitrogen dioxide concentrations in urban areas are high mainly because of the emissions
from road traffic. Reductions in oxides of nitrogen emissions, may have little effect on
roadside concentrations because there is usually an excess of nitric oxide so that the
formation of nitrogen dioxide is limited by the availability of oxidants. At urban
background locations, however, where the nitric oxide concentration is lower, it may
become the limiting factor and decreases in emissions would be beneficial.
Carbon monoxide, benzene and 1,3butadiene levels rarely exceed the health standards
and will reduce further in the future because of the introduction of cleaner vehicles into
the road transport fleet. It is probably unnecessary to implement any additional controls.
Sulphur dioxide levels are usually below the standard, and where they exceed it there is
often a local, nontraffic related source of emissions. Given current levels of sulphur in
road fuels, road transport produces only a very small fraction of sulphur dioxide
emissions. Standards for future fuels specify even lower levels of sulphur and additional
controls on transport emissions are not needed.
114
It is estimated that road transport accounts for less than a third of PM 10 emissions
nationally. However, the proportion is likely to be higher in urban areas and near to
roads. Because this pollutant is probably the cause of greatest concern and
concentrations often exceed the standard, additional reductions in emissions, including
those from road vehicles, are desirable.
Only where there are industrial sources of lead are concentrations in excess of the
standard. The phasing out of lead in petrol in 2000 means that traffic emissions will
virtually disappear (they may continue at a very low level because of traces of lead in
unleaded petrol and the limited exceptions to the ban on lead additives such as a few
classic and vintage cars). No further actions are needed.
In summary, further reductions of emissions of oxides of nitrogen and PM 10 would be beneficial,
and it is those pollutants that environmental management policies should address. Emission
control through better engineering, promoted by increasingly stringent vehicle emission
standards, has been successful in bringing down levels of other trafficrelated compounds so
that they are almost always below the standards.
Most attention so far has been given to the emission and propagation of pollutants that may
damage health. There are, however, other types of impact, including contributions to the
regional and global problems of acid deposition and the greenhouse effect. Regarding the first
of these, the pollutants already discussed, especially hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen, are
especially implicated, but a different pollutant, carbon dioxide is the most important of the
greenhouse gases.
Carbon dioxide is formed when any carbon containing material is burnt. This includes almost all
of the fuels used, including petrol and diesel (and the other fuels that have been used or proposed
as suitable for road transport with the exception of hydrogen and electricity if it is generated by
a noncombustion plant). While there have been very significant reductions in the emission of
most pollutants by road vehicles, reductions in carbon dioxide emissions have been much more
modest. Because it is the natural end product of the combustion process, the amount of carbon
dioxide is proportional to the amount of fuel used, and that in turn is proportional to the amount
of transport activity provided. The only ways to reduce carbon dioxide emissions is to reduce the
amount of transport or to increase its efficiency: neither of these has happened systematically in
the past (Box 5.8). It is therefore also important that environmental management policies and
actions should seek to restrict fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emissions.
115
Freight transport by road has increased substantially measured in both tonne.km and vehicle.km. In the
same period, the tonnage of freight transported has increased by about 25%, and the larger increase in
tonne.km shows that goods are being carried over longer distances. Thus, the fuel consumed per tonne
of freight delivered has increased.
Passenger transport has also increased. Car fuel consumption improved considerably after concerns
about oil supplies in the 1970s, but since then it has remained fairly constant.
116
While carbon dioxide emissions in most sectors have been falling, those from road transport have more than doubled
since 1970.
In order that UK practice could conform more closely with the Directive, a new part was
introduced into the DMRB which provided a method of calculating the change in total
emissions of pollutants that would result from a road scheme. At the same time, the opportunity
was taken to extend the range of pollutants that were evaluated. There have subsequently been
two revisions to the DMRB. The latest version has been designed to be compatible with the
National Air Quality Strategy in terms of the pollutants that it considers and the air quality
standards to which it refers. Thus, air pollution estimates are made for the local impacts of
carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, benzene, 1,3butadiene and PM 10 , and for assessing the
potential regional and global impacts, estimates are made of the emissions of carbon monoxide,
oxides of nitrogen, total hydrocarbons, particulates and carbon dioxide.
5.4 Issues
The air pollution impact of road traffic can be described as a sequence of interacting stages.
First is the need for a particular transport operation and the decision on how it should be carried
out. Then the operation takes place, and its exact nature influences the amount of pollution
emitted. The emissions are dispersed, diluted and chemically transformed in the atmosphere,
and during that time they may impact on one or many parts of the environment. These stages
may also be taken to indicate areas in which it may be possible to introduce control policies
and practices. Transport planning may be used to optimise freight and passenger transport;
driving behaviour and vehicle technologies can be modified to produce less polluting journeys,
and land use practices could be helpful in segregating the transport activity from the most
sensitive parts of the environment.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
117
Consequently, the share of carbon dioxide emissions from road transport has increased from less
than 10% of the national total to more than 20%.
In the following paragraphs, consideration will be given only to the ways in which transport by
road may be made less polluting. The broader issues of transport and land use policies may in
some circumstances be more effective, but they are outside the scope of this chapter.
Carbon monoxide emissions from cars are strongly influenced by the fuel diesel produces much less than petrol.
Directive 91/441 saw the introduction of threeway catalysts, and a significant reduction in petrol car emissions.
Box 5.9: Examples of the effects of vehicle technical features on rates of exhaust emission.
5.9a: Fuel.
Particulate emissions also depend on the fuel and the vehicle type. In this case, diesels are the highest emitters, and
the size of the vehicle is also influential: LGVs emit more than cars; buses and HGVs more than LGVs.
Box 5.9: Examples of the effects of vehicle technical features on rates of exhaust emission.
5.9b: Vehicle type.
119
The weight of a goods vehicle obviously influences its carbon dioxide emissions since they are proportional to the fuel
consumption. It also has a marked effect on emissions of oxides of nitrogen.
Box 5.9: Examples of the effects of vehicle technical features on rates of exhaust emission.
5.9c: Weight class.
While these technical aspects are extremely important determinants of a vehicles emissions
performance, they are perhaps less directly the concern of those responsible for highway
management than the operational features that are discussed below. However, there are ways in
which roads may be regulated in order to control the composition of the traffic, and the criteria
could be based on the known emission characteristics of the vehicles. A number of local
authorities are, for example, considering the designation of low emission zones into which
vehicles will only be permitted if they reach the necessary standard of emission control (see, for
example, Cloke et al 2000; Hitchcock et al 1999). Restrictions could be based on vehicle age,
which dictates its emission standard to a large extent, or perhaps use a permit system where it
is necessary to gain prior permission to enter the zone. Other possible examples can be seen in
policies that have already been used for other purposes, such as lorry weight restrictions in
some urban areas, nighttime lorry bans and dedicated vehicle lanes (for example, bus, high
occupancy vehicles).
A single vehicle of a particular type will display wide variation in emissions depending on the
way it is used: many aspects of operation can be shown to affect a vehicles emissions. The
variable most often used to indicate a vehicles operating condition in emission studies is its
average speed during a trip. Many compilations of road vehicle emission factors provide
expressions for rates of emission as functions of average speed, and these functions are well
characterised (Box 5.10). Highest emissions are found at low speeds, which typically involve
frequent stops and starts, accelerations and decelerations. Operations of this type are inefficient
because the energy supplied to bring the vehicle to a certain speed is subsequently wasted when
it brakes to slow down or stop. There is also a tendency for some increase in emissions at high
speeds when extra fuel has to be delivered to provide the necessary high power.
120
Thus, while rates of emission are often expressed relative to a vehicles average speed, the speed
itself is not the direct cause of the variation. Rather, it is the sequence of operation of the engine
in order to produce a particular speed pattern. Implicit in the use of the average speed is the
assumption that certain road and traffic conditions will engender typical and repeatable
behaviour, giving rise to similarities in both the average speed and the more detailed operation
of the vehicles. However, recognising that the average speed is only a generalised indicator of
vehicle operations has promoted emission studies in which other variables have been used.
Most commonly, these are the vehicle speed and acceleration for light duty vehicles, and the
engine speed and load for heavy duty vehicles, chosen as parameters more directly related to
the operation of the engine and vehicle and thus potentially capable of explaining their
emissions performance more accurately (Box 5.10).
As well as these basic relationships between the motion of the vehicle and its engines
performance, other aspects of its operating environment are important. The load carried by a
vehicle affects its total weight, its fuel consumption and emissions. This is especially important
for heavy goods vehicles where the payload represents a much higher proportion of its total
weight than for other types of vehicle. Fuel consumption, oxides of nitrogen emissions and
particulate emissions from heavy duty diesels all show a relatively linear increase with the
weight of a vehicle. For an increase from 25 to 35 tonnes, oxides of nitrogen emissions increase
by about 50%, and those of particulates by about 15%. That is not to say, however, that it is
beneficial to operate vehicles with a lower payload, because then more trips would be
necessary to transport the same amount of goods. In a similar way, the additional energy needed
to climb road gradients also increases fuel consumption and emissions.
For a more comprehensive discussion of these issues, see Hickman (1999), from which many of
the examples are taken.
Carbon monoxide emissions from light duty vehicles show the characteristic increase at low speed, because of
inefficient stopstart driving, and at high speed, because of the increased power demand.
Box 5.10a: Typical variations in vehicle emission rates according to their operating conditions.
121
Oxides of nitrogen from heavy duty vehicles show a rather similar trend, although the increase at high speed is less
pronounced.
Box 5.10b: Typical variations in vehicle emission rates according to their operating conditions.
Oxides of nitrogen emissions from catalyst equipped petrol cars show a systematic increase with instantaneous speed
and with speed x acceleration (the product is used rather than acceleration alone because it is a better indication of the
power output from the engine).
Box 5.10c: Typical variations in vehicle emission rates according to their operating conditions.
122
When an engine is cold, the fuel does not evaporate fully when it is introduced into the engine.
This means that more fuel must be supplied in order to provide a mixture that will burn
smoothly. The use of fuel enrichment systems for cold engines causes emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons to increase substantially, as well as the fuel consumption. This
effect is especially noticeable for petrol engined vehicles. The use of catalysts on these vehicles
compounds this coldstart effect, as catalysts need an accurately controlled exhaust
composition for good efficiency, and also need to reach a temperature in excess of 300C before
they become effective. Under cold start conditions, neither of these conditions is met and rates
of emission may be an order of magnitude higher than from a hot engine and catalyst (although
they are no higher, in absolute terms than those from a noncatalyst vehicle). The temperature
dependency of emissions means that other aspects of vehicle operation influence them. The
number of trips a vehicle makes and the duration of the intervals between trips clearly dictate
the number of times it is started from cold, and each of those cold starts will result in excess
emissions being created. These operational features are also important in terms of emissions of
hydrocarbons by evaporation of the fuel.
Concentrations of total oxides of nitrogen measured near to the M4 motorway clearly reduce as the wind speed
increases. The relationship shows considerable scatter as the concentrations are also influenced by other conditions.
Box 5.11a: Observations of the influence of wind speed and direction on the dispersion of
traffic pollution.
123
Concentrations are highest when the wind direction is between south and west. Winds in this sector blow over the M4
towards the monitoring site. Winds in the opposite direction blow cleaner air to the monitoring site as it has not been
polluted by traffic emissions.
Box 5.11b: Observations of the influence of wind speed and direction on the dispersion of
traffic pollution.
Perhaps the most important influence on the spread of the pollution after its release is the
strength of the wind. Clearly, the emissions will be dispersed more quickly, and pollution
concentrations will be lower on a windy day than on a still day. The destination of the pollution
cloud depends principally on the direction of the wind (Box 5.11).
For an inert gas, the average effect of this windinfluenced dispersion is that the pollution
concentration decreases with distance from the road. As a rule of thumb, the concentration
halves for every 2530m from the road and reaches a level not much above the background
after 150200m. In urban areas, patterns of windflow are complex, and the situation is not so
simple as that at the rural motorway location chosen for this example, but the principles remain
the same. The pollutant emissions are diluted and dispersed by the movement of the air, and
concentrations tend to reduce with increasing distance from the traffic.
The second important factor, for some compounds is their reactivity in the atmosphere. Many of
the reactions that take place are photochemical (that is, are promoted by the absorption of solar
radiation), which has given rise to the term photochemical smog to describe the mixture of
gases and aerosols that result from the reactions. The mechanisms of the interactions are
extremely complex, but their products include ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrate and other oxidants,
aldehydes and ketones, acids and secondary particulates, predominantly nitrates and sulphates.
The full range of reactions and products are significant with regard to environmental impacts
over medium to long distances, but in the context of pollution concentrations near to roads,
perhaps the most important relationship is that between nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and
ozone. A large majority of the oxides of nitrogen emitted by road vehicles is in the form of nitric
oxide, which reacts rapidly with ozone in the air to produce nitrogen dioxide. Because nitrogen
124
Carbon monoxide is inert and has a low background level, so the concentration falls normally with increasing distance
from the road. Nitrogen dioxide is being produced by chemical reactions at the same time as it is diluted by the wind.
The combined effect is a slower rate of fall in concentration. PM 10 has a high background level, so although the traffic
emissions disperse in the normal way, the concentration does not fall to a very low value.
125
Document reference
LAQM.G1
LAQM.G2
LAQM.G3
LAQM.G4
LAQM.TG1
LAQM.TG2
LAQM.TG3
LAQM.TG4
Subject
Framework for review and assessment of air quality
Developing local air quality action plans and strategies
Air quality and transport
Air quality and land use planning
Monitoring for air quality reviews and assessments
Preparation and use of atmospheric emission inventories
Selection and use of dispersion models
Pollutant specific guidance
Box 5.13: Guidance documents issued for assistance with local air quality management.
5.5.1 Vehicle and fuel standards
Road vehicles sold in the UK must be type approved for emissions in accordance with
appropriate EU Directives. For light duty vehicles (up to 3.5 tonnes gross weight), an example
of each model is driven on a rolling road over a predetermined driving cycle and under strictly
controlled conditions. Emissions are collected and analysed for carbon monoxide, total
hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and, for diesel vehicles, total particulates. The emission rates
must be below defined limit values for the model to be approved.
For heavy duty vehicles a slightly different procedure is used, in that only the engine is tested, on
an engine dynamometer. Nevertheless, the same principles apply: the engine is operated over a
defined duty cycle and rates of emission must be below set limits for approval to be given.
Very large reductions have been made to the allowable rates of emission, and modern vehicles
are substantially less polluting than their predecessors (see Box 5.5).
This type approval test applies to new engines and vehicles. It is the responsibility of the
manufacturer to ensure that the standards are achieved through good design, engineering and
manufacturing procedures. However, once a vehicle has been sold, it becomes the
responsibility of its operator to ensure that a good standard is maintained. UK and EU
regulations require periodic inspections to be made of each vehicles emissions performance:
for cars in the UK, this is done as part of the MOT test, and for HGVs during their analogous
annual inspection. Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions from petrol vehicles and
smoke emissions from diesel vehicles must be below the relevant limit values for a pass
certificate to be awarded. As a supplement to the periodic inspection, the Vehicle Inspectorate
operates random roadside tests 2 .
Good quality fuels are necessary to allow vehicles to operate to their full potential, and fuel
qualities are also regulated through British Standards and EU Directives. Many of the fuel
properties covered by the standards have an influence on emissions, and a number of recent
studies have examined these links. Largely as a result of the Auto Oil Programmes in Europe
(tripartite research programmes involving the European Commission, vehicle manufacturers
and the oil industry, see also Section 2.3.3), the latest fuel standards have been developed with
emission control as one of their main objectives. The purpose of the most recent EU Directive
(98/70/EC) is:
To set a range of technical specifications, on health and environmental grounds, for petrol and
diesel fuels. As well as providing emissions benefits in their own right, these tighter
specifications are necessary to enable the use of advanced technology for emissions control and
greater fuel efficiency.
2 In 1998 and 1999, a number of local authorities piloted a scheme of random roadside checks. Owners of vehicles
found to fail the emission test could be subject to a fixed penalty fine of 60. No decision has yet been taken on the
extension of this pilot experiment.
126
Pollutant
Benzene
Measurement techniques
Benzene is usually measured by gas chromatography (GC). Samples can be collected by
drawing air through a suitable adsorbant and are then desorbed and introduced into a GC for
analysis. The desorption can be by a solvent or by heating. Instruments are also available that
will perform the analysis almost continuously. These are GCs fitted with a gas sampling
system which take and analyse samples automatically, several times an hour.
1,3butadiene
1,3butadiene measurement methods are very similar to those for benzene. Different
adsorption and desorption procedures and different chromatographic conditions are needed,
but the same principles apply.
Carbon monoxide
Measurement of carbon monoxide is most often based on its absorption of infra red radiation
at a certain wavelength. Instruments sample the air continuously and the concentration is
determined from the difference in absorption between the sample and a reference. Another
method measures the current generated when an air sample is passed through a special
electrochemical cell in which carbon monoxide is oxidised to carbon dioxide.
Lead
Almost all of the lead emitted by road vehicles is in the form of fine particles of lead salts.
The concentration is usually found by the laboratory analysis of particles collected by
drawing air through a suitable filter. The lead is extracted using an acidic solvent. The
resulting solution can be analysed by many techniques, of which perhaps the most common
are atomic absorption spectrophotometry and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.
Nitrogen dioxide
Ozone
Ozone is usually monitored through its absorption of ultra violet radiation at a particular
wavelength. Analysers continuously measure the concentration in the sample air, which is
directly proportional to the amount of absorbance.
Particles
There are many methods available for the measurement of particles. Basic mass
measurements are usually made by collecting particles on a filter special air inlets can be
used to discriminate size fractions such as PM 10 or PM 2.5 . Continuous mass measurements
may be obtained using a tapered element oscillating microbalance, which determines the
changing weight of the filter by its effect on the oscillation frequency of a crystal upon which
it is mounted. When period averages are needed, the filters are weighed on an analytical
balance before and after the particles are collected. Particle size distributions, particle
number counts and other properties may be monitored with specialist equipment. Another
common method is the British Standard black smoke determination. Particles are collected
on a filter and their concentration is estimated from the darkness of the stain they produce.
Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide has been monitored in the UK for many years. Traditionally, the method has
been to absorb sulphur dioxide by passing air through a solution of hydrogen peroxide and
to determine the resulting sulphuric acid by titration with sodium borate solution. More
recently, though, a number of continuous, instrumental techniques have been made
available. The most common are based on flame photometry or pulsed fluorescence. In a
flame photometer, the sulphur dioxide is burnt in a hydrogen flame and emits ultra violet
radiation proportional to its concentration. The pulsed fluorescence method uses ultra violet
radiation to excite the molecules of sulphur dioxide, and the resulting fluorescence is
proportional to the concentration.
Box 5.14:
Common
techniques for
measuring air
pollutants.
127
128
129
objectives, an assessment was made of the extent to which national and international policies
alone would be sufficient for their achievement. For some pollutants in some circumstances it
was recognised that supplementary local actions would be necessary. A staged approach was
therefore developed, under the local air quality management system, that would identify
problems and set out action plans for their resolution.
Local air quality management requires local authorities periodically to review and assess the current
and future air quality in their areas. If it is likely that the objectives of the Air Quality Strategy will
not be met, the authority must designate an air quality management area and produce an action
plan setting out the measures that it intends to take in order to mitigate the problem.
To support the local authorities in fulfilling these responsibilities, the Government has issued an
extensive series of guidance documents. It is not possible here to repeat their contents
extensively, but simply to list the topics they address (Box 5.13). More detailed information can
be found in the documents themselves (Department of the Environment, Transport and the
Regions, 2000).
In their discussion of local air quality management, the Government states:
Because of various local factors, some poor air quality hotspots are likely to remain, even after
implementation of national policies and industrial regulation. These are often associated with
traffic, which is not controlled by any regulatory regime. The Government and the devolved
authorities believe these hotspots are best dealt with locally through local air quality
management.
Much of the remainder of this chapter will examine this subject. It will consider the means
available to review and assess traffic pollution in a particular location through monitoring and
modelling and, for those situations where problems may be identified, consideration will be
given to the measures that can be used for control and mitigation on a local scale.
131
The main sources of emission from road vehicles are the exhaust gases and hydrocarbons
produced by evaporation of the fuel. When an engine is started below its normal operating
temperature, it uses fuel inefficiently, and the amount of pollution produced is higher than
when it is hot. These observations lead to the first basic relationship used in the calculation
method, that is:
where:
E
E hot
E start
E evaporative
is
is
is
is
the
the
the
the
total emission
emission produced when the engine is hot
emission when the engine is cold
emission by evaporation (only for hydrocarbons)
Each of these contributions to the total emission depends on an emission factor and one or
more parameters relating to the operation of the vehicle, so that in general:
where:
Ex
ex
a
E x= e x
The calculation method in the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges requires the user to
provide only limited input data. For each road under consideration, the average traffic flow
and speed, the percentage of heavy duty vehicles and the distance to the receptor position
must be specified.
Tables and graphs give estimates of the annual average traffic produced concentrations of
carbon monoxide, total hydrocarbons, total oxides of nitrogen and particles that would
result from a standard traffic flow (1000 vehicles/hour travelling at 100 km/h) at the
appropriate distance from the road.
The given traffic data are used with other data tables or graphs to calculate the equivalent
number of standard vehicles, and the concentration is adjusted for the actual flow
conditions.
The traffic derived pollution is added to a background figure and finally converted to match
the statistics of the National Air Quality Standards against which the results are evaluated.
Empirically derived conversion functions are given as follows:
Carbon monoxide: Annual mean to maximum 8hour mean
Total hydrocarbons: Annual mean to annual mean benzene and 1,3butadiene
Total oxides of nitrogen: Annual mean to annual mean and 99.8 th percentile of hourly
mean nitrogen dioxide
Particles: Annual mean to 90th percentile of daily means
Box 5.18: An outline of the air pollution calculation method of the DMRB.
likelihood that an air quality standard will be exceeded, and the methods used in the assessment
become more detailed and accurate at each stage.
The assessment procedure may involve pollution measurement, modelling or a combination of
the two.
133
Traffic
Driver Behaviour
Vehicle Operations
Emissions
Air Quality
and operating costs, but they are able to measure in real time to provide data on concentrations
for any averaging period. Some of the more commonly used methods of measuring the
pollutants covered by the Air Quality Strategy are indicated in Box 5.14. Boxes 5.15 and 5.16
show examples of the equipment and their installations.
As well as the types of equipment to use, two other facets of any measurement campaign should
be considered carefully the location(s) and duration of the measurement. Concerning the
position at which the measurements are taken, there are perhaps two main considerations.
Firstly, it should be noted that the concentrations of most pollutants decrease rapidly with
increasing distance from the source (see box 5.12). Therefore, when road traffic is the source,
the highest levels will be found at the kerbside 3 . However, local air quality impacts are usually
evaluated in terms of their potential to harm health, and for that it is necessary for people to be
exposed to the pollution. Thus, even though there may be high concentrations at the side of a
busy major road, it may be more appropriate to monitor the pollution further away if people live
and work in a more distant area. Indeed, the Air Quality Strategy states that:
The objectives defined in the strategy apply to locations which are situated outside buildings
or manmade structures above or below ground and where members of the public are regularly
present and might reasonably be expected to be exposed over the relevant averaging period.
For pollutants such as benzene and lead, where the objectives relate to annual average
concentrations, it is unlikely that a roadside location would represent typical levels of exposure.
3 There are exceptions, especially ozone and other photochemical oxidants, for which the highest concentrations are
often in rural areas. These pollutants are created by chemical reactions as their precursors disperse away from the
emission source. However, local actions will have little influence on such compounds.
134
135
Thus, in choosing a site for air pollution measurements, some compromise between the highest
pollution levels and the highest levels of exposure is often appropriate.
It can be seen in box 5.11, for example, that pollution concentrations at a single location may
vary considerably. The graphs in Box 5.11 show hourly average oxides of nitrogen concentrations
near the M4 motorway in the approximate range of 10 to 500ppb. Some of this variability is
because of changes in the emission source strength (that it, the traffic flow) at different times of
the day and some is the result of variations in the weather conditions and their influence on the
dispersion of the pollution. As a consequence, measurements made over a short time period may
not be representative of the more general conditions at a particular location. Furthermore, most
of the objectives of the Air Quality Strategy require measurements made over at least one year,
either because the limit value is expressed as an annual mean (for example, 1,3butadiene) or as
a percentile of shorter period averages during a year (for example, PM 10 as the 90 th percentile of
daily means). That is not to say that shortterm measurements cannot be useful for some purposes,
but for the characterisation of typical pollution levels they are not usually adequate.
136
Traffic management
measure
UTC system
for central area
traffic signals
Parking control on
major urban roads
Parking control
within urban areas
Central area
traffic restraint
Traffic calming
measures
Public transport
pricing policies
Car pooling
HOV lanes
Uncertainties
Box 5.21: The potential for traffic management to reduce vehicle emissions (from Cloke et al 1998).
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
137
Scenario
Road
traffic volume
Baseline
A
B
C
D
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
132
129
127
124
119
118
118
119
118
119
116
Congestion
(average
time delay)
111
105
101
87
71
70
69
69
70
68
67
Pollutant emissions
Carbon
dioxide
101
99
97
95
91
91
91
92
91
92
90
Particles
33
32
32
31
29
29
29
29
29
29
29
Oxides of
nitrogen
26
26
25
25
24
24
24
24
24
24
23
139
In central London in
2005, it is estimated
that almost 70% of
emissions of oxides of
nitrogen will be from
goods vehicles and
buses. Even in outer
London, where cars
make up more than 80%
of the traffic, their
contribution to NO X
emissions
is
only
around one third.
The
situation
for
particulate emissions is
almost the same, but in
this case the car
contribution is about
15% in inner, and 30%
in outer London.
1998). The programme was designed following a review of existing information and comprised 16
related projects intended to fill the most important knowledge gaps. The 16 projects were further
subdivided according to their position in a defined sequence of interactions between traffic and
air pollution (Box 5.19), and are listed in Box 5.20. Much of the research is as yet incomplete and
it is not therefore possible to report its findings in detail. Nevertheless the reviews conducted in
the early stages of the programme have produced some useful results that will be refined and
supplemented in future years. Box 5.21 reproduces a summary table from one such review which
lists a number of common traffic management techniques and gives a broad estimate of their likely
effects on travel patterns and vehicle emissions.
the
the
the
the
type of vehicle;
fuel used;
level of emission control, and
conditions under which it operates
Furthermore, atmospheric dispersion, dilution and chemical reactions modify the impacts of the
emissions on levels of air pollution.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
141
These basic observations have been used to suggest a number of general policies and principles
that should be applied to minimise the impacts. Firstly, a range of options are available to
reduce traffic emissions, and secondly, the impact of the emissions can, in some circumstances,
also be reduced.
Cleaner local vehicle fleets. Local authorities are encouraged by the Government to
establish Quality Partnerships with bus operators and freight carriers. In return for the
provision of improved facilities, the authority may require that vehicles reach a certain
environmental standard. Similarly, contracts for local authority services (for example,
refuse collection, school transport) could be awarded, in part, on the basis of the
emission standard of the vehicles used.
Promotion of city fuels. Even older vehicles can benefit from the use of modern fuels
manufactured to a high specification. One of the main objectives of the latest fuel
standards is to reduce sulphur levels. This can have a direct beneficial effect on
emissions, but also increases the effectiveness and durability of exhaust aftertreatment
systems (catalysts and particulate traps).
Emission control standards. The standard to which a vehicle is type approved is a good
indicator of its relative emissions performance (see Box 5.5), and may also be used as a
criterion for control. The principle might be used in specifying access rights within a low
emission zone, qualification to participate in a quality partnership, to compete for local
authority contracts, and so on. Regular vehicle maintenance can help to maintain the
emission standard of a vehicle in use. This can be promoted through educational
campaigns, roadside emission checks and incentives to motorists to have their vehicles
checked, perhaps involving local businesses such as supermarkets (who have allowed
their car parks to be used by motoring organisations) and garages (who may offer
promotional cutprice services).
Incentive schemes. There are a number of ways in which older vehicles may be modified
to reduce their emissions. Aftertreatment systems exist that can be retrofitted to
noncatalyst petrol vehicles that bring their performance almost to the Euro 1 level;
particulate traps may be retrofitted to diesel vehicles, and many types of vehicle can be
modified to operate using alternative fuels such as CNG and LPG. However, because of
the relatively low value of the vehicles for which these would be beneficial, it is likely
that their widespread adoption would require some form of incentive. The incentive
could be financial, or one of the forms mentioned earlier, such as qualification for access
into a restricted area. An alternative to retrofit systems is prematurely to scrap older
vehicles, to accelerate the rate at which newer technologies penetrate the vehicle fleet.
The introduction and maintenance of a clean vehicle fleet is important. Technological
improvements to vehicles and fuels have been the single most effective means of controlling
and reducing traffic derived pollution. But the performance even of a clean fleet can be further
improved by constraining its operations. Emissions are at their lowest when vehicles are
operated at moderate speeds as smoothly as possible. For example, early work by Joumard et al
(1989) showed that, at speeds characteristic of urban driving, emissions at a constant speed
were of the order of a half of those at the same average speed but with the normal accelerations,
decelerations, stops and starts found in urban traffic. Many types of traffic management scheme
have been considered with the objective of reducing emissions by smoothing the progress of the
traffic, and a number have been mentioned in the context of the TRAMAQ programme (section
5.7.1).
As noted, there is considerable overlap between the various traffic management options that are
available, and many of the traffic reduction measures and controls on the traffic composition
may be included in this general category. There are also, though, types of traffic management
that affect principally the movement of the vehicles rather than their number or types.
Perhaps the most widely used are urban traffic control systems which control traffic light
sequences to optimise flows at junctions. These may be of two basic types: those with a fixed
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
143
series of time delays and those whose time delays vary in real time in response to the traffic
conditions. The first type is typified by the TRANSYT system (Robertson et al 1980), and the
second by SCOOT (Hunt et al 1981). Coordination of signals using systems of this type has been
shown to reduce delays, fuel consumption and emissions, with benefits improving as the system
becomes more adaptive. A normal SCOOT system is likely to reduce emissions by around 10%
to 20%, and coordination especially for emission control can give an additional benefit of two
to four percent.
A second type of management procedure of this general type is a priority system for certain
types of vehicle. Bus and cycle lanes are becoming common, sometimes also permitting use by
taxis, and a small number of dedicated lanes for high occupancy vehicles have been piloted.
Further priority can be given at junctions, using systems to detect the favoured type of vehicle
and allow it to proceed more quickly than others. The emissions benefits from such priority
schemes appear to be very uncertain, and sometimes negative. The main reason for this is that,
by giving priority to a particular vehicle type, a scheme is almost certain to cause extra delays
to the rest of the traffic. Since the preferred vehicles are usually only a minority of the traffic,
their gains are often outweighed by the effects on the remainder of the traffic. A related type of
measure is the limitation and control of roadside parking. In the same way as the provision of a
dedicated lane allows certain vehicles to progress more smoothly, the release of road space
formerly occupied by parked vehicles eases the circulation of the traffic, but in this case the
effect is on all vehicle types, so delays, fuel consumption and emissions tend to reduce.
Finally, in this group of measures, are the imposition and enforcement of speed limits. The
benefits from better control of speeds are probably greatest on roads carrying high speed traffic,
and two aspects will be considered. Perhaps counterintuitively, congestion on motorways can
be relieved by reducing the speed limit. This has the effect of delaying the onset of flow
breakdown, by reducing the likelihood of high speed traffic encountering convoys of slower
vehicles. The principle has been exploited in the installation of a variable speed limit system on
a 20km section of the M25 motorway. Depending on the flow conditions, reduced speed limits
of 40, 50 or 60mph may replace the normal national limit. The main reason for introducing the
system was to improve safety, but it has also been evaluated for its effect on emission rates.
Barlow (1997) estimated that emissions were reduced by the order of 10%. However, as with all
types of traffic management that reduce congestion, there is a risk that additional traffic will be
attracted by the improved situation.
Another aspect of speed control that may be of increasing importance is that of vehicles
travelling at very high speeds, although there is at present little quantitative information
available. In order to be effective, the catalysts on modern petrol vehicles need to be supplied
with exhaust whose composition is carefully controlled to contain a balance of oxidising and
reducing compounds. This is not possible when there is a very high power demand on the
engine, as extra fuel needs to be supplied. In limited tests, Vidon et al (1998) found rates of
emission to be very high under high engine loads. Carbon monoxide emissions were 200 to
20,000 times higher for loads greater than 75% of the maximum, and those of oxides of nitrogen
were ten times higher. Over the motorway test cycle they used, about 90% of the carbon
monoxide emissions occurred during only 15% of the time.
144
It is a simple principle that, whatever the weather, concentrations tend to reduce with
increasing distance from the point at which the pollution is emitted. This fact suggests another
group of pollution control measures based on the separation of people and sensitive ecologies
from road sources. A bypass, for example, although it may be longer than a direct route through
a town or village and, consequently, may give rise to more emissions than the direct route, can
be beneficial in terms of its air quality impacts by reducing the exposure of the people in the
conurbation. As shown in section 5.4.2, concentrations can fall substantially over relatively
small distances, and careful alignment of roads can enable the avoidance of high levels in
locations where people are exposed. This may be particularly helpful if those involved are among
the more susceptible of the population (for example children at school or those in hospitals).
Further protection can be provided by screening belts of vegetation. Plants, especially dense
bushes and trees, remove some pollutants from the air by physical deposition onto their leaves
and other parts. Additionally, some gaseous pollutants are taken up by the plants during
transpiration. To be effective, though, it is necessary for planting to be rather extensive.
A final consideration is that periods of high pollution are caused primarily when the weather
conditions are adverse. On a day to day timescale, flows of traffic and their resulting emissions
are relatively constant. Pollution concentrations on the other hand may vary by an order of
magnitude or more. The highest concentrations occur usually during still winter days when the
reduced dispersion of the emissions allows them to build up in the air near to where they were
released. While this phenomenon does not, in itself, offer a control mechanism, it demonstrates
one of the ways in which control mechanisms may be deployed. If it is possible reliably to
predict the occurrence of a period of high pollution, measures could be implemented to reduce
emissions only at the times when there is a risk of poor air quality. Because this is likely to occur
only a few times a year, the measures could be more extensive and restrictive than would be
acceptable at all times of the year. Perhaps the greatest challenge in this respect is to predict the
pollution episode early enough to give sufficient warning for people to change their travel
plans, and for authorities to activate their control measures.
145
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. For example, while an electric vehicle may be
sometimes termed a zero emission vehicle, this is rarely the case since the electricity
is usually generated by a combustion plant. It is therefore important in the development
of clean vehicles that their life cycle emissions, including those from the fuel production
be taken into account. If electric vehicles are promoted, there should also be investment
in renewable energy sources such as tidal, solar, wind and hydroelectricity production.
Efforts should also be made to improve the fuel economy of traditional vehicle types.
Improved assessment procedures
Most of the measures that can be implemented to reduce traffic pollution have both positive and
negative impacts and should be evaluated carefully and objectively before application. A few
examples of this type of conflict are 5 :
Dedicated road space: Lanes are frequently dedicated to certain types of vehicle (for
example, buses, high occupancy vehicles), and this may be associated with other
measures such as priority at signal controlled junctions. This will improve journey times
and reduce fuel consumption and emissions from the vehicles given priority, but will
have the opposite effect on other traffic. As the priority vehicles are almost always a
minority of the traffic, the overall result may be a worsening of the situation.
Increased public transport: Each public transport vehicle, because of its size, uses more
fuel and creates more pollution than a car. It is clear that public transport is less polluting
than the equivalent amount of travel by car only if high occupancy levels can be
consistently maintained.
Traffic management to reduce congestion: This will, in the short term, produce lower
emissions. However, easier driving conditions may attract more traffic and reverse the
effect.
Retrofit particulate traps: These are now reasonably common on heavyduty diesel
vehicles. They are very effective in reducing particulate emissions, but have no effect on
other pollutants or on fuel consumption. If the use of a retrofit system encourages the
extended use of older engines, it may be less beneficial than the encouragement of newer
engines with improved control for all pollutants.
