123

Swiss Journal of Psychology, 72 (3), 2013, 123136
Sw issJ.W.Psychol.
Bilsky et
72 al.:
(3) Childrens
2013 Verlag
Value
Hans
Structures
Huber, Hogrefe
and Preferences
AG , Bern
Original Communication
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Assessment of Childrens Value

Structures and Value Preferences
Testing and Expanding the Limits
Wolfgang Bilsky1, Anna K. Dring2, Franka van Beeck1, Isabel Rose1,
Johanna Schmitz1, Katrin Aryus1, Lisa Drgekamp1, and Jeannette Sindermann1
1
Department of Psychology, University of Mnster, Germany

Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK
Abstract. Contrary to those of adults and adolescents, childrens value structures and value preferences have rarely been investigated.
This paper bridges this gap by building on Schwartzs (1992) value theory. We present two studies: one in which children from Germany,
Portugal, and Chile, aged 10 to 12 years, completed the Portrait Values Questionnaire (Schwartz et al., 2001); and one in which children
from Germany and France, aged 7 to 12 years, completed the Picture-Based Value Survey for Children (Dring, Blauensteiner, Aryus,
Drgekamp, & Bilsky, 2010). Theory-based multidimensional scaling analyses revealed differentiated value structures in both studies.
Findings on childrens value preferences converged with evidence from adult samples (Schwartz & Bardi, 2001). The results are discussed
in light of the present state of knowledge and consequences for future research.
Keywords: value structures, value preferences, children, assessment
Empirical research on human values has grown rapidly

over the past few decades (e.g., Hofstede, 1980; Inglehart,
1977; Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1992). One of the most
fruitful theories on the content and structure of human values one that has also proved to be a conceptually and
empirically appropriate and sound approach for cross-cultural investigations was developed by Schwartz (1992).
Schwartz conceives values as transsituational concepts or
beliefs about desirable goals that vary in importance and
serve as guiding principles in peoples lives. With respect
to their content, values can be distinguished on the basis of
the motivational goals they express. Schwartz derives ten
motivationally distinct basic values (see Table 1, second
column).
These basic values are dynamically related and show a
circular structure, which results because the behavioral implications of individual values are either compatible or incompatible with each other. This suggests that the closer
any two basic values are located around the circle, the more
compatible they are. The ten basic values can be aggregated
so as to form four higher-order values (HOV). These HOVs
represent opposing poles of two roughly orthogonal dimensions: self-enhancement versus self-transcendence and
openness to change versus conservation. The assignment
of basic to HOVs is shown in Table 1 (see Schwartz, 2005).
DOI 10.1024/1421-0185/a000106
The universality of this structure was confirmed in hundreds of studies with samples from all over the world (e.g.,
Bilsky, Janik, & Schwartz, 2011; Schwartz, 1994, 2006,
2007; Schwartz & Sagiv, 1995). In addition, research revealed universal patterns for value preferences. For example, a pancultural value hierarchy appears to lie hidden behind the obvious differences between cultures: All over the
world, people consider values of benevolence and universalism important, but values of power unimportant
(Schwartz, 2006, 2007; Schwartz & Bardi, 2001). Furthermore, women tend to find values of self-transcendence and
conservation more important than men, whereas men tend
to find values of self-enhancement and openness to change
more important than women (Schwartz & Rubel, 2005). It
seems reasonable to assume that the ground for these and
other cross-cultural patterns is laid in early childhood.
Surprisingly, however, only a few studies have addressed
values in adolescence (e.g., Barni & Knafo, 2012; Daniel et
al., 2012; Knafo & Schwartz, 2003), only a handful of studies
have reported findings on values in late childhood (i.e., ca. 10
to 12 years; Boehnke & Welzel, 2006; Bubeck & Bilsky,
2004; Dring, 2010; Knafo & Spinath, 2011), and there is
hardly any research at all on values of children under 10 years
of age (Cieciuch, Harasimczuk, & Dring, 2010; Dring,
Blauensteiner, Aryus, Drgekamp, & Bilsky, 2010). AlSwiss J. Psychol. 72 (3) 2013 Verlag Hans Huber, Hogrefe AG, Bern
124
W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences
Table 1
Human values (Schwartz, 1992) and design matrix (Bilsky & Janik, 2010a)
Higher-order values Basic values ID
(HOV)
Core motivational goal
Design matrix
dimension
Self-transcendence
UN Universalism 1
Understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection of the welfare for

all people and for nature.
72
0.31
0.95
BE Benevolence 2
Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one

is in frequent personal contact.
36
0.81
0.59
TR Tradition 3
Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that

ones culture or religion impose on the individual.
1.0
0.0
CO Conformity 4
Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm

others and violate social expectations or norms.
0.81
0.59
Angle 1
Conservation
Self-Enhancement
324
SE Security 5
Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self.
288
0.31
0.95
PO Power 6
Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources.
252
0.31
0.95
AC Achievement 7
Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards.
216
0.81
0.59
Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself.
180
1.0
0.0
Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
144
0.81
0.59
Openness to Change HEa Hedonism 8

ST Stimulation 9
SD Self-Direction 0 Independent thought and action choosing, creating, exploring.

