Anthony Cammuso

Biology H: Period 8

October 22nd, 2013

Chapter 8 Notes:
Virgin Birth of a Dragon:
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Komodo dragons are able to reproduce both asexually and sexually

Parthenogenesis- the creation of a new generation without participation of
sperm and egg
Disadvantages to reproducing asexually: all female/disease

What Cell Reproduction Accomplishes:

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Reproduction occurs much more often at the cellular level (skin cells
reproduce regularly)
Cell Division (cellular reproduction)- the process of producing two daughter
cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the original parent
cell
Chromosomes- the structures that contain most of the cells DNA (inside the
nucleus)
Each cell gets the same amount of chromosomes as the parent cell
Asexual Reproduction- reproduction in which the parent cell divides in half,
and the offspring are genetic replicas of the parent (identical genes) (mitosis)
Sexual Reproduction- requires fertilization of an egg by a sperm (two parent
cells) (meiosis)
Gametes- egg and sperm
Meiosis occurs only in reproductive organs (reproduction)
A gamete has only half as many chromosomes as the parent cells that gave
rise to it
Mitosis- growth and maintenance

The Cell Cycle and Mitosis:

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Almost all of the genes of a eukaryotic cell are located on chromosomes in

the cell nucleus
Some genes are located on mitochondria and chloroplasts

Eukaryotic Chromosomes:
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Each eukaryotic chromosome contains one long DNA molecule which bears
thousands of genes
Number of chromosomes depends on the species
Chromatin- fibers composed of roughly equal amounts of DNA and protein
molecules
The protein molecules help to organize the chromatin and help control the
activity of its genes
When a cell divides the chromosomes coil up and are now visible under a
light microscope
Histones- any of a group of basic proteins found in chromatin (found only in
eukaryotes)
A cell must compact DNA before it can move into another cell
Nucleosome- each histone with a DNA chain wrapped around it

Anthony Cammuso
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Biology H: Period 8

October 22nd, 2013

When getting ready to divide a cell must compact itself even more than the
bead and string model
Before a cell begins division it duplicates its chromosomes
DNA molecules are copied through the process of DNA replication and new
protein molecules attach where needed (sister chromatids form)
Sister Chromatids- two chromosomes which contain identical genes
Centromere- the joining point of two sister chromatids
These two eventually separate and form identical chromosomes
One goes to one daughter cell and the other goes to the other daughter cell
(identical chromosomes)

The Cell Cycle:

The rate and reoccurrence of cellular division depends on the type of cell
Cell Cycle- the ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell
is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two cells
o Interphase- (90% of time spent in interphase) a time when a cell performs its
normal functions within the organism
o During interphase the cell doubles everything in its cytoplasm, increases its
supply of proteins, increases the number of many of its organelles and grows
in size
o The most important event of interphase is chromosome duplication
o Mitotic (M) Phase- the part of the cell cycle when the cell is actually dividing
1) Mitosis- the nucleus and its contents, most importantly the duplicated
chromosomes, divide and are evenly distributed, forming two daughter nuclei
2) Cytokinesis- the cytoplasm divides in two
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Stages of the Cell Cycle:

1) S Phase- DNA in the nucleus is precisely doubled
2) G1- duplication of organelles and cytoplasmic components (starts replicating
centrosomes)
3) G2- each chromosome in the cell consists of two identical sister chromatids,
and the cell during this period is preparing to divide
Stages of Mitosis:
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Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

Mitosis and Cytokinesis:

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Mitotic Spindle- a football-shaped structure of microtubules that guides the

separation of the two sets of daughter chromosomes
Centrosomes- structures within the cytoplasm
Cytokinesis- the division of the cytoplasm into two cells (begins with
telophase at the end of mitosis) (animal cells= cleavage)
Cleavage Furrow- an indentation at the equator of the cell
Cell Plate- a membranous disk of fused vesicles

Anthony Cammuso
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Biology H: Period 8

October 22nd, 2013

The membrane of the cell plate fuses with the plasma membrane, and the
cell plates contents join the parental cell wall

Cancer Cells: Growing Out of Control

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Cell Cycle Control System- consists of specialized proteins within the cell
stop and go-ahead signals at certain key points during the cell cycle using
signal transduction pathways

