Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372382

www.elsevier.com/locate/jsames

Geochronological and isotopical review of pre-Devonian

crustal basement of the Colombian Andes
Oswaldo Ordonez-Carmona
a

a,*

lvarez a, Marcio Martins Pimentel

, Jorge Julian Restrepo A

Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Facultad de Minas, A.A. 1027 Medelln-Colombia, Colombia

b
Instituto de Geociencias, Universidade de Braslia, CEP: 70910-900 Brasilia, D.F., Brazil
Received 1 October 2004; accepted 1 March 2006

Abstract
Under the atlands east of the Andes, the crustal basement is exposed in a few places, composed mainly of the Mitu migmatitic complex and the Parguaza granite, whose ages range between 1.78 and 1.45 Ga. Extensive outcrops of high-grade metamorphic rocks are
found in several places. Two metamorphisms are dated between 1.21.1 and 1.00.9 Ga. They are considered blocks that formed during
the Grenville orogeny and have SmNd TDM model ages of 1.871.47. The Andaqu terrane is formed mainly by the Garzon Massif,
composed of granulites, migmatites, and granites, and the metamorphic rocks of the Sierra de la Macarena, which are covered by undeformed Cambrian sediments. It is believed that after the Grenville orogeny, this unit remained attached to the Amazonic Craton. All the
other areas grouped in the Chibcha terrane, though they formed during the Grenville orogeny, are believed to have remained either as
part of another continental block or dispersed islands to be amalgamated to the Amazonic Craton during the Lower Paleozoic orogeny,
which in the Quetame Massif is dated between the Silurian and Devonian and is named the Quetame orogenic event.
 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Colombian Andes; Grenville orogeny; Quetame event

1. Introduction
The Colombian Andes are divided into three main
branches, known as the Eastern, Central, and Western
cordilleras, and include minor orographic systems such as
the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the Serrana de
Baudo. There is not a complete coincidence between the
geology and the orography, because the Colombian Andes
are composed of allochtonous terranes accreted to the
Amazonian Craton (Restrepo and Toussaint, 1988; Toussaint, 1993; Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994, 1996). The Eastern Cordillera, the eastern ank of the Central Cordillera,
and parts of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and the
Guajira Peninsula constitute the Chibcha terrane, whereas
the western ank of the Central Cordillera and the NW
part of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta constitute the
*

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: oswaldo.geologo@gmail.com (O. Ordonez-Carmona).

0895-9811/$ - see front matter  2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2006.07.005

Taham terrane. These two terranes are composed of continental crust. The Western Cordillera and Serrana de
Baudo are composed of oceanic crust and are grouped in
the Calima, Cuna and Gorgona terranes, respectively.
The Andaqu terrane lies between the Amazonian Craton
and the Chibcha terrane (Fig. 1).
The geological history of current Colombian territory
can be traced back to the Paleoproterozoic, with the generation of approximately 1.8 Ga old rock units presently
exposed in easternmost Colombia, along the borders with
Brazil and Venezuela. The last important tectonic event
was the collision of the Panama-Baudo arc during the late
Cenozoic. Aleman and Ramos (2000) provide a brief
review of the geological history of the northern part of
the Andes (Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela) in the past
2.0 Ga, and Ramos and Aleman (2000) provide greater
understanding of the Andean orogeny.
During the Proterozoic and Paleozoic, evolution was
related to a Wilson cycle, with continental collisions at

O. Ordonez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372382

373

Fig. 1. Suspect terrains of Colombia (modied from Toussaint and Restrepo, 1994, 1996).

approximately 1000, 380(?), and 270 Ma, followed by the

subsequent opening of oceanic basins. During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, the regime changed to a North Andean
type of orogen, characterized by the accretion of oceanic
terranes. The collision of the Panama-Baudo block during
the late Cenozoic produced the nal uplift of the Colombian Andes.
In this work, a review of the geochronological and isotopic data of the pre-Devonian basement of the Colombian
Andes is developed and complemented by recent data. A
model of the geodynamic evolution of the area between
the Mesoproterozoic and the Silurian is presented.