Control of traffic and transport
Transport operations are frequently inefficient, and fuel consumption and emissions could be
reduced by better optimisation. For example:
Many lorries carry a load from their origin to destination but return empty (on average,
about 30% of lorry mileage is without a load).
Better coordination of timetables and provision of more, and more accurate, travel
information could make public passenger transport attractive to a greater number of
people.
Greater restrictions of onstreet parking could reduce delays to other vehicles and
produce less polluting driving patterns.
Aggressive and high speed driving produces high rates of emission. Improved training and
greater awareness, better enforcement of speed limits, or the more widespread use of
speed limiters (and perhaps acceleration limiters) on vehicles could all be beneficial.
5 In giving these examples, it is not intended to imply that these measures are ineffective, but only to point out that
their potential disbenefits should not be ignored during an evaluation
146
Traffic reduction
There is an obvious link between the amount of traffic and the pollution it produces.
Reducing the amount of traffic would reduce congestion and allow the remaining traffic
to use the road space more efficiently.
In the longer term, land use planning could help to change the numbers of journeys
needed and their distances.
In the shorter term, many transport policies and traffic management procedures could be
configured to discourage journeys or make alternative travel modes available.
References
Advisory Committee on Trunk
Road Assessment, 1977
147
148
Hitchcock G, T Parker,
J Longhurst and A Simmons,
1999
19931994
19941995
19951996
1,016
595
81
36
17
3,468
1,120
168
59
64
3,949
1,320
300
60
111
4,895
1,466
229
66
48
Table 6.1: Reported number of complaints per million population in England & Wales
categorised into different noise source types.
6.1.2 Sources of road traffic noise
Sources of noise from road vehicles can be separated into two distinct components: those
associated with the engine, transmission and exhaust systems, and those associated with the
interaction of the tyres on the road surface. At lower traffic speeds of up to around 40km/hr the
engine, transmission and exhaust sources tend to control the radiated noise levels. The
magnitude of these sources are all related to engine speed. At higher traffic speeds, the tyre
noise becomes increasingly dominant. The magnitude of this source of noise is related to
vehicle speed. Therefore in urban environments a combination of engine, exhaust and tyre
noise dominates, whilst on free flowing open roads tyre noise generally dominates. This is with
the exception of HGV noise which can still be dominated by diesel engine related noise, even
at relatively high vehicle speeds.
149
for instance, have seen a reduction in permissible noise levels, as measured in accordance with
standard typeapproval limits, of 8dB(A) over this period, whilst for HGVs the reduction has
been 11dB(A).
Vehicle Type
Cars
HGVs
Year of Directive
1980
1993
1996
82dB(A)
91dB(A)
77dB(A)
84dB(A)
74dB(A)
80dB(A)
Table 6.2: Maximum permissible noise levels of road vehicles based on EC Directives, as
measured in accordance with standard typeapproval tests.
Advances in vehicle low noise technology have been assisted by the introduction of additional
noise mitigation measures such as roadside barriers, quieter road surfaces and the introduction
of planning policies guarding against the juxtaposition of noisy roads and noise sensitive
accommodation. However, the reductions in road traffic noise levels experienced by the general
population have not seen anywhere near the overall reductions implied from the increasingly
stringent legislation. Instead, whilst the number of people exposed to very high traffic noise
levels has decreased, a gradual increase in the total number of people exposed to lower traffic
noise levels has been observed (Flindell, 1996).
equilibrium position. The speed of the oscillations determines the frequency, or pitch, of the
sound, whilst the amplitude of oscillations governs the loudness of the sound. A healthy human
ear is capable of detecting sounds at all frequencies from around 20Hz to 20kHz over an
amplitude range of approximately 1,000,000 to 1. Even relatively modest sound level meters are
capable of detecting sounds over this range of amplitudes and frequencies, although the
accuracy limits of sound level meters vary depending on the quality of the unit (BS5969, 1981).
When undertaking measurements of road traffic noise, as with all other noise measurements, it
is important to select a measurement system that possesses the relevant accuracy tolerances and
is calibrated to a known standard.
Whilst measurement systems exist that are capable of detecting the range of sounds detected by
the human ear, the complexities of human response to sound make the derivation of subjective
response from a simple objective measure an intractable problem. Not only does human
response to sound vary from person to person, but it can also depend on the activity and state
of mind of an individual at the time of the assessment. In practice a complete range of responses
to any given sound may be observed. Thus any objective measure of noise can at best be used
to infer the average subjective response over a sample population.
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
Combined level of
A and B
X 10 dB
X 5 dB
X 3 dB
X 1 dB
X dB
X + 1 dB
X + 3 dB
X + 5dB
X + 10 dB
X + 0.4 dB
X + 1.2 dB
X + 1.8 dB
X + 2.5 dB
X + 3.0 dB
X + 3.5 dB
X + 4.8 dB
X + 6.2 dB
X + 10.4 dB
Table 6.3(a): The effect on the total sound pressure level, in decibels, of combining two
separate noise sources of different relative levels.
151
Level due to
each noise source
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
Combined level of
A and B
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
X + 0.0 dB
X + 3.0 dB
X + 4.8 dB
X + 6.0 dB
X + 7.0 dB
X + 7.8 dB
X + 8.5 dB
X + 9.0 dB
X + 9.5 dB
X + 10.0 dB
Table 6.3(b): The effect on the total sound pressure level, in decibels, of combining different
numbers of equal noise sources.
An increase in sound pressure level of 3dB is commonly accepted as the smallest change of any
subjective significance. An increase of 10dB is often claimed to result in a perceived doubling
in loudness, although the basis for this claim is not well founded. An increase of 3dB is
equivalent to a doubling in sound energy, which is the same as doubling the number of similar
sources. An increase of 10dB is equivalent to increasing the number of similar sources tenfold.
Putting these numbers into perspective, it requires a doubling in the volume of traffic using a
road to increase the noise level by 3dB.
153
Figure 6.1: Variation in L A10,1hr sound pressure levels measured simultaneously at 10m and
500m from a busy motorway over 30 separate 24 hour periods. The component of vector
wind speed blowing from the road to the measurement location over the period ranged from
4ms 1 to +4ms 1.
6.2.9 Effect of microphone location relative to reflective surfaces
The physical location of the measurement microphone relative to a solid vertical surface can
affect the measured noise level. In this context a clear distinction is made between freefield
and faade noise levels. Measurements taken ten metres or more away from a building faade
are termed freefield measurements whilst measurements taken one metre or less from a
building faade are termed faade measurements. The effect of the traffic noise reflecting off
a faade under the latter condition results in an increase in the noise level of approximately
+2.5dB(A) at one metre from the faade compared with the level that would have been
measured in the absence of the faade.
154
The effect of microphone height on the measured noise level is not so straightforward, as two
different effects occur. These effects are both frequency dependent, one being due to ground
absorption and the other being due to ground reflections, the latter of which can both amplify
and attenuate noise through destructive interference. Two standard measurement heights are
employed: 1.2m to 1.5m to represent ground floor level and 4.0m to represent first floor level.
There are no simple relationships between the noise levels measured at the two measurement
heights, particularly at locations close to the road, and so the best advice is to be consistent and
compare like with like.
traffic volume flowrate (vehicles per hour or vehicles per 18 hour day);
mean traffic speed;
percentage of heavy goods vehicles;
road gradient, and
road surface type.
To ensure the validity of the calculation procedure, enough vehicles must use the road to
produce a relatively steady noise level. A minimum traffic volume flowrate of 200 vehicles per
hour or 4000 vehicles per 18 hour day is therefore stipulated, with correction factors
additionally being provided to extend the calculation down to 50 vehicles per hour or 1000
vehicles per 18 hour day. Based on these traffic flow limitations, one situation, for example,
clearly not covered by the CTRN method is that of intermittent night time lorry deliveries to
community stores in residential areas. The procedure set out in BS4142 (1997) is often resorted
to for the assessment of this type of noise, but the results of this level of increase over
background noise assessment should be used with extreme care.
Table 6.4 presents typical source noise levels calculated using the CRTN procedure. A base case
is taken as the noise level ten metres from the edge of the nearside carriageway of a five percent
gradient, impervious bitumen surfaced road carrying 20,000 vehicles per 18 hour day, of which
ten percent are HGVs, with a mean traffic speed of 70km/hr. The calculated noise level for
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
155
these conditions is 74.3dB(A). The table lists changes in noise levels resulting from independent
changes in the various parameters, all other values remaining unchanged.
Parameter
Lower
parameter values
Upper parameter
values
Vehicles/18hr day
Mean traffic
speed, km/h
%age HGV
Road gradient
40,000
50km/hr
3.0dB(A)
1.6dB(A)
80,000
70km/hr
0.0dB(A)
0.0dB(A)
120,000
90km/hr
+1.8dB(A)
+1.7dB(A)
0%
0%
2.0dB(A)
1.1dB(A)
10%
5%
0.0dB(A)
0.0dB(A)
20%
10%
+1.4dB(A)
+1.0dB(A)
Table 6.4: Sensitivity of the traffic source noise levels calculated using the CRTN procedure to
changes in the basic input parameters.
The actual noise level heard by a listener will only match the source level calculated according
to the CRTN if that listener is located ten metres from the road in question. The CRTN procedure
therefore provides a means of extending the calculation to a receiver location at distances up to
300m from the road. The parameters included in this calculation comprise:
When the receiver location lies close to the road in question, the received noise level will be
dominated by noise emanating from the short section of the road immediately adjacent. In this
case, a single set of source and propagation parameters may be applicable. However, as the
receiver location gets further away from the road, the noise level may become affected by
several different segments of the road over which the basic parameters vary. As an example, a
stretch of road may contain a straight segment over which vehicles travel at 90km/h, yet this
may lead directly into a roundabout where the average vehicle speed reduces to 20km/hr with
a consequent reduction in traffic noise level. Equally, a continuous stretch of road may have a
noise barrier erected along part of its length, again significantly affecting the noise at the
receiver. One of the basic principles set out in the CRTN is therefore to break complex road
schemes into segments such that the level over any segment does not vary by more than 2dB(A).
The total noise level at the assessment point is then calculated by logarithmically summing the
contributions from the individual road segments.
Meteorological effects are known to significantly alter noise propagation outdoors, especially at
large distances between the source and receiver (see Figure 6.1). The CRTN procedure accounts
for this by stating that calculated traffic noise levels relate to moderately adverse conditions,
meaning that a light component of wind blows from the road towards the assessment point.
The sensitivity of traffic noise levels to meteorological conditions at large distances from roads
is recognised in the scope of applicability of the CRTN procedure with a suggested maximum
road to receiver separation distance of 300m. The current advisory document relating to the
design of roads, the Design Manual for Roads & Bridges (Department of Transport, 1994),
recommends the use of a Supplementary Report issued by the Transport and Road Research
Laboratory entitled Rural Traffic Noise Prediction An Approximation (Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, 1978) to calculate traffic noise levels at larger distances from roads.
However, the methods presented in the TRRL report apply to broad brush calculations of noise
levels over large areas of land. For calculations of noise levels at specific locations for the
156
purpose of before and after comparisons it is recommended that the CRTN method always
be used, even for situations where the calculation point lies greater than the 300m from the road
in question.
157
The results of three studies on subjective response are reported in the DMRB (Department of
Transport, 1994) which considers two different situations. The first concerns response to a
steady level of traffic noise with no sudden changes in level. The second case relates to a
sudden change in noise level, such as may occur when a new or modified road scheme is
developed. In the reported surveys the subjective effect of traffic noise was assessed by recourse
to questionnaires that enquired as to whether the reaction of the respondents to the noise was
to be bothered very much, quite a lot, not very or not at all.
The results of the research are summarised in Figure 2 of the DMRB. They demonstrate that a
free field external L A10,18hr traffic noise level of 55dB(A) results in eight percent of people being
very much or quite a lot bothered by the noise. At noise levels above 60dB(A) the
percentage of people annoyed very much or quite a lot increases at an average of around
2.5% for each 1dB(A) increase in noise level until at levels above 75dB(A) most people are
likely to be bothered by the noise to a significant degree. The region between 55dB(A) and
60dB(A) forms a transition area. For noise levels below 55dB(A) the correlation between noise
level and annoyance is not so clear, the observation being that community dissatisfaction
becomes more dependent on factors other than traffic flow.
The free field external L A10,18hr traffic noise level of around 55dB(A) at which there appears to
be a low degree of nuisance can be compared with other published data on what constitutes a
generally acceptable level of environmental noise. The UK Planning Policy Guidance Note
(PPG) PPG 24 (Department of the Environment, 1994a), the World Health Organisation
Environmental Health Criteria Document 12 on Noise (World Health Organisation, 1980), the
CEC, Environment and Quality of Life, Damage and Annoyance Caused by Noise
(Commission of the European Communities, 1975) and the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) Reducing Noise Impact in OECD Countries
(Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development, 1991) all conclude that daytime
L Aeq environmental noise levels of less than 55dB will result in little likelihood of community
reaction. The daytime averaged L A10,T noise level is typically 2dB(A) higher than the daytime
averaged L Aeq,T noise level in environments where road traffic noise dominates.
taken to mitigate it. The final report (Wilson, 1963) noted there is a considerable amount of
evidence that, as living standards rise, people are less inclined to tolerate noise.
The World Health Organisation published in 1980 the WHO Environmental Health Criteria
Report 12 on Noise (World Health Organisation, 1980). Road traffic noise was singled out as the
main source of community noise and the possible adverse health effects of noise were noted.
Thus the possibility of the adverse secondary health effects of noise was increasingly introduced
in addition to annoyance affects.
The community noise problem is fundamentally a matter of public perception. Since the Wilson
report considerable improvements have been made in quietening the engine and exhaust noise
from individual road vehicles. Acting against this reduction is the volume of traffic, peoples
expectations for peace and quiet and a general increase in public environmental awareness.
159
is defined in terms of both the daytime L Aeq,16hr measured over the period 07:00 to 23:00 and
the nighttime L Aeq,8hr measured over the period 23:00 to 07:00. All noise levels given in PPG
24 are stated as free field noise levels. That is, the noise levels measured out of doors at the
proposed location of the noise sensitive development. The notes relating to each of the four
NECs are:
NEC A Noise need not be considered as a determining factor in granting planning
permission.
NEC B Noise should be taken into account and, where appropriate, conditions
imposed.
NEC C Planning permission should not normally be granted unless other reasons
dominate.
NEC D Planning permission should normally be refused.
The noise levels associated with the upper limit of NEC A for road traffic noise are 55dB(A)
daytime and 45dB(A) nighttime. These noise levels have been selected on the basis of guidance
provided by the World Health Organisation (World Health Organisation, 1980).
The second case relates to situations where a new road scheme is proposed near an existing
noise sensitive development. In this instance PPG 24 refers to European Commission Directive
85/337/EEC (subsequently updated by Directive 97/11/EC) (European Commission, 1985, 1997)
which, through section 105A of the Highways Act, requires that an environmental assessment,
including the effects of noise, be undertaken in respect of road improvements likely to have
significant environmental impact. Environmental assessment is also required for all projects
listed under Schedule 2 of the Town and Country Planning (Assessment of Environmental Effects)
(England and Wales) Regulations 1999 if the proposed development is likely to have significant
environmental impact. This environmental statement should be made available for public
scrutiny alongside a statement of the economic and other benefits of the proposal.
Unlike the case of noise sensitive development in an existing noisy area, PPG 24 does not
propose noise levels that are deemed acceptable for new roads affecting existing noise sensitive
areas. This is primarily because of the reduced opportunity for noise mitigation measures on
existing houses. Instead PPG 24 refers to the Noise Insulation Regulations 1975 (Department of
the Environment, 1975) and the Noise Insulation Amendment Regulations 1988 (Department of
the Environment, 1988) and also to the DMRB, Volume 11, Section 3, Part 7, Traffic Noise and
Vibration (Department of Transport, 1994). Reference is also made to the Road Traffic
Regulation Act 1984, which could be used by highways authorities to manage traffic to reduce
the impact of noise, and to BS5228 (1984), parts 14. Noise Control on Construction and Open
Sites, which may apply during the construction of roads.
PPG 24 also presents an overview of possible measures to mitigate noise. The proposed methods
are generally equally applicable to road traffic noise as to other noise sources. It is suggested
that noise control measures should be proportionate and reasonable and include one or more
of the following techniques:
Engineering, which includes reduction of the noise at source.
Layout, which includes separating the noise sensitive development as far as possible
from the noise source, or introducing nonnoise sensitive development between the road
and the noise sensitive development.
Administrative, which includes restrictions on the use of a road, maybe by controlling
vehicle type, total vehicle numbers or vehicle speed.
160
161
the claim property to the road scheme and also in terms of the absolute traffic noise level
experienced at the claim property. Calculations for eligibility are carried out using the
Calculation of Road Traffic Noise (Department of Transport, 1988) so that eligible properties can
be identified and insulation installed prior to the opening of the road and, for the purpose of
Regulation 8, prior to construction of the new road.
6.5.5 Sound insulation and noise reduction for noise sensitive buildings
Where insulation of buildings is necessary, or where the sound insulating properties of an
existing building construction are required, then BS 8233 (1987), provides sample acoustic
performances for a number of typically encountered constructions, together with recommended
internal noise levels for various noise sensitive developments such as homes, hospitals, nursing
homes and schools. Specialist advice for school and hospital buildings is provided in
Department for Education Design Note 17: Guidelines for Environmental Design in Educational
Buildings and Hospital Technical Memorandum 45.
6.5.7 Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Vol 11, Sec 3, Pt 7, Traffic Noise and
Vibration
The Department of Transport publication the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges , Volume 11,
Section 3, Part 7, Traffic Noise and Vibration (Department of Transport, 1994), offers perhaps
the most comprehensive and up to date formally published Government advice on noise issues
associated with road developments. The document, along with the Calculation of Road Traffic
Noise, is referenced in paragraph 1 of Annex 3 of PPG 24 under the heading detailed guidance
on the assessment of noise from different sources: noise from road traffic.
The traffic noise and vibration section of the DMRB is itself divided into a number of chapters.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of traffic noise in general. Chapter 3 addresses subjective
response to road traffic noise. Chapter 4 is primarily intended to assist in the assessment of the
impact of noise on people already living in an area when a change in noise level occurs. For
instance, it details the objectives of any noise assessment as being to establish the magnitude
and significance of noise changes. Chapter 5 addresses the issues of measuring and predicting
traffic noise levels and assessing noise nuisance.