What is Cancer?
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Cancer cells do not respond normally to the cell cycle control system. They
divide excessively and may invade other tissues of the body. These continue
to divide until they kill the host.
Tumor- an abnormally growing mass of body cells
Benign Tumor- when the abnormal cells remain at the original site (surgically
removed)
Malignant Tumor- a tumor that has begun to spread into neighboring tissues
and other parts of the body, displacing normal tissue and interrupting organ
function
Cancer- another term for a malignant tumor
Metastasis- the spread of cancer cells beyond their original site

Cancer Treatment:
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Three methods of cancer treatment: slash, burn, poison

Slash- surgery
Burn and Poison- treatments that attempt to stop cancer cells from dividing
Radiation Therapy- parts of the body that have cancerous tumors are
exposed to concentrated beams of high-energy radiation, which can often
harm cancer cells more than the normal cells of the body
Chemotherapy- (poison) the use of drugs to disrupt cell division
Some drugs interfere with the mitotic spindle: they freeze it or prevent it
from forming in the first place

Cancer Prevention and Survival:

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Prevention: no smoking, exercise, avoid over exposure to the sun, and eat a
high fiber, low-fat diet
Regular doctor visits and exams can also reduce the risk

Meiosis, the Basis of Sexual Reproduction:

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People only produce people and specific animals only produce specific
animals
Asexual reproduction produces an exact copy of the organism
Sexual reproduction produces offspring that inherit a unique combination of
genes from their two parents and the combined set of genes programs a
unique combination of traits

Homologous Chromosomes:

Anthony Cammuso
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Biology H: Period 8

October 22nd, 2013

Cells from the same species have the same number and type of
chromosomes
Somatic Cell- typical body cells (toe cells, heart cells, hair cells) (46
chromosomes)
Karyotype- the number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell
nuclei of an organism or species
Homologous Chromosomes- chromosome pairs of approximately the same
length, centromere position, and staining pattern, with genes for the same
characteristics at corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is
inherited from the organism's mother; the other from the organism's father
Homologous chromosomes carry genes controlling inherited characteristics
A pair of homologous chromosomes has two nearly identical chromosomes,
each of which consists of two identical sister chromatids after chromosome
duplication
Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
In females all homologous chromosomes look alike, but in males the
chromosomes in one pair do not look alike (the nonmatching pair is the male
sex chromosomes) (One X and one Y)
Sex Chromosomes- chromosomes that determine a persons sex
Autosomes- all chromosomes except sex chromosomes (one pair from mom
and one pair from dad)

Gametes and the Life Cycle of a Sexual Organism:

Life Cycle- the sequence of stages leading from the adults of one generation
to the adults of the next (multicellular organisms)
o Diploid- (humans, animals, and plants) all body cells contain pairs of
homologous chromosomes
o Human diploid number 2n
o Gametes are made by meiosis
o Haploid- a cell with a single chromosome set
o Fertilization- when a haploid sperm cell from the father fuses with a haploid
egg cell from the mother
o Zygote- the fertilized egg (diploid)
o The life cycle is completed when an adult develops from the Zygote
1) Each of the chromosomes is duplicated during interphase (before mitosis)
2) The first division, meiosis I, segregates the two chromosomes of the
homologous pair, packaging them in separate (haploid) daughter cells, but
each chromosome is still doubled
3) Meiosis II separates the sister chromatids (one chromosome each)
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The Process of Meiosis:

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Meiosis- the process of cell division that produces haploid gametes in diploid
organisms, resembles mitosis, but with two special features
The number of chromosomes is reduced to half
The exchange of genetic material pieces of chromosomes between
homologous chromosomes (called crossing over and occurs in the first
prophase of meiosis)

Anthony Cammuso
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Biology H: Period 8

October 22nd, 2013

In the interphase just before meiosis, each chromosome duplicates to form

sister chromatids that remain together until anaphase of meiosis II
Before crossing over occurs, sister chromatids are identical and carry the
same versions of all their genes

The Stages of Meiosis:

Interphase- the chromosomes duplicate which each then consist of two identical
sister chromatids
Meiosis I: Homologous Chromosomes Separate
1) Prophase I- homologous chromosome pairs are formed and they cross over
which rearranges genetic information (spindle forms and the homologous
pairs are moved toward the center of the cell)
2) Metaphase I- homologous pairs are aligned in the middle of the cell and the
sister chromatids of each chromosome are still attached at their centromeres
3) Anaphase I- the attachment between the homologous chromosomes of each
pair breaks, and the chromosomes now migrate toward the poles of the cell
(migrate as a pair)
4) Telophase I and Cytokinesis- the chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell
(still in duplicate form) and cytokinesis makes two haploid daughter cells
Meiosis II: Sister Chromatids Separate
1) Prophase II- spindle forms and moves the chromosomes toward the middle of
the cell
2) Metaphase II- the chromosomes are aligned as they are in mitosis, with the
microtubules attached to the sister chromatids of each chromosome coming
from the opposite poles
3) Anaphase II- the centromeres of sister chromatids separate, and the sister
chromatids of each pair move toward opposite poles of the cell
4) Telophase II and Cytokinesis- nuclei form at the cell poles, and cytokinesis
occurs at the same time (4 haploid daughter cells with single chromosomes)
o Summary- Meiosis II is the same as mitosis, but meiosis II starts with a
haploid cell that has not undergone chromosome duplication during the
preceding interphase
*FOR BOTH MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS THE CHROMOSOMES ONLY DUPLICATE
ONCE*
*Mitosis involves only one cell division while meiosis entails two nuclear
and cytoplasmic divisions, yielding four haploid cells*
The Origins of Genetic Variation:
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The offspring that result from sexual reproduction are genetically different
from their parents and from one another

Independent Assortment of Chromosomes:

Anthony Cammuso
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Biology H: Period 8

October 22nd, 2013

The arrangement of the chromosomes from the mother and father is by

chance
There are four different combinations between gametes with one
chromosome from the mother and the other from the father
However, there are about eight million different gamete combinations in
humans when the full amount of chromosomes are brought together

Random Fertilization:
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A man and a women can produce a diploid zygote with any of 64 trillion
combinations of chromosomes

Crossing Over:
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Crossing Over- the exchange of corresponding segments between nonsister

chromatids of homologous chromosomes, which occurs during prophase I of
meiosis
When crossing over begins homologous chromosomes are closely paired all
along their lengths, with a precise gene-by-gene alignment
Chiasma- (chiasmata-plural) the sites of crossing over appear as X-shaped
regions
The homologous chromatids remain attached to each other at chiasmata until
anaphase I
If there were no crossing over, meiosis could produce only two types of
gametes with either all chromosomes from the father or all chromosomes
from the mother
Genetic Recombination- the production of gene combinations different from
those carried by the parental chromosomes
A single cross over can affect many genes

Do All Animals Have Sex?

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Few animals reproduce only asexually

Bdelloid rotifers have evolved for millions of years without any sexual
reproduction

How Accidents during Meiosis Can Alter Chromosome Number:

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Nondisjunction- the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate at

anaphase (can occur during meiosis I or II)
Gametes with abnormal numbers of chromosomes result from nondisjunction
Nondisjunction causes the organism to have an extra chromosome which can
result in abnormal karyotype and a syndrome of disorders

Down Syndrome: An Extra Chromosome 21

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Trisomy 21- a condition that exists when an organism has three number 21
chromosomes
Down Syndrome- a person who has trisomy 21 is said to have down
syndrome

Anthony Cammuso
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Biology H: Period 8

October 22nd, 2013

Trisomy 21 is the most common chromosome number abnormality and the

most common serious birth defect in the United States
People with down syndrome have many abnormal physical features such as
flatter face and short stature, but many of them also have shorter life spans
(mental retardation)
The incidence of Down syndrome in the offspring of normal parents increases
markedly with the age of the mother

Abnormal Numbers of Sex Chromosomes:

Nondisjunction in meiosis can lead to abnormal numbers of sex
chromosomes, X and Y
1) Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)- men with this disorder have male sex organs and
normal intelligence, but the testes are abnormally small, the individual often
has breast enlargement and other feminine characteristics (can be treated
with additional testosterone)
2) Males with an extra Y chromosome (XYY) are generally taller than other
males
3) Turner syndrome (XO)- have a short stature, a fold of skin extending between
the neck and shoulders, are of normal intelligence, poor development of
breasts (can treated with additional estrogen)
o A single Y chromosome can determine a persons sex
o Additional Y chromosomes= more maleness
o Additional X chromosomes= more femaleness
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The Advantages of Sex:

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Asexual Reproduction Advantages- one mate, passing on its entire genetic

legacy intact, eliminates the need to expend energy forming gametes and
copulating with a partner
Sexual Reproduction Advantages- enhances survival by speeding adaptation
to a changing environment, shuffling genes during sexual reproduction allows
a population to rid itself of harmful genes more rapidly