108
0.31
0.95
Note. aHedonism shares elements of both self-enhancement and openness to change, but is closer to openness in most cases (Schwartz, 2005).
though evidence on the content and structure of human values

at this early age is scarce so far, the existing findings encourage researchers to further follow this path: Bubeck and Bilsky
(2004), Cieciuch et al. (2010), Dring (2010), and Dring et
al. (2010) found highly differentiated value structures in
childhood, which indicate that children basically structure
values the same way adults do.
Even though this finding is intriguing in view of traditional values research, it can be embedded in recent developmental theories (e.g., Eder & Mangelsdorf, 1997;
Thompson, Meyer, & McGinley, 2006). Thompson et al.
(2006), for instance, point to a reconceptualization of the
childs role in the process of value transmission: While traditional approaches portrayed the child in line with Piaget
and Kohlberg as a preconventional and egocentric thinker
who reacts to the incentives and sanctions provided by
adults, recent approaches portray the child as an intuitive
moralist (Thompson et al., 2006, p. 290) who is sensitive
to standards and who develops a differentiated conception
of desires, intentions, and rules. Thus, the childs own conscious representation of values gradually moved to the focus of interest. Likewise, it is often stated that childrens
ability to provide meaningful information by themselves
has been historically underestimated (e.g., Morris, Robinson, & Eisenberg, 2006). Numerous recent studies revealed
surprisingly differentiated structures within childrens selfconcepts after researchers succeeded in developing suitable
procedures for obtaining information directly from the
child. While studying various aspects of childrens selfconcept, researchers discovered clear structures in early
childhood which progressively differentiate as children

grow older (see Eder, 1990, for pioneering work in this
respect; for an overview, see Measelle, John, Ablow, Cowan, & Cowan, 2005). However, empirical evidence of
how children conceive values is still widely missing.
This contrasts with the fact that childrens values are a
highly prominent issue in politics and education worldwide1. A better understanding of how children structure
values (i.e., how they understand and attach meaning to
individual values in relation to one another) and of which
values children find important (i.e., childrens value preferences) will help us to build a solid basis for both scientists
and practitioners in this area. We believe that the childs
own report is of particular importance for understanding
his/her value preferences and value structures. It reveals
information not otherwise accessible that cannot be replaced by any other source such as the primary caregiver
(see Morris et al., 2006).
In this article, we assess childrens values through selfreport. We replicate and validate the findings from previous
studies and expand their cultural scope. The most critical
issue so far concerned the question about how researchers
can successfully obtain data from children. Findings by Bubeck and Bilsky (2004) as well as by Dring (2010) indicate that the most widely used questionnaire based on
Schwartzs framework, the Portrait Values Questionnaire
(PVQ 21; Schwartz et al., 2001), can be successfully completed by children over the age of 10 if an adult instructor
provides continuous assistance. By the age of 10 years,
however, a critical threshold seems to have been reached
1 See, for example: Eurydice European Unit (2005). Citizenship education at school in Europe. Brussels: European Union, Directorate General
for Education and Culture. Retrieved from http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/ressources/eurydice/pdf/0_integral/055EN.pdf
Swiss J. Psychol. 72 (3) 2013 Verlag Hans Huber, Hogrefe AG, Bern
(see Dring, 2010). In order to follow the development and

shaping of values through childhood, Dring et al. (2010)
introduced a new questionnaire for elementary-schoolaged children that was specifically suited to childrens literary and life context: the Picture-Based Value Survey for
Children (PBVS-C).
Focusing in particular on the critical age of 10 years, we
present findings on value structures and value preferences
from different cultures. In Study 1, 10- to 12-year-old children from Germany, Portugal, and Chile completed
Schwartz et al.s PVQ. Germany, Portugal, and Chile represent culturally diverse life contexts, which, however, do
not differ enormously with respect to the cultural values
transmitted from one generation to the next (Schwartz,
2006). In Study 2, 7- to 12-year-old children from Germany
and France completed Dring et al.s PBVS-C. The cultural
life contexts in Germany and France differ somewhat (e.g.,
France is more oriented toward intellectual autonomy,
whereas Germany is more oriented toward egalitarianism;
Schwartz, 2006). However, by and large, they are not very
different in their underlying cultural value orientations.
Study 1: Assessment of Childrens

Values with the PVQ
Our first study was to serve as a comprehensive replication
of the study conducted by Bubeck and Bilsky (2004), who
were among the first to explore value structures in adolescence. They analyzed data obtained with an earlier version of
Schwartzs PVQ, the PVQ 29 (Schwartz), from 1,555 German subjects aged 10 to 17 years. They found that value
structures in the youngest subsample (1012 years) were almost as differentiated as those in the oldest subsample (1517
years). In order to substantiate this finding, we collected further data from 10- to 12-year-old German children using the
PVQ 21, the most recent and most widely employed version
(e.g., see http://www.europeansocialsurvey.org), and complemented this data with data from Portugal and Chile.2 We
expected to obtain similar findings on value structures and
value preferences in these three countries due to shared European (Germany and Portugal) and Christian roots.
Method
Samples
All samples cover a wide range of childrens socioeconomic and educational backgrounds, although they are not
2
125
strictly representative. The data were collected in schools;