162
163
aggregate. Thin surfacings are manufactured by premixing chippings with the binder before
laying, with no additional chippings being rolled into the surface after laying. The properties of
the aggregate (10mm to 14mm) coupled with the thinness of the layer (15mm to 30mm) means
the surface is easily compacted. It also means the surface is ideal for resurfacing existing roads
as it offers speed and cost advantages. Initial evidence also indicates that thin surfacings can be
as durable as hot rolled asphalt.
Direct comparisons of the relative levels of traffic noise from vehicles using the various road
surfaces are hampered because standard measurement procedures have not been used across all
tests. Wright (1999) reveals variations of up to plus or minus 2dB(A) between results for different
proprietary materials using the same technology. Accepting these limitations, Figure 6.2 presents
typical differences in the measured Aweighted sound pressure levels between the various quiet
road surfaces. All results are expressed relative to hot rolled asphalt for both light vehicles and
heavy goods vehicles travelling at 90km/hr. This situation will hopefully soon change, with all
materials supplied to the Highways Agency as surfacing products requiring properly authenticated
results measured in accordance with a standard HAPAS defined test procedure.
The collated test data indicates that porous asphalt still gives the highest reductions in overall
noise levels, but capital and maintenance costs preclude its use as a viable treatment in most
instances. Stone mastic asphalt gives the best overall results of the thin surface treatments, both
in terms of its combined light vehicle and HGV performance and in terms of the range of
audible frequencies over which it offers benefit. Some hybrid surfaces have demonstrated
potential reductions in excess of those achieved by stone mastic asphalt, but the test data is
limited. The lack of consistent test data, coupled with the fact this is still a developing area of
technology, mean that more rigorous comparative testing is required before definitive advice
can be provided on the preferred thin surface treatment to be used in any given situation.
Figure 6.2: Typical reductions in overall dB(A) noise levels expected using different road
surfaces. All results are expressed relative to the noise level produced on hot rolled asphalt.
Reductions are shown for both light vehicles and heavy goods vehicles travelling at a nominal
speed of around 90km/hr. Differences in measurement procedures mean the spread on the
data for each type of surface may be up to 2dB(A) either side of the levels shown.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
165
performance of acoustic barriers may be significantly reduced. Any barrier will give its
maximum acoustic performance if located as close as possible to either the source or the
receiver as this will maximise the path length difference. In practice, it is more usual to locate
roadside noise barriers closest to the roadside rather than close to the receiver. Where roads are
in cuttings the barrier is most effective if placed at the top of the cutting slope rather than
adjacent to the road. Again, this is to maximise the path length difference.
Because the path length difference is the main parameter controlling barrier performance, it is
often traffic on the far carriageway that dominates the noise levels at acoustically screened
locations. If this is the case then useful additional attenuation may be achieved by placing a
second barrier along the central reservation to more effectively screen the far carriageway.
Remembering that noise can diffract around the edges of a barrier exactly the same as it diffracts
over the top, the length as well as the height of the barrier must be appropriately specified. A
barrier covering an angle of 160 degrees subtended from the receiver to the road will generally
ensure that end diffracted rays are not significant. Angling the ends away from the road (Kotzen
and English, 1999) can reduce the length of a barrier required to achieve this.
Sound insulation performance of the barrier material
Given the practical limit of attenuation of a roadside barrier of around 15dB(A) the constructional
requirements for barriers themselves are not onerous. The principal requirements are that the
barriers should have no air paths through them and that they should provide a sound reduction
performance in the absence of any airborne paths around the edges of the barrier at least 10dB
higher than the target performance of the installed barrier. The Department of Transport
document Noise Barriers Standards and Materials (Department of Transport, 1976), now
superseded by HA 66/95 in DMRB Volume 10, Section 5, gives a simple formula for calculating
the minimum surface mass required of a barrier to achieve this. A standard test procedure, EN
1793 (European Committee for Standardisation, 1997) has been adopted for measuring the
performance of noise barriers. However, this is a laboratorybased test for measuring sound
absorption and sound insulation properties of the barrier material itself. A field measurement
technique for quantifying noise barrier performance is currently under development.
Effects of reflections from hard surfaced barriers
Where roadside barriers are installed on both sides of a road, and where the road facing
surfaces of the barriers are acoustically hard, traffic noise can reflect between the two barriers
without being absorbed. This noise can then diffract over the barriers to escape to the
environment. Watts (1995) has demonstrated that even for two metre high barriers located 34m
apart the reduction in barrier performance can be as much as 4dB(A). A similar situation can
result between highsided vehicles and an acoustically hard barrier. The effects of reflections
can potentially reduce the effectiveness of a barrier, although the magnitude of this effect
compared with the complicating effects of scattering caused by the mixed flow of road vehicles
is not at present fully quantified. Two effective solutions exist to remedy the problem of multiple
reflections between barriers or between highsided vehicles and a barrier. These solutions
comprise either angling the barriers in towards the road or out from the road (an angle of as
little as 10 is all that is required) or applying an acoustically absorptive treatment to the side
of the barriers facing the road.
Diffraction effects over noise barriers
The installed performance of noise barriers is limited principally by diffraction of sound over the
top of the barrier. For this reason considerable research effort has been expended in developing
improved designs for detailing along the top edges of noise barriers to limit the diffraction of
noise over the top. The designs fall into two major categories.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
167
The first category involves a significant extension to the simple barrier to include a large
cantilevered top section tilted over the road. In extreme examples this cantilevered section
extends over the entire nearside carriageway to become a galleried barrier. These types of
barriers can be extremely effective in reducing sound diffraction over the top of the barrier. This
effectiveness is gained only through a significant cost penalty and through a significantly
increased visual impact. However, examples from Europe have demonstrated how the adverse
visual impact of even the largest cantilevered barriers can be minimised.
The second category of barriers are those that include smallerscale edge details such as
Tshaped, multiple edges, Yshapes, tubular cappings or phase interference devices (Kotzen
and English, 1999). Improvements in performance of between 1dB(A) and 3dB(A) have been
reported for such modifications, but the complexity and cost of manufacture of the barriers has
increased significantly. Also, one of the major problems of acoustic barriers is their generally
poor aesthetics, and attempts to improve the acoustic design in this manner can tend to detract
rather than add to the visual appeal of the barriers.
Earth bunds
The use of earth bunds as more aesthetically pleasing natural acoustic barriers can be
considered particularly in rural areas where other types of barrier may be visually unacceptable.
Performance gains attributable to bunds are slightly less than that of acoustic barriers for the
same path length difference between source and receiver. The performance difference can be
minimised by making the bund flat topped rather than wedge shaped. The major disadvantage
of earth bunds is their width relative to their height, which necessarily often takes up land and
places the top of the bund further away from the source than may be desirable in terms of
optimising the acoustic performance.
Vegetative barriers
A possible compromise between acoustic barriers and earth bunds is the concept of a living
wall. This typically comprises an earth centre retained behind natural meshed panels with
willow or a similar plant growing from the central earth. These barriers can therefore look
reasonably natural when installed whilst taking up less area, and they again offer a similar
performance to purpose built acoustic barriers. However, long term monitoring of vegetated
barriers has indicated that the living systems do not last. They are also expensive to construct
and maintain because of the requirements for skilled manual labour. Without this maintenance,
living walls can become less natural looking over time.
Vegetation
The planting of a visual screen of trees or shrubs between traffic noise sources and noise
sensitive developments can result in a perceived improvement due to the removal of the visual
impact of the road. However, objective measurements have revealed that reductions in
measured traffic noise levels are typically limited to 1dB(A) for each fivemetre depth of trees,
and only in the case of mature, well established vegetation. Attenuations of 6dB to 8dB have
been reported (Kragh, 1982) for frequencies below 250Hz and above 1kHz, but because traffic
noise is dominated by frequencies between these two limits such large attenuations are not
reflected in the overall reduction in traffic noise of around 3dB L Aeq . Quite apart from the
limited acoustic benefits to be gained, the use of vegetation as a noise barrier is not generally
recommended due to the length of time it takes to establish a dense belt of trees or bushes, and
the subsequent effort that may be required to maintain this vegetation.
Screening using intermediate less noise sensitive buildings
The possible introduction of nonnoise sensitive buildings such as warehousing, offices or light
industrial units between the road and any noise sensitive developments has already been
168
proposed as an option for reducing exposure to traffic noise. This possibility should not be
overlooked as a practical alternative to building a noise barrier, provided the buffer zone
buildings can be constructed so as to have no gaps through them.
169
Cuttings can also be used to reduce noise, and reductions similar to those achieved using
roadside acoustic barriers can result. Caution is again advised against the potential build up of
reverberant noise between the sides of the cutting if these are vertical hard walls, or between
the side of high sided vehicles and the cutting wall. In such instances, sound can reflect back
and forth between the acoustically reflective surfaces, with little loss of acoustic energy, before
leaking out of the cutting to the environment. A possible solution to this is either to line the
cutting with acoustically absorptive side panels, or to install acoustically absorptive louvers
above the road along the top of the cutting.
Additional care should be taken to locate the ends of the tunnel away from noise sensitive
developments, as the impact of sudden changes in noise around these areas as vehicles enter
and exit the tunnel can be significant.
171
References
BS5969, 1981
BS5228, 1984
BS 8233,1987
BS4142, 1990
Building Research
Establishment, 1993
Commission of the
European Communities, 1975
Commission of the
European Communities, 1996
Department of the Environment, Statutory Instruments, 1975 No. 1763, Building and
1975
Buildings, The Noise Insulation Regulations, HMSO,
London.
Department of the Environment, Statutory Instruments, 1988 No. 2000, Building and
1988
Buildings, The Noise Insulation (Amendment) Regulations,
HMSO, London.
Department of the Environment, Planning Policy Guidance Note 24 Planning and Noise .
1994a
HMSO, London.
Department of the Environment, Planning Policy Guidance Note 1 General Policy and
1994b
Principles . HMSO, London.
Department of the Environment, Planning Policy Guidance Note 13 Transport . HMSO,
1994c
London.
172
Kragh J, 1982
Maekawa Z, 1968
Wright M, 1999
173
174
175
This chapter will therefore provide a brief overview of the principal issues relating to the
management of roadside landscapes, in terms of both management operations such as grass
cutting and thinning of woodland planting, but also in the wider sense of managing and
improving the road network. It will then set out guidelines on current and potential future best
practice, illustrating this with appropriate case studies and give sources for further advice or
information.
7.2 Overview
The concept of extensive, planned landscapes alongside roads (other than the traditional
planting of roadside avenues, usually in urban areas) is a relatively recent one, dating back to
the post war motorway building programme and gathering impetus and sophistication as
opposition to new road building grew in the 1980s. Early attempts at planting were crude by
todays standards, with sometimes inappropriate species planted into pulverised fuel ash (PFA)
embankments and left to fend for themselves, with little or no thought given to future
management requirements. Today, a major new road scheme would have been subject to
extensive landscape assessment as part of the statutory approval process and the consequent
landscape mitigation proposals would be implemented as a specialist landscape contract, often
in itself with a value in excess of one million pounds. This initial contract would typically
include a threeyear establishment period of relatively intensive maintenance. After which time
there would be a programme of appropriate management so that the eventual aims of each
section of planting were realised, whether the intention was to develop a dense screen, to
provide visual amenity, or to promote nature conservation.
It is in the context of new planting that most people think of landscape management and
maintenance, but of course not all roads are new many have been on their current alignments
since Roman times or even before. However, even traditional, longestablished landscapes still
need appropriate management, if they are not to change and perhaps degenerate.
The organisation and structure of highway management has undergone something of a
revolution in the last few years and is set to change further with the detrunking of many roads.
It is at present divided between motorways and Trunk Roads, which are managed on behalf of
the Highways Agency by a series of Area Maintenance Agents or super agencies (24 of them
covering England, with term maintenance contractors in each area. This arrangement will
change in the next few years with the introduction of service contractors for each area, formed
by joint ventures of consultants and contractors) and other roads which are the responsibility of
the County or Unitary Councils. These roads, particularly the minor ones, are often managed by
District Councils as agents for the Counties. Some areas have recently set up partnering
arrangements between the two tiers of local government (for example the North Hertfordshire
Highways Partnership, staffed by employees of both the County Council and the District
Council).
7.3 Issues
7.3.1 Improvements
The management of the highway network inevitably involves more than just maintaining the
status quo. There is always the need for review, refinement and improvement to cope with new
standards or increasing levels of traffic. While it is beyond the scope of this publication to
consider proposals for new roads, there are many smallscale improvements that are normally
carried out under the heading of management rather than new construction. These can have
significant implications for the landscape, including the addition or upgrading of lighting, the
provision of hardened strips, new signing, safety fencing, signals and junction improvements.
176
Some of these improvements now require formal Environmental Assessment (EA) under the
terms of the recent EC Directive (97/11/EC) which amended the former Directive (85/337/EEC)
and increased the number of categories of projects requiring environmental assessment. For an
EA to be required, the criteria now is that the area of the works should exceed one hectare,
including areas for spoil heaps, compounds and storage. However, whether formal EA is
required or not, it is good practice to consider the potential landscape (and wider
environmental) implications of any road improvement project at the earliest possible stage.
Many potential conflicts can be resolved readily at the early stages of planning, but can lead to
difficulty and delay if they are addressed too late.
There is extensive guidance on the assessment of landscape effects and the application of
appropriate design techniques, principally in the Highways Agency Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges (DMRB), Volumes 10 Environmental Design and 11 Environmental Assessment,
(Department of Transport, 1993a, 1995). Guidance here will, therefore, be limited to the
suggestion that a landscape architect with experience of highways work should be consulted at
an early stage in the scheme development and be involved in the identification and selection of
options.
177
rule of thumb is that any works (including paving, excavation and the alteration of levels)
beneath the canopy of a mature tree must be very carefully considered and professional advice
from a landscape architect, landscape manager or arboriculturist should be sought at the
planning stage. There is a common misconception that trees have a tap root, reaching deep
beneath the trunk and that all will be well provided this is not harmed. The truth is that the
majority of the root system is in the top 600mm of the soil and can extend horizontally for a
distance greater than the height of the tree. Reducing levels by 600mm would therefore remove
nearly all of the roots of a tree, leading to inevitable death and probable instability. Many urban
trees will also be protected, either by specific Tree Preservation Orders, or because they are
within a Conservation Area. It is an offence to fell or otherwise harm such protected trees,
without the permission of the Local Authority.
Despite the many pressures, trees must be retained and protected wherever possible. A large
tree can take more than 100 years to grow and only an hour or two to kill outright or condemn
to a lingering death by root severance. Trees provide not only visual benefits, but also in terms
of air quality, temperature regulation and valuable habitats for a wide range of birds and insects.
The hard components of the urban
landscape
should
also
be
remembered in many older towns
and cities it is the traditional
materials used in roads, footways
and street furniture which help to
determine the character and quality
of the area, tying the townscape
together and producing local
distinctiveness. Any proposals for
highway improvements in such
areas (which will often be
designated as Conservation Areas
by the local authority) must
obviously be carefully considered
and should start with early
consultation with the local
authority planning or conservation
department. The likely requirement
to use traditional materials will also
have an implication for scheme
budgets, though there are many
modern substitute materials on the
market that can be almost as good
in some situations. Repaving of
roads and footways in the historic
core of Bury St Edmunds has
recently taken place using a
sensitive combination of real York
stone footways and traditional style
concrete blocks for the trafficked
areas. Useful guidance is provided
in the series of Historic Core Zone
leaflets, published by English
Heritage, the Historic Towns Forum
and the (former) Department of
Transport. This is not to say that
every scheme should succumb to
178
the craze for Victoriana traditional materials and street furniture should be used appropriately,
not as a substitute for wellconsidered design and consideration of modern (or bespoke, where
budgets permit, or in special locations) street furniture. There are many instances where
specially commissioned bollards, railings or other items of street furniture can make a
substantial contribution to the quality of a town centre scheme and can help to create character
and quality where this was previously lacking. The above themes are all addressed in more
detail in Chapter Nine.
Detailed information on urban roads in relation to layout, design, traffic management and street
furniture can be found in the IHT publication Transport in the Urban Environment (The
Institution of Highways & Transportation, 1997).
the
Countryside
Agencys
publication Roads in the
Countryside (Countryside
Commission, 1995) sets
out a range of activities
which
can
have
cumulative effects in
eroding
countryside
character:
179
Any one of these taken singly may have slight effects only and there will undoubtedly be good
reasons for their introduction in most cases, but the overall cumulative effects on the
irreplaceable character of the countryside should always be considered before a final decision
is made. It is important to remember that character is often created by the unusual by a sharp
bend, or a large tree close to the road or a bank of wild flowers and that improvement in
highway terms usually tends towards uniformity, compliance with standards and conformity
with highways engineers expectations, thus homogenising the roadside landscape and diluting
character.
The Countryside Agency concept of environmental capital is relevant here. This is an attempt
to assess what matters in the countryside and why it is important. It takes into account factors
such as cultural and ecological characteristics. These may be landmarks relating to local history,
stone bridges, common land and cherished views, or simply the traditional, local means of
enclosure, such as dry stone walling or Devon banks, many of which form roadside boundaries.
The rarity and level of tranquillity of the landscape are also important, as well as the traditional
considerations of the degree of pleasantness of a given view. It is useful to remember that the
importance of a landscape lies not only in its visual appeal or quality. Many landscapes
designated as being of historic interest (for example the Gwent Levels) are not particularly
attractive, but are valued because the landscape contains features and patterns which provide a
valuable link to the past (see Chapter Nine for further information). Viewed in this way, roads
180
of all types and scales can be seen as providing a fundamental component of the local
environmental capital, not least because they are so frequently seen and are also the principal
means by which many people actually observe the landscape. Further information can be found
in the Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) publication A New Deal
for Trunk Roads in England: Guidance on the New Approach to Appraisal (DETR, 1998).
In terms of ongoing management, many rural roads have reached equilibrium and the
management will tend to maintain the status quo. In such cases careful consideration will be
required before any change in management procedures, even if it appears relatively
inconsequential, such as a variation in the timing of grass cuts. It should also be remembered
that nothing lasts forever and even longestablished landscapes are likely to require periodic
management and renewal if they are not to deteriorate. For example, a row of mature trees may
all reach the end of their safe lifespan at around the same time, leading to a radical change in
the landscape if this is not planned for by advance planting of new trees to eventually replace
them.
