ASSIGNMENT

Course Code
Course Title

MS - 95

Research Methodology for Management Decisions

Q1.Discuss the various experimental designs as powerful tools to study the

cause and effect relationships amongst variables in research.
Ans:

An experiment is a study in which the researcher manipulates the level of some

independent variable and then measures the outcome. Experiments are powerful
techniques for evaluating cause-and-effect relationships. Many researchers
consider experiments the "gold standard" against which all other research designs
should be judged. Experiments are conducted both in the laboratory and in real
life situations.
Types of Experimental Design
There are two basic types of research design:

True experiments

Quasi-experiments

The purpose of both is to examine the cause of certain phenomena.

True experiments, in which all the important factors that might affect the
phenomena of interest are completely controlled, are the preferred design. Often,
however, it is not possible or practical to control all the key factors, so it becomes
necessary to implement a quasi-experimental research design.
Similarities between true and quasi-experiments:

Study participants are subjected to some type of treatment or condition

Some outcome of interest is measured

The researchers test whether differences in this outcome are related to the
treatment

Differences between true experiments and quasi-experiments:

In a true experiment, participants are randomly assigned to either the

treatment or the control group, whereas they are not assigned randomly in a
quasi-experiment

1 | Page

In a quasi-experiment, the control and treatment groups differ not only in

terms of the experimental treatment they receive, but also in other, often
unknown or unknowable, ways. Thus, the researcher must try to statistically
control for as many of these differences as possible

Because control is lacking in quasi-experiments, there may be several "rival

hypotheses" competing with the experimental manipulation as explanations
for observed results

The basic principle of causality is determining whether the results and trends seen in an
experiment are actually caused by the manipulation or whether some other factor may
underlie the process.
Unfortunately, the media and politicians often jump upon scientific results and proclaim
that it conveniently fits their beliefs and policies. Some scientists, fixated upon 'proving'
that their view of the world is correct, leak their results to the press before allowing the
peer review process to check and validate their work.
Some examples of this are rife in alternative therapy, when a group of scientists
announces that they have found the next healthy superfood or that a certain treatment
cured swine flu. Many of these claims deviate from the scientific process and pay little
heed to cause and effect, diluting the claims of genuine researchers in the field.
The key principle of establishing cause and effect is proving that the effects seen in the
experiment happened after the cause.
This seems to be an extremely obvious statement, but that is not always the case.
Natural phenomena are complicated and intertwined, often overlapping and making it
difficult to establish a natural order. Think about it this way: in an experiment to study the
effects of depression upon alcohol consumption, researchers find that people who suffer
from higher levels of depression drink more, and announce that this correlation shows
that depression drives people to drink.
However, is this necessarily the case? Depression could be the cause that makes people
drink more but it is equally possible that heavy consumption of alcohol, a depressant,
makes people more depressed. This type of classic 'chicken and egg' argument makes
establishing causality one of the most difficult aspects of scientific research. It is also one
of the most important factors, because it can misdirect scientists. It also leaves the
research open to manipulation by interest groups, who will take the results and proclaim
them as a truth.
With the above example, an alcoholic drink manufacturer could use the second
interpretation to claim that alcohol is not a factor in depression and that the responsibility
is upon society to ensure that people do not become depressed. An anti-alcohol group, on
the other hand, could claim that alcohol is harmful and use the results to lobby for
harsher drinking laws. The same research leads to two different interpretations and, the
answer given to the media can depend upon who funds the work.

2 | Page

Unfortunately, most of the general public are not scientists and cannot be expected to
filter every single news item that they read for quality or delve into which group funded
research. Even respected and trusted newspapers, journals and internet resources can fall
into the causality trap, so marketing groups can influence perceptions.
The first thing to remember with causality, especially in the non-physical sciences, is that
it is impossible to establish complete causality.
However, the magical figure of 100% proof of causality is what every researcher must
strive for, to ensure that a group of their peers will accept the results. The only way to do
this is through a strong and well-considered experimental design, often containing pilot
studies to establish cause and effect before plowing on with a complex and expensive
study.
The temporal factor is usually the easiest aspect to neutralize, simply because most
experiments involve administering a treatment and then observing the effects, giving a
linear temporal relationship. In experiments that use historical data, as with the
drinking/depression example, this can be a little more complex. Most researchers
performing such a program will supplement it with a series of individual case studies, and
interviewing a selection of the participants, in depth, will allow the researchers to find the
order of events.
For example, interviewing a sample of the depressed heavy drinkers will establish
whether they felt that they were depressed before they started drinking or if the
depression came later. The process of establishing cause and effect is a matter of
ensuring that the potential influence of 'missing variables' is minimized.
One notable example, by the researchers Balnaves and Caputi, looked at the academic
performance of university students and attempted to find a correlation with age. Indeed,
they found that older, more mature students performed significantly better. However, as
they pointed out, you cannot simply say that age causes the effect of making people into
better students. Such a simplistic assumption is called a spurious relationship, the
process of 'leaping to conclusions.'
In fact, there is a whole host of reasons why a mature student performs better: they have
more life experience and confidence, and many feel that it is their last chance to succeed;
my graduation year included a 75-year-old man, and nobody studied harder! Mature
students may well have made a great financial sacrifice, so they are a little more
determined to succeed. Establishing cause and effect is extremely difficult in this case, so
the researchers interpreted the results very carefully.
Another example is the idea that because people who eat a lot of extra virgin olive oil live
for longer, olive oil makes people live longer. While there is some truth behind this, you
have to remember that most regular olive oil eaters also eat a Mediterranean diet, have
active lifestyles, and generally less stress. These also have a strong influence, so any
such research program should include studies into the effect of these - this is why a
research program is not always a single experiment but often a series of experiments.
Q2.Explain Stratified Random Sampling. Describe proportional allocation and
optimum allocation with the help of an example.
3 | Page