the survey was administered in class, with a trained researcher giving the children the instructions.
German Sample
The data were collected in both rural and urban areas of
two federal states of Germany, North Rhine-Westphalia
and Baden-Wuerttemberg. There were 1,096 participants,
schoolchildren from the four different types of secondary
school in Germany (comprehensive school, grammar
school, and two types of secondary school). The participants were aged 10 to 12 (M = 11.1; SD = 0.72); the sample
was almost evenly split between males (n = 561) and females (n = 535).
Portuguese Sample
The data were collected at one school in Lisbon, two
schools near Lisbon, and at another school in Lamego, a
small city about 300 km to the north of Lisbon. One of the
schools near Lisbon was private (attended by 281 of the
participants); all the others were public schools. Altogether,
456 Portuguese students, 247 boys and 209 girls, aged 10
to 12 (M = 11.0; SD = 0.74) participated in this study.
Chilean Sample
The data were collected in two large Chilean cities: Los
Angeles (n = 226) with about 100,000 inhabitants and Puerto Montt (n = 424) with about 150,000 inhabitants. A group
of 650 Chilean schoolchildren, 312 boys and 338 girls,
aged 10 to 12 (M = 11.0; SD = 0.78) participated in our
study. About half of the participants attended public
schools (n = 335) and the other half private schools (n =
315).
Value Survey
A short form of Schwartzs Portrait Values Questionnaire
(Schwartz et al., 2001) was used in Study 1. This form comprises vignettes with verbal portraits of 21 different people
(PVQ-21). Each of them describes a persons goals as specified by Schwartzs theory (see Table 1). The following example is indicative of self-direction: Thinking up new
ideas and being creative is important to her/him. S/he likes
to do things in her/his own original way. Answers to the
Our first tentative analysis of this data set (Bilsky, Niemann, Schmitz, & Rose, 2005) initially led us to suspect that childrens value structure
differs from that of adults. However, methodological and developmental considerations (Bilsky, 2006; Dring, 2008), refinements in applying multidimensional scaling (Bilsky, Gollan, & Dring, 2008), and recent extensive studies of representative data from the European Social
Survey (Bilsky, Janik, & Schwartz, 2011) encouraged us to reanalyze our data and extend our original analyses. The resulting findings are
presented in this article.
126
question How much is this person like you? are to be

given for each vignette on a 6-point scale (1 = very much
like me and 6 = not at all like me).
2). This type of score is convenient and is often used for

descriptive purposes.
Results
Data Analysis
Structural Analyses
Pearson correlation coefficient matrices from the responses
to the 21 PVQ items provided the basis for our structural
analyses of values, which were conducted using ordinal
multidimensional scaling (MDS). MDS has been a central
tool of psychological research on value structure in the
past, and it is usually used in an exploratory way. Contrary
to this practice, our MDS approach uses a starting configuration derived from theoretical considerations. This reduces the danger of local minima and facilitates a theoretically grounded interpretation of results (Borg & Groenen,
2005; Borg & Staufenbiel, 2007).
Recent analyses of value data from the European Social
Survey showed that Schwartzs original and his revised
model of value structures (Schwartz, 1992, pp. 14 and 45,
respectively) can be considered theoretically equivalent
alternatives supported by empirical research (Bilsky &
Janik, 2010b; Bilsky et al., 2011)3. Therefore, we chose
the more parsimonious original model with ten adjacent
value sectors as the starting configuration for the following analyses, as was done for previous analyses of value
structures at an early age (see Dring, 2010; Dring et
al., 2010). This was accomplished by specifying trigonometrically the prototypical location of each basic value
by corresponding coordinates in two-dimensional space
(Table 1, Columns 46; see Bilsky et al., 2008; Bilsky &
Janik, 2010a). The starting configuration for each of the
value items of Schwartzs Portrait Values Questionnaire
results from these coordinates: Items that are indicators
of the same basic value are represented by identical coordinates. Ordinal multidimensional scaling was performed using SPSS PROXSCAL and SYSTAT 12.
Indices of Value Preferences

After cleaning the data according to Schwartzs (2005) recommendations, we computed indices for childrens value
preferences: The scores for the ten basic values are the
mean ratings given to the PVQ items that measure the respective value. Similarly, the scores for the four HOVs are
the mean ratings given to the items that measure the respective underlying basic values (see Table 1, Columns 1 and
Value Structure
The results of the ordinal multidimensional scaling of the
German, Portuguese, and Chilean value data are reported
separately by country as scatterplots in two-dimensional
space. As can be seen from Figures 1a1c, all analyses resulted in clear splits of the 21 value items. Only one tradition item (marked by a circle) in the Chilean sample was
displaced. The partitions found are in accordance with the
regional hypotheses derived from Schwartzs original model. The stress-1 values reported are measures of the goodness of fit of MDS solutions. They too attest to a sound fit
of the present solutions (Borg & Groenen, 2005; Spence &
Ogilvie, 1973).
As in many other studies on Schwartzs model, some of
the boundary lines in our MDS plots are not straight, but
bent (see Figures 1a1c). As Borg and Shye (1995) explained, such boundary lines do not pose a problem to interpretation, nor do they invalidate the hypothesized structure, as long as the hypothesized regions are not disturbed
by displaced (value) items. To illustrate this fact, we show
the extent to which regional adjustments of poorly located
items might affect the overall fit (stress-1) of the respective
MDS solution. To this end, we adjusted the location of three
items in the Chilean sample as indicated by arrows in Figure 1c.4 The subsequent MDS of this new configuration
with zero iterations resulted in a split with straight partition
lines and no displacements (Figure 1d). Despite the adjustment, the increase in stress-1 is negligible (0.19 instead of
0.16), indicating that the adjusted solution with straight
lines represents the empirical pattern of intercorrelations
equally well.
To further evaluate the structural equivalence of the
three culture-specific MDS solutions, we used generalized
Procrustes analysis (GPA; Borg & Groenen, 2005; Commandeur, 1991). In each of the three culture-specific solutions, the MDS plot represents the intercorrelations between value items as distances between points in a two-dimensional space. Rotation, translation, reflection, and
dilatation of the coordinate system had no effect on the
relative distances between these points. GPA applies these
transformations to the three MDS solutions, so that they
become maximally similar to one another. In addition, the
GPA program (Commandeur, 1991) calculates an average
configuration: the centroid. Figure 2 shows the joint MDS
configurations after Procrustes rotation.
3 In Schwartzs revised model, tradition and conformity are not located side by side but nested in the same sector, one behind the other (see
Schwartz, 1992, p. 45).
4 We are grateful to Ingwer Borg for his suggestions on adjusting displaced items by hand and concerning how to control the impact of this
adjustment on the loss function in MDS.
127
Figure 1. Portrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ 21): ordinal multidimensional scaling (MDS) of value items in two dimensions; children aged 1012; theory-based starting configuration (Bilsky & Janik, 2010a; Bilsky, Janik & Schwartz, 2011);
SPSS PROXSCAL and SYSTAT-MDS. 1 = universalism, 2 = benevolence, 3 = tradition, 4 = conformity, 5 = security, 6
= power, 7 = achievement, 8 = hedonism, 9 = stimulation, 0 = self-direction.
Obviously, the three solutions closely resemble each