181
Reinforced grass cutting slopes on the M25 in Surrey. The grass has failed due to the hostile
conditions, leaving a maintenance problem for the future. Source: Jon Etchells.
In the DMRB, one of the criteria for landscape assessment is the change in the quality of the
view on a summers day 15 years after the opening year, to allow for development of the
proposed landscape mitigation. Great weight can be put upon this assessment in Environmental
Statements and at Public Inquiries. However, if the design does not provide for future
management and if the commitment to that management in terms of budgets and inspection of
work is not carried through, then the aims of the initial design can be thwarted or diluted and
the level of mitigation provided reduced.
182
It is now widely recognised that all new planting requires careful maintenance for an initial
period. At one time this was often for one year only, but is now typically three or five years.
Normal practice is for this initial, or establishment, maintenance to be carried out by the
planting contractor and it is normally combined with a defects liability period, during which the
contractor will be responsible for replacing any dead plants or poorly established areas of grass.
What is not so widely recognised, is that most types of planting, though they may be well
enough established at the end of this time not to need continuous maintenance in the form of
weed control or watering, still need appropriate ongoing management. They cannot be left
alone if they are to grow and mature in the manner envisaged by the design. Trees planted close
together (often as close as one metre centres, to achieve a rapid effect in terms of ground
coverage) cannot be left at those centres, or the result in 15 to 20 years time is a forest of
spindly specimens, none of them capable of survival in the long term and vulnerable to wind
damage. In such an extreme case the only option may be to fell all the trees and start again,
with all the adverse effects in terms of public reaction and expense that would accompany such
drastic action. What is needed to prevent such eventualities is an awareness of future
management on the part of the designer and also the preparation of a management plan.
183
Agency to their maintenance agent. This would have set out the aims of the planting, the
management envisaged and included asbuilt planting plans. However, this was not so in every
case and the current Highways Agency super agents have inherited many roads, planted within
the last fifteen years, where they are left to make up their own minds as to what any given area
of planting was intended to achieve and to manage it accordingly.
Management plans must be regularly reviewed for effectiveness and appropriateness to any
changed circumstances and (where relevant) they must also cover considerations such as:
removal of planting which has become overmature (for example large trees which may
present a safety hazard, or shrubs which have become too large for their position) not
even trees live forever and planting which may have been appropriate to an area 25 years
ago may no longer be so. In some cases, more appropriate species can be planted, in
others it may be better under current circumstances for there to be no planting;
enrichment of planting, to replace plants which have progressively died over the years, or
to reflect changed circumstances, perhaps in the introduction of some evergreen species
to provide enhanced screening to new housing areas, and
phased replacement, particularly for avenues, such that new, young trees are already in
place and growing when the established trees start to reach the end of their life, avoiding
a situation where there are, temporarily, no trees at all.
While some aspects of the implementation and monitoring of management plans can be
overseen or undertaken by a nonspecialist, the formulation and revision of such plans,
including the elements listed above, must always be carried out by a landscape architect or
landscape manager.
daffodils) and also the potential for the presence of protected species of plants, such as
orchids, where it may be an offence to damage them. Many rare species of plants are found
on roadside verges, due to the protection that they have found from outside sources of
interference over the years. In general terms this will only be a concern when past
management practices are changed, as the plants growing on a site will have established
in reaction to the prevailing grass cutting regime. Detailed guidance on appropriate
mowing regimes for areas of nature conservation interest is given in Chapter Eight.
Plant protection will be particularly important in the early years of establishment. Rabbit
fencing or guards will need to be checked for continued effectiveness and stakes will
need to be checked and (importantly) removed once they are no longer required. More
damage is caused to trees by stakes and ties being left on too long and constricting their
growth than by taking them off too soon.
Pruning of shrubs and trees to improve their shape for ornamental species and to produce
a balanced, stable head for individual trees. Pruning is also likely to be required to
prevent obstruction of paths and to maintain visibility requirements, though this is also a
matter where the initial design should have minimised the potential for future pruning to
be necessary.
Thinning of planting plots intended to provide a woodland effect in the longer term.
Where the planting mix contains shrubs only this will be less necessary as the plants can
be allowed to grow into one another. Where the mix contains tree species, they will need
to be thinned so that robust individual specimens are formed (this is important for safety
as well as amenity reasons). The degree and timing of thinning will depend on the initial
mix and density of planting (the greater the initial density, then the more thinning will be
required and the earlier it will be needed). One tree planted in a large space will
obviously never need to be thinned, but 50 trees planted at one metre centres may
ultimately need to be thinned down to only one, if the design intention is to create large
specimen trees. There is an inherent conflict here between short and long term objectives
one small tree in a large space may look inconsequential initially, but 50 trees in such
a space may lead to greater management requirements (and problems if for some reason
they cannot be applied) in the future. These are the types of consideration that should be
addressed and agreed by all parties at the design stage.
Thinning is an operation that requires a certain amount of knowledge, skill and judgement
on the part of the person carrying it out. It often needs to be selective in terms of species.
For example, taking out half of one species in a planting mix, but only ten percent of the
others and it should always be selective in terms of specimens, retaining the best
individual plants and thinning out the worst, where possible. It must also be carried out in
the light of the design intentions of a given plot. If a dense screen is required, thinning to
produce only a few mature trees may seriously reduce the desired screening effect.
Coppicing of certain species is a useful way of restricting the size of plants while
promoting low level growth for screening. It is a traditional management practice used in
the past for species such as hazel and sweet chestnut and involves cutting the plant back
to a stool close to ground level, from which new growth will appear. It is obviously
important to coppice only a percentage of the plants in a given area at any one time,
otherwise all effects of the planting will be lost, albeit temporarily. It is also a technique
which cannot be applied indiscriminately as not all species respond to it and some are
likely to die if cut back close to the ground.
Weed control is a legal requirement in some cases. Landowners, including highway
authorities, have a responsibility, under the Weeds Act 1959, to keep their land free from
infestation by injurious weeds, including spear thistle Cirsium vulgare , creeping thistle,
186
curled dock Rumex crispus , broadleaved dock R obtusifolius and common ragwort
Senecio jacobaea .
Replanting is always likely to be necessary in some form, to replace losses, to fill in gaps,
or to cope with changed requirements or perceptions.
Litter Clearance is not strictly a component of landscape management but can be critical
in determining how a given area is viewed and valued. Areas strewn with rubbish will
not be attractive, no matter how successful the planting they contain and the sight of
plastic bags flapping in the breeze from thorn hedges is all too familiar.
TRMM also requires all trees within reach of the road to be inspected at intervals of not more
than five years by an arboriculturalist, who will be able to determine advance signs of many
problems and will be able to make detailed recommendations for ongoing management or
remedial action.
In strictly highway terms, trees close to the road are a potential problem and a drain on
resources but, in overall landscape and environmental terms, they must be regarded as a
precious and finite national asset.
189
190
191
concerns in the planning of the road. The TRL study found that rates of growth of the new
planting were as good or better than those assumed by the Department of Transport at the Public
Inquiry (three to four metres in ten years), illustrating the importance of a good quality planting
specification and appropriate maintenance.
This scheme is also an example of good practice in that a landscape and environmental
management strategy for the bypass was produced by landscape consultants Nicholas Pearson
Associates, on behalf of the managing agents (Forest Enterprise). The results of this review were
fed back into the landscape management in a process of ongoing refinement. The aim of the
strategy was to provide a sound longterm rationale to guide future management, based on a set
of objectives that the planting should be trying to achieve. The methodology consisted of the
division of the planted or grassed areas alongside the new road into plots and each plot was
then allocated a function and a desired content. In areas where the desired content differed from
the actual, additional planting was proposed. The study was undertaken in 1993/94, some five
years after the opening of the road and longterm management was not considered in detail
before this time. While ideally there would have been more consideration of management as
part of the initial design and the communication of this to the managing agent, it is beneficial
in many ways to review the management after the road has been constructed. This is because it
is inherently very difficult to accurately predict all impacts and a retrospective reassessment of
what mitigation may be required and how the planting should be managed, can be very useful
in refining the original proposals.
each year is admittedly short. Also, the simplest change of all can be very effective and
cost nothing just stopping mowing can create a totally different effect and most swards
already contain some wildflower species just waiting for their chance to grow. This latent
display can be augmented quite cheaply by the planting of wildflowers as individual
small plants or plugs (typically less than 50 pence each). A key consideration here is to
retain some areas as short grass (otherwise people tend to assume that the mowing has
simply been forgotten) and to establish a smooth, flowing line between mown and
unmown areas, as this will form a strong element in most views.
References
BS 5837, 1991
Department of Transport, 1993a Design Manual for Roads and Bridges , Volume 11
(Environmental Assessment). HMSO, London.
Department of Transport, 1993b Road Lighting and the Environment . HMSO, London.
Department of Transport, 1995
DETR, 1998
195
196
197
Figure 8.1: The ideal road verge (from Pound and Waite, 1994).
Courtesy: Kent Wildlife Trust.
commentators, complained of the condition of highways. As the Industrial Revolution gained
momentum, the pressure to improve the quality of roads increased. In the early nineteenth
century, new methods of road surfacing were developed and those of John McAdam proved
sufficiently cheap to be widely used (Pound and Waite, 1994). The construction of good
surfaces meant that people and vehicles no longer needed to use the entire width of the
highway. Consequently, grass verges were left either side of the surfaced road, between its edge
and the boundary feature (usually ditches and/or hedges). By 1900, many major routes were
surfaced. The arrival of the motor car increased the demand for surfaced roads and in the 1930s
and 1940s, important minor roads were surfaced (Pound and Waite, 1994). The Milk Marketing
Board was responsible for many improvements to minor country roads in the 1930s in order to
allow milk tankers to reach collection points (Way, 1973).
Although the verges were no longer used as a highway, they retained their secondary function.
Under the traditional, frugal farming practices of the past, roadside areas had always played a
small but not insignificant role. Hay crops were usually taken, sometimes supplemented or
replaced by grazing. Such established methods of management prevented the development of
coarse grasses and scrub and maintained a speciesrich meadow flora.
In the postwar period, agricultural practices changed and the management of roadside areas
passed from farmers to highway authorities. Handcutting by scythes and/or grazing was
inevitably replaced by the use of machines and herbicides. By the 1950s, there was concern
about the widespread use of herbicides. Following representations by the former Nature
198
Conservancy, the then Ministry of Transport issued a circular to local authorities advising them
on more appropriate and responsible use of herbicides (Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation,
1955). In the early 1960s, the use of growth retardants in combination with herbicides was
suggested as a routine maintenance method that would in some cases eliminate the need for
roadside mowing. However, by the mid1970s, the routine use of chemical sprays had more or
less ceased, due to questions about their effectiveness, their cost and opposition by nature
conservation bodies and the public. Today, their use is mainly restricted to situations such as
the central reservations of motorways and dual carriageways where cutting is inappropriate.
In addition, in the 1970s, mowing became less frequent. In July 1975, the Department of the
Environment instructed that grasscutting on land forming part of trunk roads and motorways was to
cease as a regular practice in order to reduce highway maintenance costs. Since then, the majority
of verges have not been cut other than a narrow band close to the carriageways. Consequently,
coarse grasses and tall herbs are dominating many verges and bramble and scrub are invading.
The results of a telephone questionnaire to all highway authorities in the early 1990s suggested
that whilst 67% of the 64 highway authorities questioned, considered that they had a roadside
verge wildlife conservation policy, the lengths of verge managed specifically for nature
conservation were very limited (Alexander, 1995). An average of just over two percent of the
total verge length was managed for nature conservation.
8.4.2 Conflict between nature conservation and other uses of the verge
Over the last 100 years or so, verges have developed a new role: that of harbouring the utilities:
drains, electricity cables, telephone and other cables, gas mains and so on. The introduction
and maintenance of such utilities cause considerable disturbance to roadside communities.
199
The actual management itself may be carried out by the highway authoritys contractors, by
other council groups (for example, countryside project staff), by landowners, by volunteers or
by a combination of these. It is no wonder that the management that is so carefully devised and
considered is sometimes not implemented on the ground.
Around 900 of the 2000 species of plants are associated with roadside areas (Way, 1977). It is
inevitable that general management prescriptions could never encompass the needs of such a
varied array of plant and animal species.
Clearly, the problem is exacerbated where the existing (and potential) ecological status of an
individual roadside area is not known. The importance of field survey information about
highway verges, identifying communities, populations and features of particular significance for
nature conservation cannot be overemphasised. Only through an adequate understanding of
the biological character of verges can effective management be defined.
implications. Along urban roads (notably dual carriageways), the narrow and often shaded
ribbons of roadside habitat have little wildlife potential and the use of native species might be
regarded as less important. However, where larger verges are present, their value for wildlife
can be relatively high within an urban environment with little potential habitat.
As with the issue of potential conflict with safety demands, the issue of conflict with visual and
landscape aspirations should not be overemphasised. Areas of native vegetation can have
considerable aesthetic appeal. Ecologists and landscape architects often have similar aims, in
that in order to create a low maintenance area, low nutrient substrates are used, encouraging
the development of habitat with a higher species diversity and a greater number of species of
note.
Landscape issues are discussed further in Chapter Seven.
8.5 Issues
8.5.1 Frequency and timing of cutting
The frequency and timing of cutting are key elements from the point of view both of
conservation and of highways maintenance. The highway authority cuts verges to ensure that
people can use roads and pavements safely. In urban areas, verges are usually cut around six
times a year between March and November in order to keep grass shorter than 15cm. County
Councils usually fund around six cuts. Borough, district or parish councils may make additional
cuts at their own expense, for example verges within Harrogate Borough are cut 12 times per
annum. The short grass is tidy and allows potentially hazardous debris to be exposed (and
removed). The frequency of cutting is often increased where complaints are received from the
public, who push for more manicured grass. People who have moved from urban and suburban
areas into the countryside often carry their expectations of lawnlike verges to their new
village locations. Best Kept Village competitions also encourage aspirations of frequent mowing.
In rural areas, the outer one metre of major road verges is usually cut twice or three times a
year; sightlines are cut more frequently in order to maintain visibility. On minor roads, the outer
one metre of verge may be cut only once (usually in the autumn). The entire verge may be cut
once a year (for example, Buckinghamshire), every three years (for example, Derbyshire, Devon
and Hampshire), every five years (for example, County Durham) or not at all (for example,
Bedfordshire and North Yorkshire). In both nature conservation and aesthetic terms, it is
appropriate to time any cuts to allow at least key flowering plants to bloom and set seed.
As mentioned above, the problem today, at least in rural areas where most of the verges of
nature conservation significance are located, tends to be not so much one of overcutting but
rather one of no cutting. The outer one metre of verges is usually of lesser interest than the
vegetation further from the road edge; it is frequently subject to salt damage, smothering with
dirty spray and erosion from pedestrian traffic and tyre damage. The cutting regime imposed on
the outer one metre strip is thus of comparatively little significance in determining the wildlife
value of the overall verge. Rather, if the main verge area remains uncut from year to year, coarse
grasses and tall herbs such as hogweed Heracleum sphondylium , cow parsley Anthriscus
sylvestris and creeping thistle Cirsium arvense will be able to spread unchecked and the
shadeintolerant flowers which are characteristic of old meadow swards will gradually be lost.
In addition, woody species like elder Sambucus nigra , hawthorn Crataegus monogyna and
bramble Rubus fruticosus agg. begin to colonise the verge. Eventually, the grassland will turn to
scrub. Whilst scrub does provide a habitat for many animals, it is a much more common and
easily recreated habitat than seminatural grassland. In management terms, scrub is difficult
and costly to eradicate once it has established on a verge, and even if the scrub is controlled,
the grassland beneath may have permanently lost its interest.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
201
Where verges are cut, cuttings are not collected and removed by highway authorities, primarily
for economic reasons. In this important sense, mowing verges does not mimic a hay cut, where
the removal of the forage helps to maintain a relatively lownutrient soil that is essential for
speciesrich grasslands to flourish.
Verge
5
10m
250
500
750
1000
1250
0.5
Road
Surface
0.5
Central
Reservation
0.5
Road
Surface
0.5
Verge
10m
1500
1750
Figure 8.2: Distribution of sodium in soils on a typical transect across the M62 motorway,
sampled in April 1974 (from Colwill, Thompson and Ridout, 1976).
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
203
hydrocarbons associated with vehicle exhaust emissions. However, the characteristic effects of
the gas have not been seen on verges, perhaps because ethyleneinduced damage is associated
with temperatures higher than those found in the United Kingdom (Davison and Wharmby,
1979). Other pollutants result from photochemical reactions in exhaust emissions. Some, such
as ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate, are known to be phytotoxic under some conditions (Colwill,
Thompson and Rutter, 1982). However, as the photochemical reactions are not immediate, it is
likely that the phytotoxic chemicals are not found in high enough concentrations on verges to
have a significant effect on roadside species.
Other pollutants are also associated with roadspray and runoff, including oils and residues from
brakes, tyres, clutch plates and the road surface. The precise nature of the pollutants carried in
the spray is usually secondary to its general smothering effects, caused by particulate
deposition. Colwill, Thompson and Rutter (1982) reported that exhaust dust applied to leaves at
a density comparable to that observed by busy motorways reduced photosynthesis by about
20%. This level is likely to contribute to reduced growth. The effects of dust on plants are
complex, ranging from increased absorption of solar radiation to decreased gaseous exchange
between leaves and the atmosphere.
These issues are discussed further in Chapters Four and Five.
example, requiring the vegetation to be kept below a specified height). In this way, unnecessary
cuts may be made or mowing carried out at a time convenient to the contractor, rather than
when the weather conditions have resulted in a surge of plant growth.
Many of the ecologists interviewed in the preparation of this chapter lamented the passing (in
the 1960s) of the old lengthman system of roadside maintenance. Under this system,
individuals worked their own lengths of verge, year after year, and thus became truly familiar
with any special features of interest.