149

Sm150Nd spike. Sr and Nd isotopic ratios were corrected for mass fractionation to 86Sr/88Sr = 0.1194 and
146
Nd/144Nd = 0.7219. Two sigma uncertainties for the
87
Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd ratios are smaller than 0.01%
and 0.005%, respectively.
Decay constants used are those recommended by Steiger
and Jager (1977), and ages are reported at the 95% condence interval. Analysis of the NBS-987 Sr standard gives
values between 0.71024 and 0.71029, and the La Jolla Nd
standard yields values between 0.511828 and 0.511842 during the period when the analyses were performed. Isochron
ages were calculated using Ex-Isoplot program 2.05 version
(Ludwig, 1999).

2. Isotopic data and analytical methods

3. Precambrian basement
Sr, Sm, and Nd isotopic analyses were performed at the
Geochronology Laboratory of the University of Brasilia,
using standard ion-exchange chromatography for the separation of Sr, Sm, and Nd with a multicollector Finnigan
MAT-262 mass spectrometer. Sm and Nd concentrations
were obtained by isotope dilution using a mixed

The Precambrian rocks in Colombia are exposed in

two main regions (Figs. 1 and 2): (1) as the sialic basement of the Chibcha terrain in the Andes and (2) in
the eastern atlands, comprising part of the Amazonian
Craton.

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O. Ordonez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372382

Fig. 2. Simplied geological map of the Colombian Andes (after Toussaint, 1993).

3.1. Eastern atlands

The western/northwestern part of the Amazonic Craton
forms the basement of the atlands (Llanos) east of the
Colombian Andes. Most of it is covered by Tertiary sedimentary rocks, though to the east, close to the borders with
Venezuela and Brazil, some outcrops of Precambrian rocks
appear. In the border region between Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil, these metamorphic rocks are included in the
Mitu migmatitic complex (Fig. 1), which comprises mainly
biotite gneisses and migmatites of sedimentary origin with
low-pressure mineral assemblages that normally include
andalusite and cordierite. The sequence is closely associated with granitoids that likely correspond to anatectic mag-

mas. Descriptions of these poorly studied rocks appear in

Galvis et al. (1979) and Bruneton et al. (1983).
Gneisses and granites yield RbSr isochron ages ranging
between 1780 and 1450 Ma (Priem et al., 1982), interpreted
as reecting the formation of a metamorphic basement at
approximately 1780 Ma superimposed by a magmatic
event at approximately 1450 Ma. One UPb zircon date
indicates an age of 1480 Ma (Priem et al., 1982), and various ages between 1447 and 1215 Ma were obtained by K
Ar and RbSr methods in mineral separates (hornblende,
biotite, and muscovite).
The Parguaza granite, a body with a rapakivi texture
that seems to intrude the Mitu Complex, has a UPb zircon
age of 1545 20 Ma and a RbSr whole-rock isochron age

O. Ordonez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372382

of 1499 39 Ma (Gaudett et al., 1978). These rocks are

part of the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Rio Negro-Juruena
province that evolved in a magmatic-arc environment
between 1.8 and 1.55 Ga (Tassinari, 1984; Teixeira et al.,
1989; Tassinari et al., 1996).
3.2. Garzon Massif
Extensive outcrops of high-grade metamorphic rocks
are exposed in the Garzon Massif. Although this zone is
geographically part of the Eastern Cordillera, it is discussed in this section because it includes metamorphic rock
units east of the Andes (Figs. 1 and 2).
Two main units are recognized, one formed by the Guapoton and Mancagua granitic augen gneisses in the west
and the other, the Garzon Group, consisting of granulite
facies rocks, including charnockites, enderbites, migmatites, mac granulites, pyroxene amphibolites, and ultra lvarez, 1981; Kroonenberg, 1982a;
mac rocks (A