other. To evaluate the similarity numerically, we correlated
the coordinates of the solutions on each of the two dimensions with one another and with the centroid configuration
(Fischer & Fontaine, 2011; see Fontaine et al., 2006 for an
application of this procedure). On both dimensions, the correlations between (1) any two solutions and (2) between
each solution and the centroid were above .9, indicating
high structural congruence (see Table 2 for all pairwise correlations).
128
for HOVs. The data are broken down by country and sex.
This overview is complemented by data from Bubeck and
Bilsky (2004) for comparative purposes.
Two clear patterns stand out when considering value
preferences: (1) Self-transcendence ranked first in three out
of four samples, followed by openness to change. Only
Chile deviated from this pattern, the first two ranks being
reversed. In all four samples, conservation was ranked third
and self-enhancement fourth. Thus, the overall patterns of
value preferences looked quite similar across the three
countries. (2) A comparison of value preferences of girls
and boys revealed sex-specific patterns across countries:
Boys considered self-enhancement and openness to change
more important than girls, whereas girls considered selftranscendence and conservation more important than boys.
We only found a slight deviation from this pattern in the
Chilean sample, where girls considered openness to change
a bit more important than boys.
Figure 2. Generalized Procrustes analysis of the multidimensional scaling (MDS) solutions for Portrait Values
Questionnaire (PVQ) data from three countries: Germany,
Portugal, Chile. Black fill: Self-Transcendence. Light gray
fill: Conservation. Dark gray fill: Self-Enhancement.
White fill: Openness to Change. One item for tradition is
misplaced and appears in the region for self-transcendence
for Chile, Portugal, and the centroid configuration. To
achieve a clear display of the generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) plot, we show the partitioning only on the higher-order value type level.
Table 2
Intercorrelations between the coordinates of the MDS solutions for the PVQ 21 after Procrustes analysis
Configuration
Configuration
Centroid
Centroid
Germany
.972**
Portugal
.969**
Germany
Portugal
Chile
.988**
.989**
.974**
.979**
.912**
.935**
.940**
Chile
.970**
.915**
.908**
Notes. MDS = multidimensional scaling; PVQ = Portrait Values Questionnaire. Above the diagonal: intercorrelations of the coordinates on
Dimension 1; below the diagonal: intercorrelations of the coordinates
on Dimension 2. **p < .01.
Value Preferences
Table 3 gives an overview of the indices of value preferences (means of the raw ratings), both for basic values and
Discussion
The results of this first study are revealing with respect
to structure and preferences of childrens values. Basically, our findings from Study 1 replicate the structural pattern found by Bubeck and Bilsky (2004) and show that,
in German children aged 1012 years, values are structured according to Schwartzs postulates about motivational compatibilities and incompatibilities among them.
Moreover, the same structural pattern was found in the
samples from Portugal and Chile. Regarding value structure (Figure 1), one finding stands out: Contrary to the
finding predicted by the theoretical model, the childrens
data do not allow us to separate stimulation from self-direction items, and universalism from benevolence items,
by wedge-like lines emanating from a common origin.5
However, this lack of split is not uncommon; overlapping
value regions can be found in adult samples as well (Bilsky & Janik, 2010b). Apart from that, the data from all
three countries clearly support Schwartzs structural hypotheses. Obviously, children aged 10 to 12 already have
differentiated value structures that closely resemble the
patterns typically found among adults (Bilsky et al.,
2011). Furthermore, value structures seem to be highly
similar across cultures.
Interestingly, our findings on childrens value preferences
agree with findings from adult samples across cultures
(Schwartz & Bardi, 2001; Schwartz & Rubel, 2005): Even at
this early age, self-transcendence was rated as most important, self-enhancement was rated as least important, and
openness to change and conservation fell in the middle. Also,
5 In fact, several additional modular partition lines (Borg & Staufenbiel, 2007) were able to be drawn: in the German sample between
universalism and benevolence, and between tradition and conformity; in the Portuguese sample between stimulation and self-direction; in
the Chilean sample between universalism and benevolence. Similar splits were identified in the adult samples, too (Bilsky et al., 2010b), so
that they cannot be considered typical for children. In this article, we only concentrate on the polar (wedge-like) partitions as hypothesized
by Schwartzs (1992) original model.
129
Table 3
PVQ 29/21: value preferences of children aged 10 to 12 (ranks/mean Ratings), by sex
Valuesc
Germany 1a
Germany 2b
Portugalb
Chileb
PO
10/2.47
10/3.17
10/2.80
10/2.22
10/2.86
10/2.55
10/2.40
10/2.80
10/2.61
10/2.24
10/2.63
10/2.43
AC
9/3.74
7/4.22
8/3.96
9/3.26
7/3.76
8/3.52
9/3.66
9/3.93
9/3.81
9/3.73
8/3.82
8/3.77
HE
1/5.23
1/5.33
1/5.27
4/4.65
1/4.75
3/4.70
2/5.16
1/5.14
1/5.14
1/4.88
1/4.78
1/4.83
ST
6/4.59
2/4.89
5/4.73
5/4.43
5/4.53
5/4.48
5/4.79
5/4.87
5/4.83
4/4.59
2/4.66
3/4.62
SD
4/4.82
3/4.85
4/4.84
3/4.70
2/4.72
2/4.71
4/4.87
4/4.93
4/4.90
5/4.46
4/4.35
5/4.40
UN
2/5.12
5/4.78
3/4.96
2/4.84
4/4.54
4/4.69
2/5.16
3/5.06
3/5.10
3/4.70
5/4.21
4/4.46
BE
3/5.09
4/4.82
2/4.97
1/5.00
3/4.63
1/4.81
2/5.16
2/5.07
2/5.11
2/4.82
3/4.46
2/4.65
TR
8/3.90
9/3.74
9/3.83
7/3.72
8/3.59
7/3.66
7/4.48
8/4.27
7/4.36
7/4.04
7/3.92
7/3.98
CO
7/3.93
8/4.03
7/3.97
8/3.53
9/3.44
9/3.48
8/4.32
7/4.29
8/4.30
8/3.81
9/3.59
9/3.70
SE
5/4.59
6/4.62
6/4.60
6/3.89
6/3.98
6/3.94
6/4.66
6/4.86
6/4.76
6/4.41
6/4.08
6/4.25
292
235
527
535
560
209
247
456
338
310
648
Self-E
4/3.11
4/3.70
4/3.38
4/2.74
4/3.31
4/3.03
4/3.03
4/3.37
4/3.21
4/2.99
4/3.23
4/3.10
1095
OTC
2/4.88
1/5.03
2/4.95
2/4.59
1/4.67
2/4.63
2/4.94
2/4.98
2/4.96
2/4.64
1/4.59
1/4.62
Self-T
1/5.10
2/4.81
1/4.97
1/4.90
2/4.58
1/4.74
1/5.16
1/5.06
1/5.11
1/4.75
2/4.31
2/4.54
CON
3/4.14
3/4.12
3/4.13
3/3.72
3/3.67
3/3.69
3/4.48
3/4.47
3/4.48
3/4.08
3/3.87
3/3.98
Notes. aPortrait Values Questionnaire (PVQ) 29; age < 12 (Bubeck & Bilsky, 2004); these data were added for purposes of comparison. F =
females, M = males, T = total. bPVQ 21(Bilsky, Niemann, Schmitz & Rose, 2005). cBasic values: PO = power, AC = achievement, HE =
hedonism, ST = stimulation, SD = self-direction, UN = universalism, BE = benevolence, TR = tradition, CO = conformity, SE = security. n =
number of cases. Higher-order values: Self-E = self-enhancement, OTC = openness to change (including hedonism), Self-T = self-transcendence,
CON = conservation.
girls found self-transcendence and conservation to be more