8.5.6 Communication
As mentioned in Chapter Seven, the organisation and structure of highway management has
undergone something of a revolution in the last few years and is set to change further with the
detrunking of many roads. It is at present divided between motorways and Trunk Roads, which
are managed on behalf of the Highways Agency by a series of Area Maintenance Agents or
super agencies (24 of them covering England, with term maintenance contractors in each
area. This arrangement will change in the next few years with the introduction of service
contractors for each area, formed by joint ventures of consultants and contractors) and other
roads which are the responsibility of the County or Unitary Councils. These roads, particularly
the minor ones, are often managed by District Councils as agents for the Counties. Some areas
have recently set up partnering arrangements between the two tiers of local government the
example was given in Chapter Seven of the North Hertfordshire Highways Partnership, staffed
by employees of both the County Council and the District Council (see also section 8.6.5).
The key issue of communication between ecologists, highway engineers and contractors is
mentioned above in section 8.4. Communication between ecologists, highway engineers and
the public is also essential. The public needs to be helped to understand that management for
wildlife frequently does not result in the type of tidy verge that they may expect or prefer. Many
authorities have prepared information sheets, such as Surrey County Councils Your guide to
grass cutting on highway verges.
Effective communication requires that there is a commitment to the objectives of the
management and that the appropriate systems are put in place (for example, within the
framework of an overall ISO 14001 EMS as mentioned in Chapter Three). As information
technology becomes more predominant, the role of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can
be useful in ensuring that the boundaries of special verges and their important features are
easily (and thus frequently) accessed. East Sussex County Council has kept a schedule of
protected verges for over 20 years. Protected verges have specific management plans that are
kept on a Geographical Information System and are issued to service providers such as British
Telecom and others who might carry out work on protected verges.
205
dormice and great crested newts. Under the Act it is an offence to pick or intentionally uproot
or destroy any wild plant included in Schedule 8. The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 is also
the local instrument by which species for which the United Kingdom has special responsibilities
under international agreements and legislation are protected. Badgers are singled out for
specific legal protection in Britain, under the Protection of Badgers Act 1992.
The occupier of land is required by the Weeds Act of 1959 to control injurious weeds,
including spear thistle Cirsium vulgare , creeping thistle, curled dock Rumex crispus ,
broadleaved dock R. obtusifolius and common ragwort Senecio jacobaea . In practice, the
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food is only likely to exercise its right to demand the
control of such species where there is a real threat to agricultural production. Some Local
Authorities, such as Cornwall County Council, actively encourage landowners to control such
weeds, including Japanese knotweed.
207
208
209
Uncut
One cut
Orchids and annuals present - but two cuts necessary to control coarse species
Figure 8.3: The effects of the timing of cuts on a grassland sward (based on Pound and Waite,
1994). Courtesy: Kent Wildlife Trust/Malcolm Emery.
210
211
The use of topsoil should be restricted to tree pits. Providing a relatively lownutrient substrate
will not only encourage the development of a speciesrich, seminatural grassland but will also
discourage a vigorously growing, high maintenance sward. Wherever possible, the vegetation
cover should be allowed to develop naturally. The sowing of an appropriate grass mix at a low
density will provide an immediate vegetation cover but will still allow herbs to spread naturally
from adjacent speciesrich grassland. As discussed above, the value of using wildflower seed
mixes is debatable. Where there is a suitable seed source nearby and especially where grassland
of conservation value has been lost to the construction of a new road, then it is likely to be
appropriate. In County Durham, the verge of a new road built on limestone close to a quarry
that is designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest was sown using seed collected from hay
taken from the SSSI. Eighty percent of the species found within the SSSI have subsequently been
recorded from the verge of the new road.
With larger verges, some tree and/or shrub planting may be considered. At least in rural areas,
tree and shrub species chosen should be appropriate to the area; again, local native stock
should be used. Some authorities, such as Devon County Council, have prepared guidance on
what species of trees to plant, aimed primarily at parish councils.
212
213
215
References
Alexander L, 1995
Crofts A, and Jefferson RG (eds), The Lowland Grassland Management Handbook. English
1994
Nature/The Wildlife Trusts.
Davison AW, and Wharmby S,
1979
Hall P, 1998
217
218
Waring P, 1992
219
alignments, they could also form part of the modern route (such as Roman roads, medieval
bridges and so on).
Very often these distinguishing factors are not single monumental buildings but the way in
which quite modest buildings are arranged. The point has been well described by Gordon
Cullen (Cullen, 1961):
One building stands alone in the countryside and is experienced as architecture, but bring half
a dozen buildings together and an art other than architecture is made possible. This is the art of
townscape.
At the most basic level it is what helps people recognise and distinguish one place from another.
Visually most towns derive their identity and personality from the way in which individual
buildings, both good and not so good, together create a general atmosphere and form a
recognisable townscape. It is the distinct organisation of spaces and an arrangement of
buildings that combine as a whole. The total image of a town, its relationship to the countryside
and its underlying land form may be so powerful that it merits conservation on that alone.
With perhaps a few exceptions, preservation in the restrictive sense and on such a wide scale
could become damaging to the life and prosperity of the town. Careful conservation can be a
stimulus to economic regeneration. By conserving the qualities that distinguish one town from
another and make it attractive to visitors its economy may be revived and sustained. The
highways that pass through and around the town will also have a significant role both in terms
of economic development and their overall contribution to conservation and environmental
enhancement. It is here that the interrelation of conservation with highway and traffic
engineering is seen. The space that is reserved for movement is also essential to an element of
the towns attractiveness that has a fundamental bearing on its economic wellbeing.
221
Less obvious are the incidental spaces that occur between buildings and which are enclosed by
them such as forecourts, leading off a thoroughfare, which may provide a formal setting to a
distinguished building. These spaces must be seen as a part of the building itself. An example
would be the space in front of a town hall. It might be little more than a widened pavement or
it could be several metres in depth and contain sculpture, trees, and even a formal fountain.
Where such space is within the curtilage of the building it might be easily recognised but be
wholly in the public domain, merely an extension of or widening of the pavement
Environmental management must be directed towards enhancing both the building(s) as well as
the highway itself. A holistic approach is favoured. Concern for the character of external spaces
and the contribution they make to the character of a town, can be easily overlooked by local
authorities. Yet, though seemingly of little importance, they are often the elements of visual
character that distinguish one town from another.
Most commercial buildings in a typical high street have a great deal in common with those in
any other high street. Chain stores, for example, strive to achieve a brand image that is repeated
across the country. As a result they all look very similar and the similarities out weigh the local
distinctive characteristics. Thus, in distinguishing one high street from another, reliance is
placed on the recognition of the size, shape, surface materials and any other locally distinctive
characteristics that can be observed in a seemingly insignificant space. For example, a town
hall may have a classic design front elevation, reminiscent of a Roman or Greek temple. The
character of such buildings would be made locally recognisable by the different characteristics
of the space through which they are seen. These include:
223
group of buildings in a conservation area, then every part of the appearance of that street will
have an impact on the appearance of the area and thereby on its economic wellbeing.
Views into, of and within an area are vitally important. All aspects of a road are relevant: its
width in relation to the height of buildings, the width or footways, the surface treatment of both
carriageway and footway.
In addition, equipment and signs seemingly only of interest to road users will form part of the
total scene. Traffic signs, their support posts and brackets as well as their backs, remain in view
even when there is no traffic. Similarly road markings, though having a practical function, often
dominate the foreground of many scenes.
Care and attention may often be taken in the design and location of major initiatives affecting
the setting of a conservation area, but many of the daytoday maintenance activities of the
street, which may effect the whole scene, are seldom visually coordinated. Not only must areas
be maintained, using natural materials to fit in with the character of the street, but the street
furniture, signing and so on must be kept to a minimum. Unless absolutely necessary, perhaps
for road safety or regulatory reasons, they should be removed. Similarly poorly located street
furniture should be relocated or removed.
225
The geometry of the carriageway, its relation to the width of footway, and the surface material
of both, can dramatically enhance the setting of a building. The use of natural stone paving is
common in places where higher standards are deemed necessary. But the expense restricts their
use to a very few places. Of greater importance is the use of a range of more economic materials
which can be easily maintained but which will complement a conservation area or building of
heritage value.
To this end care is needed in the selection of alternative materials. The choice of concrete and
clay products is very wide and a degree of restraint is needed. Sometimes research or guidance
as to what would be historically or geographically appropriate will be required. Some local
authorities, such as Bath, impose strict standards to ensure conformity of materials.
227
Much of English design tradition is formed less on symmetry, which may be considered to be
too regimental, than on a more subtle informal order. The rules are more complicated but
allow for interpretation.
One example is the way in which a person walking down Fleet Street sees the front facade
of Londons St Pauls Cathedral. This is an example of an important building being
positioned so that it is gradually revealed. The building is not approached up a long avenue,
as is St Peters Rome, rather it is deliberately partially hidden from view. Walking down
Fleet Street towards Ludgate Circus, more of the facade comes in to view. The whole facade
is not visible until Ludgate Hill, almost at the front of the Cathedral. By that time the dome
can no longer be seen.
There are also subtleties. From Fleet Street the dark spire of St Martins Ludgate seems to pass
across in front of the lighter coloured structure of the drum and dome of the Cathedral.
There are similar combinations of white buildings and darkly coloured objects on the Mall
side of Buckingham Palace. The dark sculpture and ornate lamp posts contrast with the light
stone of the Palace and the Victoria Memorial. When colour is added, it is the striking colour
of parade uniforms and processional decorations. At other times the scene is neutral so that
the contrast with the colour of occasional pageantry is more marked.
Relating the colour and texture of building and ground surface materials can create a sense
of visual order. Typical examples are where they have occurred historically because they
were the best available at a particular location.
228
In practice this requires each category of traffic related street furniture to be considered with a
view to removing or hiding those which are not essential for efficient and safe movement. It may
seem that what can be done is quite modest and individually hardly worthwhile. Yet, the total
effect of carrying out a number of small measures at any one location is significant.
The most obvious first step is to remove redundant posts and support structures. Signs seldom
need their own supports if lamp columns are adjacent. There is often a degree of latitude in the
precise location of traffic information signs, though traffic regulation signs need to be more
accurately positioned. Single posts can be used for more than one function. Traffic signals can
be fixed to lamp columns, if they are suitably positioned, and signal control boxes can be sited
out of sight. Simple waiting restriction signs seldom need their own posts because there is a
range of satisfactory alternative positions where they can be effective. They can often be fixed
to adjacent boundary walls or railings at the back edge of a footway. Information signs can often
be fixed to adjacent walls. This also reduces the need for separate support posts. In each case
the actual position of the sign on the wall or fence should also be decided upon with
consideration for the visual role of the wall or fence in the whole scene. Negotiation with
property owners will be required for wall mountings. It is important to emphasise that the
governing factor for any reduction in signage or clutter must be highway safety.
Reduction of street clutter.
Fix signs to lamp columns
Fix traffic signals to lamp columns
Fix no waiting signs to railings, walls, litter bins or benches
Set traffic signal control boxes into walls
Fix traffic direction signs to walls
Fix traffic regulation signs to walls
Combine signs onto least possible support posts
Reduce lengths of guardrails
Remove guardrails
Reduction of road markings
Use natural features for traffic calming
Reduce the need for bollards by using other existing street furniture repositioned if
necessary
Reduce zigzag lines to a minimum
Reduce width of yellow lines to 50mm
Form road markings in natural materials, for example, white stone
229
although there are still matters that are insisted on by government or official guidance for
highways and transportation that appear to conflict with other general guidance on the
enhancement of heritage and conservation.
Archaeology.
Some 13,000 sites are included by the Secretary for State for National Heritage in the present
schedule of monuments under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979.
Once a monument has been scheduled, the consent of the Secretary of State is required
before any works are carried out which would have the effect of demolishing, destroying,
damaging, removing, repairing, altering, adding to, flooding or covering up the monument.
Official advice is contained within Planning Policy Guidance Note (PPG) 16, DETR.
Ancient Monuments
Sites and Monuments Records are maintained by either county or unitary planning
authorities, identifying all currently known archaeological sites within their boundaries.
Advice on these sites is available from local authority archaeological officers. Advice on
ancient monuments, especially those protected as Scheduled Monuments under the Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act, 1979 and on other aspects of the historic built
environment is available from English Heritage.
Planning and the historic environment.
The Town & Country Planning Act 1990 (as amended) is the principle Act.
The Secretary of State for National Heritage has a duty to compile or approve lists of
buildings of special architectural or historic interest.
Local plans prepared under the Act are required to set out the planning authoritys policies
for preserving and enhancing the historic environment in their area including the
designation and formulation of proposals for individual conservation areas.
PPG 15 sets out Government policy on planning and the historic environment with regard to
transport and traffic management, new traffic routes, roads in centres or settlements,
floorscape and street furniture. The flexibility authorities have in the design of traffic calming
features under the Highways (Traffic Calming) Regulations 1993 is emphasised. Reference is
made to the many examples of good practice in reconciling traffic and environmental issues,
illustrated in a publication by the Civic Trust & English Historic Towns Forum: Traffic
Measures in Historic Towns.
230
pedestrianisation;
widening of footways;
alteration and designation of pedestrian crossings;
the addition of cycle ways to the existing carriageway;
the designation of bus lanes;
installation of new traffic signal schemes
installation and updating of street lighting, and
introduction of CCTV systems.
All this activity can take place within a single length of high street, yet each part would be
separately financed and programmed. In some cases they would be carried out by separate
agencies.
The resulting visual effect can be one of chaos. There is little or no visual coordination and
each element is more likely to adhere to national guidelines than to considerations of what is
most appropriate visually for the enhancement of the heritage of the area.
As a result all high streets have gradually come to look very similar. Local distinctiveness has
been lost and very little regard given to the heritage of the locality.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
231
9.13.1 Materials
Historically local materials were used for paving. This automatically gave a local flavour to all
areas. Similarly localbuilding materials helped to clearly establish local or regional variations.
Even today historic buildings in some areas may be wholly in brick or stone or flint as these
were the most available local materials. As transportation became more economic, the use of
local materials was overtaken by nationally used building materials and techniques. The same
applied to paving materials. Granite was used in Cornwall and sandstone in Yorkshire. By the
18th century Purbeck limestone was being used in the City of London and with the advent of
the railways in the 19th Century the use of York Stone became widespread.
Where historic materials survive it is an objective of heritage conservation to keep them.
Sometimes more practical alternatives are needed, for instance in many historic places, street
surfaces were little more than rammed earth and rubble. Today bound macadam, with the
appropriate coloured aggregate surface dressing may be a natural successor. In all cases, the
design life of materials will be an important consideration. The scale of materials also needs to be
considered, for example, the size of the individual paving slabs or units is often important. Careful
reference to what was traditional in the location helps decide what would be appropriate.
Practitioners familiar with their own locality will probably instinctively select materials that are
visually appropriate, however it is seldom the case that practitioners have that advantage as staff
within organisations change frequently and individuals may not have local experience.
A procedure of noting the traditional details in a locality needs to be carriedout. This will
entail examining any remaining historic surfaces and noting the materials and local
workmanship techniques. Often these traditional materials are more likely to have survived in
less wellused or altered streets and in the courtyards and alleys off a main road.
An important requirement is that footway paving should be sufficiently robust to withstand
expected wear and possible vehicle loads. Until a few decades ago, local authority
specifications only had to indicate the material to be used and leave the details of construction
to the craftsman in the authoritys works department. They would have the skill and local
knowledge to carry out the work as specified and satisfactorily deal with the edges and
junctions of one material with another. Today this approach can lead to visually unacceptable
results. This is because the current system splits the client function from the contractor. It
requires accurate specification, designs and instructions as to workmanship, as well as close
supervision and insistence, by the client, that the contractor complies with all the requirements
of the specifications.
functions as possible. For instance bus shelters can incorporate payphones, seats, litterbins and
pedestrian direction signs. Equipment should be located as discretely as possible and be painted
in a single colour chosen to respect the location.
None of these practices in any way ignore the need for clear traffic regulation signs and signals
erected in accordance with the Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions. Indeed if the
Regulations are studied carefully they reveal a number of discretionary powers in interpretation
available to local authorities. Unless it is part of a well considered design scheme, the
installation of over embellished street furniture does not enhance heritage. On the contrary it
detracts from the genuine quality of historic spaces and artefacts.
9.13.3 Access
Concern for the welfare of people with disabilities is understandably increasing. Tactile paving
is being used widely to assist people with sight difficulties to realise that, where the kerb has
been removed, they are leaving the safety of a footway and walking into a carriageway (IHT,
1991 and DETR, 2000 forthcoming). The official recommendations of red and contrasting
colours are relaxed in conservation areas. As a general rule it is important to obtain advice from
local disability groups relating to a particular location or project. People with visual
impairments use a whole range of nonvisual indicators to find their way about an area with
which they are familiar and designers need to be aware of them.
The layout of tactile paving needs to be designed with more care than ordinary paving (DETR,
1999). This is because it frequently occurs at places where there are access covers or awkward
corners and problems that need to be resolved before work starts on site.
Generally, the fewer obstacles the better it is for people with disabilities. For this reason the
removal of street furniture, clutter and bollards greatly helps them as well as contributing
towards the overall enhancement of an area.
Those with visual impairments face difficulties in crossing large pedestrian areas safely.
Sensitive use of tactile paving can provide routes so that hazards are avoided (DETR, 2000
forthcoming).
9.13.4 Lighting
Lighting is a specialised subject, which allows the opportunity for subtleties far beyond the
normal practice. Street lighting is normally intended to give basic assistance to highway users
and provides a uniform level of illumination (Institution of Lighting Engineers, 1995, 1999).
There are opportunities to extend beyond this basic requirement. For example, the lanterns
themselves can be fixed to walls and thereby reduce the clutter of lamp columns.
Lighting can be mounted on buildings so that the lanterns fit in exactly with the architectural
details of the buildings. This will need the sizes and intensity of illumination of each lantern to be
accurately calculated. A variation in illumination is not necessarily unacceptable to the objectives
of traffic safety. There are also opportunities to think laterally and enhance the appearance of
historic structures through sympathetic lighting that also meets highways requirements. The City
of London, Glasgow and Edinburgh all use wall mounted lighting extensively.
In rural areas the introduction of new highway lighting, possibly for safety reasons, into
previously unlit areas can blur the distinction between urban and rural character, changing the
quality of the areas and creating the feel of urban sprawl, even where little additional building
spreads into the countryside. There needs to be major safety advantages before lighting is
provided in rural areas.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
233
New traffic calming devices can be designed to continue the local architectural characteristics.