Rodrguez, 1995). The anatectic granite of El Recreo also

is part of this massif (Rodrguez, 1995), and most rock
units of the Garzon Massif are cut by pegmatites with large
magnetite and biotite crystals.
The most detailed geochronological work in the area is
that by Cordani et al. (2005). Many UPb SHRIMP ages
show an igneous event at 1158 23 Ma, with high-grade
metamorphism at 1000 25 Ma for the Guapoton-Mancagua orthogneiss. From Las Margaritas gneiss, two garnet
whole-rock SmNd isochrones were obtained with ages
of 1034 6 Ma and 990 8 Ma, which indicate the age
of cooling under 600 C after peak metamorphism. Similarly, a UPb zircon age of 1015 7.8 Ma for leucosomes of
migmatites indicates metamorphism at the end of the Mesoproterozoic. Other younger ages, ranging from 1000 to
905 Ma and obtained by several methods, probably reect
either a second metamorphism or cooling after the main
metamorphic event.
Other areas that may be part of this block are the Sierra
de la Macarena to the northeast and the granitic gneisses,
amphibolites, and migmatites that crop out to the southwest, along the Eastern Cordillera from Garzon to the
Ecuatorian border (Maya, 2001). These units are known
as La Cocha-Ro Tellez migmatitic complex (Murcia and
Cepeda, 1991) and an unnamed unit in the Sierra de La
Macarena. The metamorphic rocks (gneiss and amphibolites) of the Sierra de la Macarena are covered by undeformed Cambrian sediments, which supports a
Precambrian age for these rocks.
Recently, Jimenez and Cordani (2003) challenged the
validity of the correlation of La Cocha-Ro Tellez migmatitic complex with the Garzon Massif on the basis of the U
Pb zircon age of 166 3.8 Ma for a granodiorite. They
suggest that the tectonomagmatic evolution of the complex
may be related to the emplacement of granitoids within
paraschists and paragneisses, which formed the migmatites.
However, the Jurassic magmatic belt that extends from
Ecuador to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta does not

375

show any relation to the main regional metamorphic

event(s). Also, in Ecuador, these granites, known as Azafran, have no relation with any known orogenic metamorphic event (Noble et al., 1997). Only in the Santander
Massif did the Mesozoic intrusives cause thermal metamorphism of the Paleozoic metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks (Restrepo-Pace, 1995).
According to Kroonenberg (1982a), the rocks from the
Garzon Massif, as well as those of the Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta, are part of a granulitic belt that probably
formed during the collision between Amazonia and Laurentia. The alternative model of Toussaint (1993) proposes
that the Garzon Massif, together with the Sierra de La
Macarena, constitute the Andaqu terrane, allochtonous
with respect to the basement of the Amazonian Craton
and accreted as an isolated block to South America during
the Grenvillian orogeny. Restrepo-Pace (1995) believes that
the granulitic belt formed during a continentcontinent
collision, with the rocks in the Garzon Massif being derived
from the Guyana Shield. A very dierent model, implying
an autochtonous origin for the Andes, was put forward by
Priem et al. (1989), who state that not much, if any, continental accretion occurred in the Andes between 1.6 Ga
and the Cretaceous.
The ages found for the Garzon Massif are comparable
to those of the Sunsas orogeny, which took place in the
western region of the Amazonic Craton between 1.25 and
1.0 Ga (Tassinari et al., 2000).
3.3. Andean region
Consensus among geologists indicates the presence of a
Precambrian basement beneath the Andes in the Eastern
Cordillera and the eastern ank of the Central Cordillera.
However, the extension of this basement to the central
and western parts of the Central Cordillera is still debated.
According to Kroonenberg (1982b), the Precambrian basement underlies the entire Central Cordillera. However,
Restrepo and Toussaint (1988) argue that it only exists
or at least crops outeast of the Otu-Pericos fault, which
is taken as the boundary between the Chibcha terrane to
the east and the Taham (or Central Andean) terrane to
the west. Currently no reliable dating of Precambrian rocks
has been obtained from the Taham terrane, so the subsequent discussion relates only to the Chibcha terrane.
3.3.1. Santander Massif
It is located in the northern part of the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 2), which is formed predominantly by sedimentary rocks. In this area, metamorphic and plutonic rocks
crop out, with higher-grade metamorphic rocks included
in the Bucaramanga gneiss and lower-grade rocks constituting the Silgara Formation. The rst unit is considered
Precambrian, whereas the second probably formed during
the Caledonian orogeny.
The Bucaramanga gneiss consists of biotite gneisses (some
with cordierite and sillimanite), migmatites, quartzites, and