important than boys did, whereas boys found self-enhancement and openness to change to be more important than girls
did. Thus, consistent patterns of shared value hierarchies and
sex-differences seem to occur very early in life.
Given that we were able to tap value structures and value
preferences at this early age, we intended to continue this
line of research and collect data in younger samples. However, in accordance with Dring (2010), we found that the
PVQ cannot be used to test children under the age of approximately 10 years because it is not suited to elementary-school-aged childrens vocabulary, life context, and everyday experience. Thus, we needed a self-report instrument that avoids these problems and is less cognitively
demanding. In Study 2, such an instrument was used to test
children under 12 years of age: the Picture-Based Value
Survey for Children (PBVS-C; Dring et al., 2010).
assessing Schwartzs values in children under the age of 10

(further evidence on the PBVS-Cs validity is presented by
Cieciuch, Dring, & Harasimczuk, in press). Building on the
cultural scope of Study 1, we collected data in Germany as
well as in France. Understanding and interpreting pictures is
closely associated with childrens daily life and social environment. Therefore, we selected our second sample from a
country that is likely to offer children a comparable horizon
of experience. We chose an age range for our samples that
partly overlapped so that we could compare the results of
Study 2 with those of Study 1. Study 2 covered the age range
of 7 to 12 years, so that the upper range (10 to 12) was identical to that in Study 1.
Method
Samples
Study 2: Assessment of Childrens

Values with the PBVS-C
Study 2 also focused on childrens value structures and value
preferences. However, it extended the age range by investigating children younger than 10. This was possible by applying the PBVS-C (Dring et al., 2010), a newly developed
instrument for elementary-school-aged children. Dring et al.
(2010) empirically underscored the PBVS-Cs suitability for
As in Study 1, the two samples of children cover a wide

range of socioeconomic and educational backgrounds, although they are not strictly representative. The data were
collected in schools; the survey was administered in class,
and a trained researcher gave the children the instructions.
German Sample
Children (n = 515) from six different municipalities in
North Rhine-Westphalia formed the German sample. They
130
Figure 3. The Picture-Based Value Survey for Children
(PBVS-C): a = sample items, b = the response sheet.
were in the fourth to fifth grade. In sum, children from ten

schools, seven primary schools, one intermediate secondary, and two grammar schools, participated in our study.
The participants were 8 to 12 years old (M = 9.7; SD = 0.71)
and the sample was nearly evenly split between males (n =
258) and females (n = 257).
The 20 pictures are printed on removable stickers and