York.
234
235
carriageway combined with a continuous rumble strip. Parking was laid out in a herringbone
fashion so that cars leaving spaces slowed traffic further. Overall the comprehensive renewal
scheme reduced the need for intrusive street furniture, signs and highway lines. Slower speeds
and considerate parking became acceptable patterns of behaviour influenced by good highway
and urban design.
A similar approach has been adopted in Borehamwood, Hertfordshire.
9.15 Repairs
The New Roads and Streetworks Act 1991 requires statutory undertakers and their contractors
to be responsible for carrying out the permanent reinstatement of the highway where they
disturb it. Statutory undertakers are now required to reinstate the same materials as previously
existed, or the closest possible match.
For instance where there is a heritage interest, existing paving should be lifted, set aside
carefully, and reinstated to match adjacent areas as closely as possible to avoid ugly scars.
Existing historic street furniture of interest such as metal kerbs, pillar boxes, red telephone
boxes, drinking fountains, cattle troughs, monuments, plaques, memorials and lamp columns
should be preserved in situ, and wherever possible brought back into use. It may not be possible
for all features to be returned to their original use, however cattle troughs, for example, can
be used as planters. Many authorities have compiled inventories of items of interest and
established clear lines of responsibility for future maintenance.
237
examine the feasibility of adapting statutory requirements in order to conform more fully with
urban design concepts.
Places, Streets & Movement , a companion guide to the governments Design Bulletin 32
Residential Roads and Footpaths (DETR/Alan Baxter & Associates) describes good practice that
can be achieved in the careful design and implementation. It is particularly appropriate for the
design of new residential areas.
Finally, there are publications from abroad about how other countries deal with similar issues.
These books often point the way to the future. The introduction of Homezones is a concept from
Europe, now being tested in this country. Improved Traffic Environment A Catalogue of Ideas
(English Language by Road Directorate, Danish Ministry of Transport). Also bringing examples
from other European countries is Traffic in Townscape Ideas from Europe (Civic Trust & English
Historic Towns Forum/Davis).
References
238
Cullen G, 1961
DETR, 1999
Institution of Lighting
Engineers, 1995
Institution of Lighting
Engineers, 1999
Further reading
Additional sources of information on good practice for the public realm are included in the
following list compiled by English Heritage.
Bloomsbury Street Audit Study : Davis, Colin J for English Heritage/London Borough of Camden
June 1994.
Brixton Streetscape Manual : Davis, Colin J for Brixton City Challenge/English Heritage/London
Borough of Lambeth October 1996.
City/people/light : Philips 1997.
City Streets improving the city street scene: A Guidance Note: Corporation of London July
1996.
Cluttered Countryside, The : CPRE December 1996.
Conservation and Contradictions : CCTV Today May 1997.
Decorative Lighting of Churches : Electrical Contractors Associates: 1996.
Details in the Street Scene : A Conservation Policy: Royal Borough of Kensington & Chelsea
1993.
Edinburgh: Streetscape Manual : Davis, Colin J for the Scottish Office/Lothian Regional
Council/Edinburgh City Council/Historic Scotland/ENTCC/EOTRT November 1995.
Greenwich Town Centre Streetscape Manual : London Borough of Greenwich January 1999.
Historic Core Zone Projects, The : English Historic Towns Forum November 1999.
Improved Traffic Environment A Catalogue of Ideas (in English) : Road Directorate, Danish
Ministry of Transport 1993.
Improving Design in the High Street : Royal Fine Art Commission 1997.
Landscape Detailing (3rd Ed): Michael Littlewood 1994.
Landscape Design Guide (2 Volumes): Adrian Lisney 1990.
Landscape Strategy for Londons Trunk Road Network : Highways Agency November 1995.
Lighting Equipment as Daytime Architecture : Peter Heath, Lightec 96 Conference papers 1996.
London Bus Priority Network Sector Proposals: London Bus Priority Network/London Transport
Buses/London Boroughs 1999.
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
239
Londons Urban Environment: Planning for Quality : Building Design Partnership for
Government Office for London 1996.
Managing Urban Space in Town Centres: A Good Practice Guide : DoE/Association of Town
Centre Managers 1997.
Network Plan for Red Routes : Traffic Director for London March 1993.
Places, Streets & Movement : A companion guide to Design Bulletin 32 Residential roads and
footpaths: Alan Baxter & Associates for DETR 1998.
Planning and the Historic Environment : Planning Policy Guidance Note 15 (PPG15):
Department of the Environment/Department of National Heritage September 1994.
Protecting the Street Scene : Context Issue No. 41 1994.
Residential Roads and Footpaths : Design Bulletin 32, Department of Transport 1992.
Revision to the Network Plan Traffic Director for London October 1998.
Seven Dials Renaissance: The Environmental Handbook : Civic Design Partnership for the Seven
Dials Monument Charity September 1999.
Street Design Guide : London Borough of Richmond upon Thames July 1995.
Streets Design in Merton : London Borough of Merton 1999.
Street Improvements in Historic Areas : English Heritage August 1993.
Street Furniture Manual : Westminster City Council 1993.
Streets as Living Space : Carmen HaasKlau, Graham Crampton, Clare Dowland, Inge Nold 1999.
Supplement to the Network Plan : Traffic Director for London March 1995.
Tomorrows Towns : Institution of Civil Engineers, 1994.
Towards an Urban Renaissance : Urban Task Force 1999.
Traditional Paving and Street Surfaces : Fact File No 3, National Council of Civic Trust Societies
1996.
Traditional Paving Design : Proceedings of a Workshop Seminar: University of the West of
England/Somerset County Council 1994
Traffic Calming Bibliography, DETR Traffic Advisory Leaflet, TAL 5/00, 2000.
240
Specific Government legislation and guidance on roads and footways is covered by:
Highways Acts 198099.
Road Traffic Act 1991.
New Roads and Streetworks Act 1991.
Road Hump Regulations Statutory Instrument 1996/1483.
Traffic Advisory Leaflets 19912000.
Traffic Calming Act 1992.
Traffic Calming Regulations Statutory Instrument 1993/1849.
Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions: Statutory Instruments 199499.
Traffic Director for Londons technical guidance documents 19939.
British Standards Institute:
Specification for dressed natural stone kerbs, channels, quadrants and setts BS435 1975/1993.
Precast concrete flags, kerbs, channels, edgings and quadrants BS7263 Pts 1&2 1994/1990.
Guidance for trees in relation to construction BS5837 1991.
Recommendations for transplanting rootballed trees BS4043 1989.
241
242
I NDEX
Subject
A
Aweighting, and human hearing
abatement techniques
access, built heritage
accessibility, as NATA criterion
Section
6.2.4
2.3.3
9.13.3
Table 2.1,
Table 2.2
accidents
source of pollutants
4.4.3
see also safety
ACEA, and European Auto-Oil Programme
2.3.3
acid deposition
5.1, 5.2.2
Advisory Committee on Trunk Road Assessment
(ACTRA)
2.2.1
report
5.2.1, Box 5.2
aftertreatment systems, and vehicle
emission reduction measures
5.8.1
aggregates provision
2.4.3
air pollution
effect on verges
8.5.3, Figure 8.2
and environmental and social costs of
road transport
Table 2.10
modelling
5.6.2, Box 5.17
monitoring, and NAQS
5.6.1, Box 5.14,
Box 5.15, Box 5.16
air quality
1996 concentrations
Box 5.7
and 1998 White Paper daughter document 2.4.2
current situation
5.2.2
and European AutoOil Programme
2.3.3
highways maintenance
3.5
impact assessment, current practices
5.3
international agreements
5.5.3
issues
5.4
local management
5.5.4
as NATA criterion
Table 2.1, Table 2.2
and noise
6.6.4, 6.7
overview
5.2.1
parties affected
Box 5.2
pollution control and reduction
5.7
see also pollution, control and reduction
and pollution from vehicles
4.4.1
practical measures to reduce pollution
5.8
RCEP report
2.2.1
recommendations
5.9
review and assessment of air pollution
5.6
standards
5.5.2
statistics
Table 2.8
and Transport 2010
2.4.4
and trees
7.3.3
and tunnels
6.6.5
and UK transport policy
2.4.3
vehicle and fuel standards
5.5.1, Box 5.5
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
B
bacteria, as pollutants
4.3.4
badgers, and nature conservation
8.6.3
balancing ponds, and highway runoff
4.6.4.4
barriers, and noise
6.7
basins, and highway runoff
4.6.4
benchmarking, and road traffic reduction
2.5
benefit cost ratios (BCR), and trunk road schemes
2.4.2
benzene see hydrocarbons
best value, and EMS
3.3
biodiversity
8.18.10
and trunk road schemes
2.4.2
see also nature conservation
birds
8.4.5, 8.6.3, 8.7.2
boreholes, and trunk road schemes
2.4.2
bridges, and rural landscapes
7.3.5
British Standards
BS 5228, and noise, Noise and vibration
control on construction and open sites
6.5.2
BS 5837, trees, and urban landscapes,
Guide for trees in relation to construction 7.3.3
BS 6367, and gully pots,
Code of practice for
drainage of roofs and paved areas
4.4.6
BS 7750, as standard, Specification for
environmental management systems
3.6.1
BS 8233
and noise
6.6.6
Sound insulation and noise reduction for
buildings
6.5.5
and fuel
5.5.1
British Transport Police
2.4.1
brownfield sites, and Local
243
Subject
Section
Development Plans
6.6.1
Brundtland, Gro Harlem, reports definition of
sustainability
3.1
Buckinghamshire, roadside nature conservation
moth case study
8.8.1, Figure 8.4
buildings
as built heritage
9.3
and noise
6.6.6
as noise barriers
6.6.3
built heritage
ancient monuments
9.2
challenges to enhancement of
9.12.19.12.3
conservation and Conservation Areas
9.4
cultural heritage
9.8.1
economic wellbeing
9.8.2
everyday life
9.10, Box 9.2, Box 9.3, Box 9.4
groups of buildings
9.3
and highway management
9.11
highways maintenance
3.5
identity and clarity of location
Box 9.2
improving current practice
9.13
interdisciplinary considerations
9.14
as landscape
9.9
legislation and official advice
Box 9.6
listed buildings
9.2
and management of highways
9.19.17
recommendations
9.17
regeneration
9.8.3
repairs
9.15
sense of place
Box 9.1
spaces
9.5, 9.6
street clutter
Box 9.5
and streetscape
9.7
bus lanes
5.8.1, 5.9
bus policy
2.4.2
bus services
2.2, 2.4.1, 2.4.4, 2.4.1
buses, and vehicle emission reduction
measures
5.8.1, Box 5.9, Box 5.24
1,3butadiene see hydrocarbons
bypasses, and vehicle emissions
5.8.2
C
cadmium
4.3.2, 5.5.2
calcium magnesium acetate
4.3.4
Calculation of Road Traffic Noise (CRTN) 6.3.1,
6.5.7, 6.5.6, 6.5.4, 6.6.3, 6.6.2
Cambridge Water Company, litigation
4.5.1
carbon dioxide emissions
5.1, 5.2.2, Box 5.8
and air quality
5.1
and DMRB
5.3
and increase in road transport
5.2.2, Box 5.8
Kyoto Conference
2.3.1
RECP report
2.2.1
reduction measures
Box 5.23
and trunk road schemes
2.4.2
244
Subject
Section
congestion
and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
costs
Table 2.10
road pricing
2.2.1
and Transport 2010
2.4.4
and vehicle emissions
Box 5.23
conservation, and built heritage
9.4
Conservation Areas
2.2.1, 7.3.3, 9.4
constructed wetlands, and highway
runoff
4.6.4.5, Box 4.6
consultation, public, and trunk road schemes 2.4.2
contractors
and materials
9.13.1
and nature conservation
8.5.5, 8.10
Control of Major Accident Hazards
Regulations 1999 (COMAH)
3.2, 3.9.3
Control of Pollution Act 1974, and water
management
4.5.1
copper, as pollutant
4.3.2
cordon charges, as vehicle emission
reduction measure
5.8.1, Box 5.23
cost, implications of EMS
3.3
cost benefit analysis (COBA)
and noise
6.7
and road appraisal
2.2.1
costings, and water management
4.7.1, Table 4.4
countryside, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1, 2.4.2
Countryside Agency
map, landscape
7.4.1
publications
landscape
7.4.8, 7.4.1
landscapes
7.3.5
lighting
7.3.2
and rural landscapes
7.3.5
Countryside Commission, and trunk road
schemes
2.4.2
county wildlife trusts, and nature
conservation
8.6.6, 8.10
cultural heritage, and DMRB
5.3
culture, and built heritage
9.8.1
customer care, public transport
2.4.1
cuttings, and noise
6.6.5
cycle lanes
5.8.1, 5.9
cycling
and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
PPG 13
2.4.3
D
dangerous substances, EU directive
Dartmoor National Park
daughter documents, 1998 White Paper
decibels see noise
Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO)
schemes
2.2,
Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (DMRB)
and air pollution modelling
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
4.5.3
7.6.2
2.4.2
7.4.3
5.6.2
E
earth bunds, and noise
6.6.3, 6.7
EcoManagment and Audit Scheme
Regulation (EMAS), as standard
3.6.1, Table 3.2
ecological inventories, and landscape
management
7.4.9
ecology
8.18.10
see also nature conservation
economic instruments, and traffic
management
2.2.1
economy and built heritage
9.8.2
as NATA criterion
Table 2.1, Table 2.2
and trunk road schemes
2.4.2
education, integrated transport policy
2.4.1
Education, Department for, Design Notes
6.5.5
elderly, bus concessions for
2.4.1
electronic road pricing
2.4.2
emergencies, and groundwater
4.5.5
emission control
recommendations
5.2.2
standards
5.4.1, Box 5.5, 5.8.1
EN 1793, noise barriers
6.6.3
enclosures, and noise
6.6.5
energy efficiency, highways maintenance
3.5
enforcement, role of UKEA
3.2
engineering
245
Subject
Section
and noise
6.5.2
and water
4.7.1
engines
technology
2.3.3
vehicle emissions
5.4.1
England, regions, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
English Heritage
2.4.2, 9.1, 9.8.3
English Nature
2.4.2, 8.4.3, 8.6.4
map
7.4.1
Environment Act 1995
2.5, 3.2, 5.2.2, 5.5.4
Environment Agency (UKEA)
2.4.2, 3.2, 3.4,
3.9.1, 4.5.6, 4.5.1
environmental appraisal
2.6.2
environmental aspects in product standards
(EAPS)
3.7.2
environmental assessment
4.5.3, 6.5.2, 7.3.1
Environmental Assessment Directive
4.5.3
environmental auditing
3.7.1
environmental costs
Table 2.10
environmental impact assessments
3.2, 4.5.3,
Box 4.3
environmental impacts
2.2.1, 2.3.2, Table 2.1,
Table 2.2, 3.4, Figure 3.1, Figure 3.2, Figure 3.3
environmental issues
3.8
environmental labelling (EL)
3.7.2
environmental management procedure
Box 3.3
environmental management systems (EMS) 3.13.10
creation
3.8
delivery
3.5
framework
3.6
future trends
3.10
highways environmental management model 3.9
key consideratiosn
3.4
legislation and regulation
3.2
organisational considerations
3.3
protection
3.1
sample Manual contents
Box 3.3
standards
3.6.1, 3.7.1, 3.7, Box 3.3
environmental performance
evaluation (EPE)
3.7.1
Environmental Protection Act 1990
3.2, 8.6.1
environmental protection and management
3.1
environmental risks
3.9.1.9.12, Figure 3.3
Environmental Statements
7.4.2
erosion
4.4.2, 8.5.4, 8.10
Essex, roadside nature conservation special
verges case study
8.8.3
Europea, noise barriers and landscaping
6.6.3
European AutoOil Programme
2.3.3, 5.5.1
European Commission
2.3.2, 2.3.3
see also European Union
European Community
2.3.2, 2.5, 2.6.1
see also European Union
European Court of Justice
2.3.2
European Environment Agency, as regulatory
authority
3.4
246
F
faade noise levels
6.2.9, 6.4.2
fad chasing, and EMS
3.3
fauna see wildlife
fertilisers, as pollutants
4.3.4
filter drains, and highway
4.6.2,
runoff
Table 4.3, Table 4.4
filter strips, and highway runoff
4.6.1, 4.6.1.1,
Table 4.5
Fire Service, spillages, and groundwater
4.5.5
fisheries, legislation
4.5.1
fisheries, freshwater
2.4.2
flame photometry
5.6.1
flood defence
2.4.2, Table 2.6, 4.5.1
flora see plants
footways, materials
9.13.1
forecasting, variable nature
2.2.1
Forestry Authority
8.6.1
Framework Dangerous Substances Directive 4.5.3
freefield noise levels
6.2.9, 6.4.2
freight, and air quality
5.9
freight grants
2.4.1
freight policy
2.4.2
freight transport
2.2.1, 2.3.2, 2.4.1, 5.2.2,
5.4.1, 6.3.1
and vehicle emissions
5.4.1, 5.8.1, Box 5.9,
Box 5.23
freight vehicles, and
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
Subject
vehicle emissions
freshwater fisheries
fuel
consumption
efficiency
emissions
fuel duty
Fuel Price Escalator
fuels, alternative
Section
5.8.1, Box 5.24, 5.8.1
2.4.2, 4.5.3
5.4.1
2.4.1
5.4.1