Ans:
Stratified random sampling is a probabilistic sampling option. The first step in stratified
random sampling is to split the population into strata, i.e. sections or segments. The
strata are chosen to divide a population into important categories relevant to the
research interest.
For example, if interested in school achievement we may want to first split schools into
rural, urban, and suburban as school achievement on average may be quite distinct
between these regions. The second step is to take a simple random sample within each
stratum. This way a randomised probabilistic sample is selected within each stratum.
Each strata should be mutually exclusive (i.e. every element in the population can be
assigned to only one stratum), and no population element can be excluded in the
construction of strata.
Stratified random sampling is used instead of simple random sampling when the
categories of the strata are thought to be too distinct and too important to the research
interest, and/or when investigators wish to oversample a particularly small group of
interest. (Investigators oversample in the smaller strata in order to increase their sample
size, which is necessary to conduct proper statistical analyses.) In practice, stratified
random sampling along with other more complex sampling techniques are employed in
large-scale surveys, especially governmental censes, to reduce some of the logistical
costs associated with collecting information from a sample.
Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the
entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final
subjects proportionally from the different strata.
Proportional allocation and Optimum allocation
Proportional allocation is a procedure for dividing a sample among the strata in a
stratified sample survey. A sample survey collects data from a population in order to
estimate population characteristics. A stratified sample selects separate samples from
subgroups of the population, which are called "strata" and can often increase the
accuracy of survey results. In order to implement stratified sampling, it is necessary to be
able to divide the population at least implicitly into strata before sampling. Given a
budget that allows gathering data on n subjects or a budget amount SB , there is a need
to decide how to allocate the resources for data gathering to the strata. Three factors
typically affect the distribution of resources to the strata: (1) the population size, (2) the
variability of values, and (3) the data collection per unit cost in the strata.
Optimum allocation
Optimal allocation is a procedure for dividing the sample among the strata in a stratified
sample survey. The allocation procedure is called "optimal" because in a particular survey
sampling design (stratified simple random sampling) it produces the smallest variance for
estimating a population mean and total (using the standard stratified estimator) given a
fixed budget or sample size. A sample survey collects data from a population in order to
estimate population characteristics. A stratified sample selects separate samples from
subgroups (called "strata") of the population and can often increase the accuracy of
4 | Page

survey results. In order to implement stratified sampling, it is necessary to be able to

divide the population at least implicitly into strata before sampling. Given a budget that
allows gathering data on n subjects or a budget amount $ B

Q3.A physical instructor claims that a particular exercise when done

continuously for 7 days, reduces body weight at least by 3.5kg. Five overweight
girls did the exercise for 7 days and their body weights were found as under:

Making use of the sign test, verify the claim at = 0.05 that the exercise
reduces weight by at least 3.5kg.
Ans:

5 | Page

6 | Page

Q4.Explain the different parts of a typical research report. Also prepare a

sample Index page of such report.
Ans:
The different parts of a typical research report
In writing a research paper, take careful note of its parts. The research paper has at least
nine essential parts although, of course, there may be additional parts depending on the
discretion of your instructor. The basic principle to consider in writing a research paper is
that you should first consider and familiarize yourself with the "works" of others and then
try to compare them with your ideas.
1. Title Page
Oftentimes referred to as the cover page, this section is where you indicate the title of
your research, your name, institutional information and a few other relevant information
prescribed by your instructor.
2. Introduction
Introduce to your reader the "problem" by providing a brief background of your research.
Include the basic reasons how and why you came-up with the problem, and the probable
solutions that you can offer. In general, the introduction summarizes the purpose of the
research paper.
3. Literature Review
This section is where you will be providing all the relevant readings from previous works.
Provide brief summaries or descriptions of the works of other authors. Make sure that
your research materials are from credible sources such as academic books and peerreviewed journals. Also, make sure that your reading materials are directly relevant to the
topic of your research paper. The literature review typically includes the names of the
authors, the titles of their works and the year of the publication of these works.
4. Methodology
This section is where you will be providing the methods that you will be using in your
research. Typical methodologies include laboratory experiments, statistical or
mathematical calculations/computations, and comparison of existing literature.
5. Data Analysis
This section is where you will be analyzing the data that you have obtained from the
methodological operation that you have chosen. Depending on the type of your research
paper, data analysis instruments and operations may vary. Common data analysis
methods include but are not limited to SWOT Analysis (Strengths, Weakness,
Opportunities and Threats) which is a form of a qualitative data analysis.
6. Results

7 | Page

This section is where you will be presenting the actual results of the analysis that you
have made based on your chosen methodology.
7. Discussion
This is where you will be discussing more of the results of your research, its implications
on other fields as well as the possible improvements that can be made in order to further
develop the concerns of your research. This is also the section where you need to present
the importance of your study and how it will be able to contribute to the field.
8. Conclusion
Provide the conclusion to your research paper. While it is important to restate your
general thesis in this section, it is also important to include a brief restatement of the
other parts of the research paper such as the methodology, data analysis and results.

9. Reference Page
This section is where you list down all the academic materials you have used as sources
of information in your research paper. Typical reference formats/styles include but are not
limited to APA 5th, Harvard, MLA and Chicago/Turabian.
Sample Index page of Project Report

The Research Topic I have choice is WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN

INDIA
INDEX
CHAPT
ER
NO

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Acknowledgment
Certificate of Orignality
Synopsis of the project work
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
LITERATURE REVIEW
POLICIES AND SCHEMES FOR WOMEN

ENTREPRENEURS IN INDIA
PROBLEMS FACED BY WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS IN
INDIA

8 | Page

9
10

CHALLENGES FOR A WOMAN ENTREPRENEUR

SCHEMES OFFERED TO WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS

11
12
13
14
15

BY BANK OF INDIA
SCOPE FOR THE STUDY
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
RECOMMENDATIONS
CONCLUSION

Q5.Write short notes on:

i)Dependent and Independent variable
Ans:
A variable is anything that can vary, i.e. changed or be changed, such as memory,
attention, time taken to perform a task etc.
Variable are given a special names that only apply to experimental investigations. One is
called the dependent variable and the other the independent variable.
In an experiment, the researcher is looking for the possible effect on the dependent
variable that might be caused by changing the independent variable.
Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e. changes)
assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.
Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after making changes
to the IV that are assumed to affect the DV.
For example, we might change the type of information (e.g. organized or random) given
to participants to see what affect this might have on the amount of information
remembered.
In this particular example the type of information is the independent variable (because it
changes) and the amount of information remembered is the dependent variable (because
this is being measured).
Qii)Copy Reading
Ans:
"Copy reading" is mostly referred to as "copy editing." It's basically the process of reading
over something, correcting any errors and "spicing" it up to make it more appealing to the
reader/listener.

9 | Page

Copy editors read the stories that reporters write. They check for grammar, spelling and
style. More importantly, they check whatever facts can be verified. They make sure the
story has no glaring unanswered questions. They don't change the facts or the reporting,
but they'll make sure the story is being told in the most interesting way. And, they'll
shorten wordiness. For example, if there's a way to say something in eight words, or
convey exactly the same information in five words, they'll rewrite the sentence into the
shorter form.
At most newspapers, copy editors are also the ones who write the headlines, and they
often write (or rewrite) photo captions as well.
Qiii)Discriminant Analysis.
Ans:
Regression based statistical technique used in determining which particular classification
or group (such as 'ill' or 'healthy') an item of data or an object (such as a patient) belongs
to on the basis of its characteristics or essential features. It differs from group building
techniques such as cluster analysis in that the classifications or groups to choose from
must be known in advance.
EXAMPLES

For example, a graduate admissions committee might divide a set of past

graduate students into two groups: students who finished the program in five
years or less and those who did not. Discriminant function analysis could be used
to predict successful completion of the graduate program based on GRE score and
undergraduate grade point average. Examination of the prediction model might
provide insights into how each predictor individually and in combination predicted
completion or non-completion of a graduate program.
Another example might predict whether patients recovered from a coma or not
based on combinations of demographic and treatment variables. The predictor
variables might include age, sex, general health, time between incident and
arrival at hospital, various interventions, etc. In this case the creation of the
prediction model would allow a medical practitioner to assess the chance of
recovery based on observed variables. The prediction model might also give
insight into how the variables interact in predicting recovery.

10 | P a g e