presented simultaneously. The childrens task is to paste
these pictures on a standard answer sheet in a Q-sort-like
ranking and rating procedure. They are instructed to sort
the pictures according to the subjective importance they
attribute to the given situation. Figure 3a shows some
sample items and Figure 3b the corresponding answer
sheet. The captions and instructions were adapted for use
in France (see Brislin, 1970).
French Sample
Children (n = 306) from Seine-Maritime in northern
France formed our French sample. They were in the third
to fifth grade and were from three primary schools with
varying social and neighborhood backgrounds. The sample was nearly evenly split between males (n = 154) and
females (n = 152). The majority of the participants (n =
302) were 8 to 11 years old (range = 7 to 12; M = 9.1;
SD = 0.95).
Value Survey
We employed the Picture-Based Value Survey for Children (PBVS-C), which was closely attuned to the childrens cognitive-developmental background and to their
life experience (see Harter, 2003; La Greca, 1990). The
PBVS-C comprises 20 picture-based items, all with the
same protagonist. Each of them depicts one value-related
situation and is complemented by a short caption. The
captions were proposed by children. The situations correspond to young childrens field of experience, and each
relates to one of the ten basic values distinguished by
Schwartz (1992). There are two items per basic value.
Data Analysis
Structural Analyses
The structural analyses corresponded to those of Study 1:
Pearson correlation coefficients provided the basis for ordinal MDS of items from the PBVS-C. Here, too, we used
theory-based starting configurations derived from the coordinates shown in Table 1. For value preferences assessed with the PBVS-C, structural analyses were conducted separately for children aged 7 to 9 and those aged
10 to 12. In this way, we aimed to identify potential structural differences between age groups.
Indices of Value Preferences

Indices for value preferences based on the PBVS-C were
computed by averaging the ratings of those items that
correspond to the same basic value and HOV, respectively.
Table 4
Intercorrelations between the coordinates of the MDS solutions for the PBVS-C after Procrustes analysis
Subsample
Configuration
Configuration
Centroid
79-year-olds
Germany France
Centroid
.984**
Germany
.972**
France
.979**
.931**
.903**
1012-year-olds Centroid
Germany
.981**
.986**
.984**
.967**
.940**
France
.976**
.888**
Notes. MDS = multidimensional scaling; PBVS-C = Picture-Based
Values Survey for Children. Above the diagonal: intercorrelations of
the coordinates on Dimension 1; below the diagonal: intercorrelations
of the coordinates on Dimension 2. **p < .01.
Results
131
& Groenen, 2005; Spence & Ogilvie, 1973). Interestingly,

and contrary to our previous analyses, stimulation and selfdirection are clearly split in all four analyses. Altogether,
our findings show that the values structures in both age
groups are equally differentiated and thus do not indicate a
progressive structural differentiation with age.
Here, too, we checked the structural equivalence of the
MDS solutions with generalized Procrustes analysis. After
Procrustes analysis, the configurations from Germany and
France were highly similar to each other in both age groups
(see Figure 5a and Figure 5b). Also, the correlation (1) between the coordinates of the German and the French configuration and (2) between the coordinates of each culturespecific configuration with the centroid were above .9 on
both dimensions. This was the case for the 79-year-olds
as well as for the 1012-year-olds (Table 4). Only the intercorrelation between the German and French configurations in the older sample on the second dimension (r = .888)
was slightly smaller in magnitude.
Value Structure
The MDS results of the German and French value data are
reported separately for age groups as scatterplots in twodimensional space (Figure 4). As can be seen from all of
the plots, partitions are in line with our theoretical expectations. Furthermore, the number of misplaced items is low,
even for children younger than 10. The stress-1 values are
somewhat higher than for the PVQ data. Nevertheless, they
are still low compared to the expected stress values for random rankings in nonmetric multidimensional scaling (Borg
Value Preferences
Table 5 gives an overview of childrens value preferences
as assessed with the PBVS-C, broken down by country,
age, and sex. These patterns of value preferences of Study
2 largely coincide with those of Study 1. Thus, self-transcendence (universalism and benevolence) was considered
most important, followed by openness to change, conservation, and self-enhancement. Also, boys found self-en-
Table 5
PBVS-C: Value preferences of children aged 7 to 12 (ranks/mean ratings), by age group and sex
Valuesa
Germany
France
age 10
age < 10
PO
age 10
age < 10
10/1.47
10/2.01
10/1.76
10/1.60
10/2.17
10/1.87
10/1.70
10/2.13
10/1.93
10/1.77
M
9/2.43
T
10/2.08
AC
9/2.42
8/2.67
9/2.55
9/2.36
7/2.80
8/2.57
9/2.42
9/2.70
9/2.56
9/2.52
7/2.81
7/2.65
HE
5/3.09
6/3.06
6/3.08
4/3.35
2/3.34
3/3.35
4/3.06
5/3.07
5/3.06
3/3.44
3/3.40
3/3.42
ST
7/3.03
4/3.25
5/3.15
5/3.14
4/3.31
5/3.22
6/3.04
3/3.30
4/3.18
4/3.27
4/3.36
4/3.32
SD
6/3.06
7/2.83
7/2.94
7/2.92
8/2.79
7/2.86
5/3.05
6/3.02
6/3.04
6/3.02
5/3.07
6/3.05
UN
2/3.49
3/3.32
2/3.40
2/3.55
3/3.32
2/3.45
2/3.68
2/3.34
2/3.50
2/3.59
2/3.43
2/3.52
BE
1/4.06
1/3.69
1/3.86
1/3.96
1/3.69
1/3.83
1/4.11
1/3.65
1/3.87
1/4.02
1/3.51
1/3.78
TR
3/3.38
5/3.17
4/3.27
6/3.08
5/3.10
6/3.09
8/2.72
8/2.73
8/2.72
8/2.56
10/2.40
9/2.48
CO
8/2.64
9/2.64
8/2.64
8/2.53
9/2.40
9/2.47
7/2.90
7/2.80
7/2.85
7/2.58
8/2.56
8/2.57
SE
4/3.35
2/3.34
3/3.34
3/3.51
6/3.08
4/3.30
3/3.31
4/3.24
3/3.28
5/3.22
6/3.03
5/3.13
93
60
54
Self-E
4/1.94
110
4/2.34
203
4/2.16
164
4/1.98
148
4/2.48
312
4/2.22
92
4/2.06
100
4/2.42
192
4/2.25
4/2.14
4/2.62
114
4/2.37
OTC
3/3.06
2.5/3.05
3/3.05
2/3.14
2/3.15
2/3.14
2/3.05
2/3.13
2/3.09
2/3.25
2/3.28
2/3.26
Self-T
1/3.77
1/3.50
1/3.63
1/3.76
1/3.51
1/3.64
1/3.90
1/3.49
1/3.69
1/3.80
1/3.47
1/3.65
CON
2/3.13
2.5/3.05 2/3.08
3/3.04
3/2.86
3/2.95
3/2.98
3/2.92
3/2.95
3/2.79
3/2.66
3/2.73
Notes. PBVS-C = Picture-Based Values Survey for Children. F = females, M = males, T = total. aBasic values: PO = power, AC = achievement,
HE = hedonism, ST = stimulation, SD = self-direction, UN = universalism, BE = benevolence, TR = tradition, CO = conformity, SE = security.
n = number of cases. Higher-order values: Self-E = self-enhancement, OTC = openness to change (including hedonism), Self-T = self-transcendence, CON = conservation.
132
Figure 4. Picture-Based Values Survey for Children (PBVS-C): ordinal multidimensional scaling (MDS) in two dimensions; theory-based starting configuration (Bilsky & Janik, 2010a); SPSS PROXSCAL.1 = universalism, 2 = benevolence, 3 = tradition, 4 = conformity, 5 = security, 6 = power, 7 = achievement, 8 = hedonism, 9 = stimulation, 0 =
self-direction.
hancement and openness to change more important than
girls did, whereas girls found self-transcendence and conservation more important than boys did. This holds across
countries and age groups, with one slight deviation among
the young children in the German sample: The young boys
in the German sample considered openness to change and
conservation to be equally important. As the young girls
preferred conservation over openness to change, the ranks
of these HOVs are reversed in the overall sample of German children younger than 10 years.
Discussion
Study 2 confirms our results from Study 1 and further
shows that they hold for children below the age of 10. Our
133
Figure 5. Generalized procrustes analysis (GPA) of the