5.8.1, Box 5.23
2.3.1
5.8.1
G
gas chromatography
5.6.1
Gaussian Plume, and NAQS calculation
5.6.2
General Quality Assessment (GQA) 4.5.2, Figure 4.2
General Quality Assessment (GQA)
grade (Chemical)
2.4.2
Geographical Information System (GIS) 7.5, 8.5.6,
8.7.6
geotextiles, and landscape design
7.4.2
Germany, Hennef, built heritage
9.14.2
global emissions, and trunk road schemes
2.4.2
global policy
2.3.1
glycols, as pollutants
4.4.5
grass, swales, and highway runoff
4.6.1.1,
Table 4.3, Table 4.4, Table 4.5
grasscrete, as alternative road surface
4.6.5.1
grassland, cutting
8.5.1, 8.7.2
green transport plans
2.4.1, 2.4.2
greenhouse effect
5.2.2
greenhouse gases see carbon dioxide
grit chambers, and highway runoff
Table 4.3,
Table 4.4, Table 4.5
groundwater
drainage and runoff management
4.14.7
regulations
4.5.4, Box 4.2
Source Protection Zones (SPZs)
4.7.3
and trunk road schemes 2
.4.2
Groundwater Directive
4.3.3
Groundwater Regulations 1998
4.5.4
Groundwater Resource Protection (GRP) zones
4.6.3.1
Guidance On Methodology for
Multimodal Studies
(GOMMS), and trunk road schemes
2.4.2
gully pots
4.4.6, 4.7.3
gully systems
Table 4.3, Table 4.4, Table 4.5
H
hard landscaping
7.4.8
health
2.4.1, 5.2.1, Box 5.2
health, general, and noise
6.4.4
health and safety
3.8, 3.9.3, 3.9, 4.5.5
hearing, human, frequency selectivity
6.2.4
Hedgerow Regulations 1997
8.6.1
hedges, recommendations
8.10
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
Subject
Section
J
Jefferson, J, and air quality
journey times, as NATA criterion
5.2.1
Table 2.1,
Table 2.2
K
Kent, roadside nature reserves and
wardens case study
Kyoto Conference, as influence on
domestic transport policy
Kyoto Protocol, and air quality
8.8.2
2.3.1
5.5.3
248
Subject
Section
and trees
7.3.3
and vehicle emissions
5.8.1, Box 5.23
and verges
8.5.1, 8.7.1, 8.7.2, Figure 8.3
and water management
4.5.1, Box 4.2
local character
and highways design
9.11.3
landscape management
7.7.1
Local Government Act 1992, and water
management
4.5.3
Local Nature Reserves, and roadside areas
8.6.1
Local Transport Plans (LTPs) 2.4.1, 2.4.2, Table 2.7
location, identity and clarity of, built heritage
Box 9.2
London
boroughs, road charging powers
2.4.2
and built heritage
Box 9.2, Box 9.3
and European AutoOil Programme
2.3.3
Richmond/Hounslow, urban roads case study
7.6.1
Strand, interdisciplinary project
9.14.1
and Transport 2010
2.4.4
and vehicle emission reduction measures 5.8.1,
Box 5.24
London, Mayor of
2.4.4, 2.4.1, 2.4.2
lorry bans
5.8.1, 6.6.4
low emission zones, proposals
5.4.1
M
M4 Bus Lane, proposal
2.6.1
Maastricht Treaty, and European transport policy
2.3.2
McAdam, John, and highway development
8.3
maintenance
and highway runoff
4.6.14.6.5, Table 4.4
importance
4.7.3
and landscape management
7.4.4
and sources of pollutants
4.4.14.4.6
and Transport 2010
2.4.4
management
and environmental risks
3.9.2
need for commitment to EMS
3.8
management contracts, landscape management
7.4.4
management plans
and landscape management
7.4.3
publications available
7.4.1
manganese, as pollutant
4.3.2
Manual of Environmental Assessment
(MEA)
2.2.1, 5.2.1, 5.3
material assets, and DMRB
5.3
materials
and built environment
9.17
used for surfaces
9.13.1
Mawhinney, Brian, and New Realism
2.2.1
MEET project, method used
5.6.2
mercury, and Air Quality Framework Directive 5.5.2
249
Subject
Section
metals
and highway runoff
4.6.4.4, 4.6.3.3,
4.6.3.1, 4.6.3
as pollutants
4.3.2, 4.4.6
and road surface
4.4.2, 4.6.5.2
and vehicles
4.4.1
methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) see hydrocarbons
microorganisms, as pollutants
4.3.4
microphones, relative to reflective surfaces
6.2.9
Milk Marketing Board, and highway
development
8.3
Mineral Planning Guidance Notes (MPGs)
2.4.3
minor roads, intersections with major roads 7.3.5
modal shift, encouragement
2.2.1
modification, of EMS
3.8
monitoring, and EMS
3.8
MOT test, and vehicle and fuel standards
5.5.1
moths, roadside nature conservation case study
8.8.1, Figure 8.4
motor industry, and European AutoOil
Programme
2.3.3
motorists, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
motorways
and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
and environmental impact assessments
3.2
and Transport 2010
2.4.4
and vehicle emission reduction measures 5.8.1,
Box 5.23
verges
8.2
vistas
9.7
mowers, and cutting regimes
8.7.2
MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) see hydrocarbons
MultiLayer Surface Dressings (MLSD)
6.6.2
Mummery, Joan, and Essex verges project
8.8.3
N
National Air Quality Strategy (NAQS)
2.4.3,
Table 2.8, 5.2.2, 5.3, 5.5.2, 5.6,
Box 5.6, Box 5.7
National Freight Corporation, privatisation
2.2
National Land Use Database
7.5
national parks
3.2
National Parks and Access to the Countryside
Act 1949
8.6.1
National Rivers Authority (NRA)
4.5.6, 4.5.1,
4.5.4, Box 4.2
National Water Council (NWC)
4.5.2, 4.5.6
natural heritage, highways maintenance
3.5
Nature Conservancy Council
8.8.3
nature conservation
assessment of options
Table 2.4
assessment of roadside areas
8.7.1
communication
8.5.6
conflicting needs of different species
8.4.5
costs
8.4.4
250
Subject
Section
mitigation
6.6.3
as NATA criterion
Table 2.1, Table 2.2
nuisance
2.2.1
planning issues
6.5
recommendations
6.7
reduction
6.5.5
sources
6.1.2
and traffic management
6.6.4, Table 6.4
and transport policy
2.4.4, 2.4.2, 2.4.1
trends
6.1.3, Table 6.2
Noise Exposure Categories (NECs)
6.4.2
Noise Insulation Amendment Regulations 1988
6.5.4, 6.5.2
Noise Insulation Regulations 1975
6.5.2, 6.5.3,
6.5.4, 6.6.3, 6.6.6
noise management
6.16.7
noisesensitive buildings
6.5.5, 6.6.1
nonporous quiet road surfaces
6.6.2, Figure 6.2
nonrenewable materials
2.2.1
Northern Ireland
2.4.1, 3.1
Department of Environment (NI)
4.5.1
Environment and Heritage Service
3.4
Northern Ireland Assembly
2.4.1
nutrients, and GQA classification
4.5.2
O
oil, and gully pots
4.4.6
oil industry, and European AutoOil Programme
2.3.3
oil interceptors
4.6.5.2
and highway runoff
Table 4.3, Table 4.4,
Table 4.5
operating conditions, and emission rates Box 5.10
orchids, and cutting verges
8.7.2, 8.10
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development, publication
6.4.2
Oxford Transport Strategy, and integrated
transport policy
2.6.1
ozone
and air pollution monitoring
5.6.1
and Air Quality Framework Directive
5.5.2
and atmospheric reactivity
5.4.2
current situation
5.2.2, Box 5.7
effect on verges
8.5.3
and European AutoOil Programme
2.3.3
and hydrocarbons
5.2.1
and NAQS
Box 5.6
recommendations
5.2.2
P
PAHs see hydrocarbons
palladium, as pollutant
4.3.2
park and ride schemes
5.8.1
parking, and vehicle emission reduction
measures
5.8.1, Box 5.23
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
Subject
pollutants
atmospheric deposition
classification
sources
and water management
Section
4.4.4
4.3, Table 4.2
4.4.14.4.6
4.2, Figure 4.1,
Table 4.1
2.2.1
WHO guidelines
pollution
control and reduction
5.7, 5.7.1
practical measures against
5.8, 5.8.1, Box 5.23
transport policy
2.3.2, 2.4.1
pollution control
4.5.1
pollution control valves
4.5.5
pollution traps
4.7.3
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
and Air Quality Framework Directive
5.5.2
clearance and maintenance practices
4.4.6
and Expert Panel on Air Quality
5.1
and infiltration basins
4.6.3.3
as pollutants from vehicles
4.4.1
ponds, and highway runoff
4.6.4
porous asphalt, as alternative road surface 4.6.5.2
porous pavement
4.6.5.1, Box 4.7, Table 4.5
porous quiet road surfaces
6.6.2, Figure 6.2
Prescott, John, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
present value of benefits (PVB), and trunk
road schemes
2.4.2
present value of costs (PVC), and trunk road
schemes
2.4.2
pricing
and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
and environmental appraisal
2.6.2
problems, and trunk road schemes, 1998 White
Paper daughter document
2.4.2
Prohibition Notices (UKEA), and water management
4.5.1
project champion, and EMS
3.8
prosecution, role of UKEA 3
3.2
Protection of Badgers Act 1992
8.6.3
Protocol Concerning Emissions of VOCs or their
Transboundary Fluxes
5.5.3
Protocol on the Further Reduction of Sulphur
Emissions, Second
5.5.3
Public Health Act 1936, and highway authorities
4.5.6
public inquiries
7.1, 7.4.2, 7.6.2
public private partnerships
2.2, 2.4.4
public transport
and air quality
5.8.1, 5.9
availability
3.3
as NATA criterion
Table 2.1, Table 2.2
promotion of
5.7.1
and transport policy
2.2.1, 2.4.1
pulsed fluorescence
5.6.1
252
Q
qualitative indicators, and trunk road schemes 2.4.2
Quality of Freshwaters Directive
4.5.3
quality management systems, and EMS
3.4
quality partnerships, and 1998 White Paper 2.4.1
quantitative indicators, and trunk road schemes
2.4.2
quiet road surfaces
6.6.2, Figure 6.2
R
rail freight
2.4.1, 2.4.2
rail safety
2.4.4
railways
passenger services
5.8.1, Box 5.23
and transport policy
2.2.1, 2.2, 2.4.1, 2.4.4
receiving water dilution ratios
4.7.2
recreation, legislation
4.5.1
recyclability, and noise
6.7
recycled materials, increased use of
2.2.1
recycling, highways maintenance
3.5
reflection, and noise
6.6.3
reflective surfaces, and noise
6.2.9
regeneration
and importance of built heritage
9.8.3
as NATA criterion
Table 2.1, Table 2.2
regional policy, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
Regional Traffic Control Centres
2.4.1
regulation
and environmental impacts
3.4
environmental management systems
3.2
regulations, nonexhaustive list
Box 3.5
reinstatement, recommendations
7.7.2
remedial management, recommendations
7.7.2
remote sensing, and air quality
5.2.1
renewable energy
5.9
residential property, and noise
6.5.4
retailing, outoftown
2.2.1
retention basins, and highway runoff
4.6.4.4,
Table 4.3, Table 4.4, Table 4.5
rhodium, as pollutant
4.3.2
Rio Earth Summit, and domestic transport policy
2.3.1
risks, highways maintenance
3.5
Rivers Ecosystem (RE)
4.5.2
road capacity
5.8.1, Box 5.23
road construction
2.2, 2.6.1
road haulage
2.2
road maintenance
2.2, Table 3.1
road markings
Box 9.5
road pricing
2.2.1, 2.4.2
road safety
2.4.2, 2.4.4, 2.4.1, Table 2.10
road surface
alternatives
4.6.5, Box 4.7
and noise
6.7
and noise mitigation
6.6.2
as source of pollutants
4.4.2
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
Subject
Section
road tolls
5.7.1
road traffic, noise, see also noise
Road Traffic Act 1972
3.2
Road Traffic Reduction Act 1997
2.5
Road Traffic Reduction (National Targets)
Act 1998
2.5, 5.8.1, Box 5.23
Road Traffic Regulation Act 1984
6.5.2
road user charging
2.4.1, 2.6.2, 5.8.1, Box 5.23
road works, reinstatement after
7.4.7
roads, as landscape
7.1
roadside areas
assessment
8.7.1
cutting
8.7.2, Figure 8.3
erosion and disturbance
8.7.4
nature conservation
8.2, 8.7.38.7.7, 8.8,
Figure 8.4, Figure 8.5
see also verges
Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
(RCEP)
2.2.1
runoff
4.14.7
rural areas
and cutting verges
8.5.1
development
2.4.3
landscapes
7.3.5
lighting
9.13.4
roads, case study
7.6.2
transport
2.4.4
S
safety
and environmental management
3.10
fencing
7.3.5
as NATA criterion
Table 2.2, Table 2.1
speed limits
5.8.1
and transport policy
2.3.2, 2.4.1, 2.4.2
trees
7.4.6
see also accidents
saftety, transport policy
2.4.1
St Edmondsbury Borough Council, litigation 4.5.3,
Box 4.3
salt
deicing
8.5.3, Figure 8.2
as pollutant
4.3.4, 4.4.5, 4.7.3, Table 4.2
school journeys
2.4.1
schools
2.4.1, 6.6.6
SCOOT, traffic lights
5.8.1
Scotland, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA)
3.4, 4.5.1, 4.5.4, 4.6.5.2
scrub, control
8.7.3, 8.7.2, 8.10
Second Protocol on the Further Reduction of
Sulphur
Emissions
5.5.3
sedimentation lagoons, and highway runoff 4.6.2,
Table 4.3, Table 4.4, Table 4.5
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
Subject
Section
T
tactile paving, access
9.13.3
tapered element oscillating microbalance
5.6.1
tax, vehicles
2.4.1
taxation, as value
2.6.2
technical knowledge, need for interdisciplinary
solutions
9.12.2
technology, and air quality
5.8.1, 5.9
texture, and built heritage
Box 9.4
Thin PolymerModified Asphalt Concrete (VTSL)
6.6.2, Figure 6.2
throughticketing, public transport
2.4.1
titration, and sulphur dioxide
5.6.1
toll roads, and environmental impact assessments
3.2
Town and Country Planning Act 1990
4.5.1,
Box 9.6
Town and Country Planning (Assessment of
Environmental Effects) (England and Wales)
Regulations 1999
6.5.2
Town and Country Planning (Development Plan)
Regulations 1991
4.5.1
Town and Country Planning (Environmental Impact
Assessment) (England and Wales)
Regulations 1999
4.5.3
254
townscape
9.4, 9.6
tradable permits, and environmental appraisal 2.6.2
trade barriers, EMAS potential as
3.6.1
traffic calming
2.2.1, 2.4.1, 5.7.1, 9.13.5
traffic controls, and air quality
5.9
traffic density, pollution and water management 4.2,
Table 4.1
traffic equipment, as street clutter
9.11.2, 9.11.3
traffic growth, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
traffic lights, and air quality
5.8.1, 5.9
traffic management
and air quality
5.7.1, 5.8.1, 5.9, Box 5.19, Box
5.20, Box 5.21, Box 5.23
and noise
6.6.4, 6.7
and rural landscapes
7.3.5
and transport policy
2.2.1, 2.4.1
traffic management
and air quality research programme (TRAMAQ)
5.7.1, Box 5.19, Box 5.20, Box 5.21
traffic reduction
and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
and air quality
5.9
traffic regulation orders
5.8.1
traffic signs
and rural landscapes
7.3.5
as street clutter
9.11.2, 9.11.3, Box 9.5
and suburban landscapes
7.3.4
traffic volume, and air quality
5.1, Box 5.1,
Box 5.23
train services, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
training, and EMS
3.3, 3.8
TRAMAQ see traffic management and air quality
research programme (TRAMAQ)
transformation, and air quality
5.4.2
Transport 2010
2.4.4
Transport Bill, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
Transport, Department of, and landscape
management
7.4.3
transport infrastructure, PPG 13
2.4.3
transport, means of, promotion of alternatives 5.8.1,
Box 5.23
transport planning, RECP report
2.2.1
transport policy
2.22.2.1
Transport (and Road) Research Laboratory
and noise
6.3.1
and rural roads case study
7.6.2
Transport White Paper 1998
2.4.12.4.3
TRANSYT, traffic lights, and vehicle emissions 5.8.1
travel demand, PPG 13
2.4.3
travelcards, public transport
2.4.1
treatment trains, and highway runoff
4.7.3
Treaty of Rome, and domestic transport policy 2.3.2
Tree Preservation Orders (TPOs) 7.3.3, 8.6.1, 8.6.5
trees
and landscape management
7.4.5
in new verges
8.7.7
nonnative species
8.4.7
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
Subject
Section
optimum use of
7.7.1
planting on roadside areas
8.7.5
and safety
7.4.6
and urban landscapes
7.3.3, 7.6.1
trip matrices, and road appraisal
2.2.1
tropospheric ozone, and European AutoOil
Programme
2.3.3
trunk roads
and air quality
5.2.1, 5.8.1, Box 5.2, Box 5.23
and landscape management
7.2
and transport policy
2.4.4, 2.4.2, 2.4.1
Trunk Roads Maintenance Manual (TRMM),
and trees
7.4.6
tunnels, and noise
6.6.5
U
UKEA see Environment Agency (UKEA)
Ultra Thin Hot Mix Asphalt Layer (UTHMAL) 6.6.2,
Figure 6.2
ultra violet radiation
5.6.1
Underground, London, and Transport 2010
2.4.4
United Kingdom
legislation, and environmental management 3.2
responsibility for management of air quality 5.5.4,
Box 5.13
transport policy
2.4.12.4.4, Box 3.2
1998 White Paper
2.4.1
United Kingdom Environment Agency (UKEA) see
Environment Agency (UKEA)
United Nations
Principles of Environment and Development 1992
3.2, 3.3, Box 3.1
World Health Organisation (WHO)
air quality
2.2.1, 2.4.3
conference on environment and health
3.10
Environmental Health Criteria Document 12 on
Noise
6.4.3, 6.4.2, 6.4.5, 6.5.2
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
(UNECE)
Convention on Long Range Transboundary
Air Pollution
5.5.3
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change
5.5.3
urban areas
car use
2.2.1
landscapes
7.3.3
PPG 13
2.4.3
roads, case study
7.6.1
urea, as pollutant
4.4.5
utilities
street work
2.4.1
and verges
8.4.2
V
vegetation
T HE E NVIRONMENTAL M ANAGEMENT OF H IGHWAYS
W
Wales, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
walking, and 1998 White Paper
2.4.1
water
contingency planning
3.9.3
and DMRB
5.3
highways maintenance
3.5
as NATA criterion
Table 2.2, Table 2.1
255
Subject
Section
256
4.3.2