multidimensional scaling (MDS) solutions for the PictureBased Values Survey for Children (PBVS-C) data from
Germany and France. To achieve a clear display of the GPA
plot, partitioning is shown only on the higher order value
type level. Notes. Black fill: Self-Transcendence. Light
gray fill: Conservation. Dark gray fill: Self-Enhancement.
White fill: Openness to Change.
Figure 5a. 79-year-old children. One Item for tradition

and one item for achievement are misplaced.
Figure 5b. 1012-year-old children. One item for achievement is misplaced and appears in the region for conservation.
structural analyses of the PBVS-C data resulted in a very

clear partitioning of value items in all of our (sub)samples.
Only a few items were displaced. Whether these deviations
should be interpreted as incidental or substantial has to be
tested in further studies. Seven to eight motivational regions6 were able to be identified in our French and German
samples independent of age. To that extent, differentiation is almost as clear as in adult samples. Our analyses of
value preferences again indicate the existence of shared
value hierarchies and sex differences across countries.
developed as shown in Study 1 with children from Germany, Portugal, and Chile. Thus, in order to study younger
children, alternative measures are needed.
The PBVS-C is virtually free of the above restrictions
and appears appropriate for investigating the value structures of children who are between 7 and 12 years old (Dring et al., 2010). This assumption was validated in Study
2 with children from Germany and France. Even children
aged 7 to 9 showed clear structures closely matching
Schwartzs structural model. These findings are further
supported by a study recently conducted in Poland (Cieciuch et al., 2010).
General Discussion
Value Structure
Investigating childrens value structures means breaking
new ground. While there are a number of studies with adolescents, investigations with children younger than 12 are
almost nonexistent. This is the case because standard questionnaires like Schwartzs PVQ (Schwartz et al., 2001) can
be used only with children who are about 10 to 11 years
old at the youngest and are intrinsically tied to literacy (Dring, 2010). At this age, value structures are already well6
Value Preferences
The results of our studies are also revealing with respect
to value preferences in childhood. For instance, the consistently high ratings of self-transcendence and the low
ratings of self-enhancement stand out. They suggest the
existence of a pancultural hierarchy of values similar to
that found in adult samples (Schwartz & Bardi, 2001).
However, the age split shown in Table 5 indicates that the
importance rating for all conservation values may decline
as children get older, approaching patterns found in adult-
When admitting a modular split between universalism and benevolence in the German sample of children aged 10 or over, eight separate
regions would result in this particular sample, too.
134
hood. This may indicate a cognitive-developmental effect. Finally, girls consistently rated self-transcendence
and conservation values as being more important than
boys did; the reverse was true for self-enhancement and
openness to change values. This finding agrees with existing evidence of sex differences in value hierarchies
(Schwartz & Rubel, 2005) and probably mirrors differences between the life contexts of boys and girls
(Schwartz, 2005).
Values Research in Children Around Age 10

Testing and Expanding the Limits
Research on the values of children who are about 10 years
old is a challenging endeavor in terms of assessment. This is
because age 10 seems to mark an age threshold for childrens
ability to successfully complete Schwartz et al.s (2001)
PVQ. Overcoming this limitation thus calls for the use of
alternative measures. The PBVS-C (Dring et al., 2010) is
one such measure. When using the PBVS-C to test 712year-old children, we found that this age range is rather homogeneous in terms of value structures and value preferences: Our findings largely converged across age groups and
cultures. Therefore, we believe that we have covered a rather
homogeneous stage of values development. Indeed, developmental psychologists have conceptualized this age range as a
homogeneous stage of childrens understanding of themselves and others, and labeled it late middle childhood (e.g.,
Harter, 2003). It seems that this homogeneous conceptualization is an appropriate framework for childrens value structures and value preferences as well.
Limitations and Perspectives

The present studies represent only the first step toward a
cross-cultural understanding of childrens value structures
and value preferences, but they are important given the overall paucity of research on this topic. We presented findings
obtained with a new instrument, the PBVS-C, which supplements existing value questionnaires and expands the limits of
research with children. The results of our past investigations
of value structures and preferences agree with theoretical expectations and empirical findings from adulthood and thus
speak in favor of its validity. Moreover, still unpublished results of studies with German and Polish children aged 10 to
13 who completed both the PVQ and the PBVS-C corroborate this assumption (Cieciuch et al., in press; Dring, Cieciuch, Harasimczuk, & Janik, 2011). Furthermore, employing it in cross-cultural studies seems possible in principal,
provided the equivalence of items is warranted. For example,
cross-border studies in France and Poland yielded promising
results. Ongoing studies in different cultural contexts, which
required the adaptation of individual items (e.g., Brazil and
Israel), should provide additional information about its suitSwiss J. Psychol. 72 (3) 2013 Verlag Hans Huber, Hogrefe AG, Bern
ability for cross-cultural research. Altogether, previous findings suggest that childrens value structures and preferences
show communalities that are in line with Schwartzs (1992)
theory of values. Finding common value structures in children from different cultures, however, is only one side of the
coin. Given that such findings are supported by further research, deviations from this structure will become the focus
of interest. Besides methodological considerations related to
sampling fluctuations and meaningful variations (Fontaine,
Poortinga, Delbeke, & Schwartz, 2008), variables influencing the transmission of values have to be considered. The
dynamic relationship between parenting styles and childrens
values and psychosocial behavior (Franiek & Reichle, 2007),
the impact of parental goals and acculturation contexts on
value transmission (Phalet & Schnpflug, 2001), conditions
favorable for value transmission in a particular socioeconomic and cultural context (Boehnke, 2001; Schnpflug, 2001),
dynamic aspects of the parent-child relationship (Grusec,
Goodnow, & Kuczynski, 2000), perception and acceptance
of parental values, parent-child value congruence, and the
choice of school environments (Knafo, 2003) are only a few
of the variables mentioned in the literature. Clarifying the
relationship between these variables and the development
and differentiation of value preferences is a challenging task
for future research.
Finally, according to the widespread consent that values
serve as guiding principles in life, relative stability in the long
run is a central and distinctive feature of human values. While
this feature seems straightforward for adults as well as for
adolescents, it might be problematic for young children. We
know from everyday experience that the perception of time
differs between children and adults (e.g., see Friedman, 2007;
La Greca, 1990). Such differences are likely to affect the
stability of long-term goals. Therefore, in future studies, it
will be important to confirm that childrens value preferences
are stable by using a repeated measurement design. This latter
problem goes hand in hand with another one related to the
cross-situational stability of childrens value preferences: The
situational salience of different value-related topics may influence the childrens prevailing goals and objectives and
have a considerable effect on subsequent value ratings.
Whether this is true or not can be controlled within an appropriate experimental design that systematically varies situational cues. Once again, research with adults on changing,
priming, and acting on values (Maio, Pakizeh, Cheung, &
Rees, 2009, p. 699) could stimulate such a project.
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of the theory of basic human values with a different method of
measurement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32,
519542.
Schwartz, S. H., & Rubel, T. (2005). Sex differences in value priorities: Cross-cultural and multimethod studies. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 10101028.
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in the content and structure of values. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 92116.
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moral development (pp. 267287). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Bilsky

University of Muenster
Department of Psychology
Fliednerstr. 21
48149 Muenster
Germany
bilsky@uni-muenster.de
Dr. Anna K. Dring

Royal Holloway
University of London
Department of Psychology
Egham Hill
Egham, TW20 0EX
United Kingdom
anna.doering@rhul.ac.uk

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Swiss Journal of Psychology, 72 (3), 2013, 123136

Assessment of Childrens Value

Department of Psychology, University of Mnster, Germany

Empirical research on human values has grown rapidly

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

Core motivational goal

Understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection of the welfare for

Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one

Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that

Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm

Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self.

Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards.

Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself.

Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.

Openness to Change HEa Hedonism 8

SD Self-Direction 0 Independent thought and action choosing, creating, exploring.

though evidence on the content and structure of human values

childhood which progressively differentiate as children

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

(see Dring, 2010). In order to follow the development and

Study 1: Assessment of Childrens

strictly representative. The data were collected in schools;

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

question How much is this person like you? are to be

2). This type of score is convenient and is often used for

Indices of Value Preferences

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

Obviously, the three solutions closely resemble each

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

girls found self-transcendence and conservation to be more

assessing Schwartzs values in children under the age of 10

Study 2: Assessment of Childrens

As in Study 1, the two samples of children cover a wide

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

Figure 3. The Picture-Based Value Survey for Children

(PBVS-C): a = sample items, b = the response sheet.

were in the fourth to fifth grade. In sum, children from ten

The 20 pictures are printed on removable stickers and

Indices of Value Preferences

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

& Groenen, 2005; Spence & Ogilvie, 1973). Interestingly,

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

Figure 5. Generalized procrustes analysis (GPA) of the

Figure 5a. 79-year-old children. One Item for tradition

structural analyses of the PBVS-C data resulted in a very

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

Values Research in Children Around Age 10

Limitations and Perspectives

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

opment of a picture-based instrument (Unpublished doctoral

W. Bilsky et al.: Childrens Value Structures and Preferences

La Greca, A. M. (1990). Through the eyes of the child: Obtaining

Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Bilsky

Dr. Anna K. Dring

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