O. Ordonez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372382

376

amphibolites. The predominant rock, banded biotite

gneiss, is considered derived from a pelitic sediment (Ward
et al., 1973; Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997). In addition, the
presence of alternating bands of amphibolites and amphibole gneisses suggest some contribution of volcanic material or sills of basic rocks.
On the basis of KAr (945 40 Ma) and RbSr model
ages, Ward et al. (1973) consider that the Bucaramanga
gneiss metamorphosed during the Proterozoic. 40Ar/39Ar
dates by Restrepo-Pace (1995) give apparent ages between
668 9 and 574 8 Ma, though the argon spectrum shows
older ages on the order of 850800 Ma. Restrepo-Pace
attributes this divergence to rejuvenation of Grenvillian
metamorphic rocks by later thermal eects. Cordani et al.
(2005) obtain 40Ar/39Ar ages close to 200 Ma in biotite
from the gneisses, which reects the loss of argon during
the intrusion of the large batholiths in that area. They also
present SHRIMP UPb zircon ages between 1558 and

864 Ma. The older ages are interpreted as representing

the sources of the sedimentary protolith, whereas an age
of 1057 28 Ma is believed to correspond to a Grenville
metamorphic event. Two zircon grains yield an age of
864 66 Ma, interpreted as representing a late metamorphism episode. This latter age is similar to that detected
in the eastern ank of the Central Cordillera, which supports the idea that both regions belong to the same terrane.
For the present study, two samples of the Bucaramanga
gneiss were collected in the same location that Ward et al.
(1973) obtained samples for KAr dating, specically,
along the highway between the towns of Aguachica and
Ocana. In that area, gneisses have banded structure, with
predominant quartzfeldspar gneiss and minor amphibole
gneisses and amphibolites. Samples NB-1 and NB-3, selected for Sr and Nd isotopic analyses (Table 1), correspond to
quartzfeldsparbiotite gneiss and hornblende gneiss,
respectively.

Table 1
Sr and Nd isotopic results for the Precambrian and Early Paleozoic rocks
Nd

143

147

eNd(T)

TDM (Ga)

87

87

87

Bucaramanga Gneiss
NB-1
4.39
NB-3
4.96

16.84
25.53

0.512370 25
0.511939 37

0.1576
0.1175

0.50
4.07

1.76
1.71

0.71398 6
0.70506 5

0.5551
0.1062

0.70648
0.70363

Los Mangos Granulite

GRM-1
5.18
GRM-2
6.15
GRM-10 WR
9.26
GRM-10 Gr
8.47
RG-3a
7.38
RG-6a
1.13

22.52
39.56
44.48
5.02
40.42
9.68

0.512290 12
0.511882 15
0.511930 11
0.517620 15
0.511872 08
0.511879 08

0.1391
0.0940
0.1259
1.0195
0.1104
0.0706

0.37
1.99
5.02

1.51
1.47
1.87

0.72607 6
0.72302 7

4.23
0.87

1.69

El Vapor Mylonitic Gneisses

B-4
7.48
37.15
B-22
7.99
30.79

0.511931 14
0.512370 13

0.1218
0.1560

5.23
0.57

1.79
1.71

Garzon Group
G-2a
G-11a
G-20a

16.78
16.68
3.62

0.511770 07
0.512032 05
0.512626 07

0.0494
0.0703
0.1904

5.34
7.30
0.72

Guapoton Granite
14.9
SnAnkr-1a

78.97

0.512062 07

0.1143

0.24

El Hgado Amphibolite
9.25
HP-3a
HP-5a
0.18

32.95
1.587

0.512472 10
0.512085 06

0.1697
0.0686

0.09
4.15

Ocana Batholith
BOC-1
BOC-2
BOC-3
BOC-4

5.90
5.42
5.04
5.29

27.61
25.93
24.92
26.98

0.512341 32
0.512318 16
0.512274 12
0.512292 16

0.1291
0.1264
0.1222
0.1186

2.23
2.54
3.17
2.63

1.27
1.27
1.28
1.21

0.73750 6
0.72874 7
0.73118 8
0.72917 7

9.6723
7.4091
7.8942
7.4416

Sann Villa Diorite

DSV-1
5.98

31.73

0.512190 13

0.1139

4.38

1.30

0.70714 6

0.1907

Sample

Sm

1.37
1.94
1.14

Nd/144Nd

Sm/144Nd

Sr/86Sr

0.74861 5
0.77792 5

Rb/86Sr

Sr/86Sri

T (Ma)
945
945
971
971
971
971
971
971

2.55
4.40

0.71603
0.72171

894
894
1180
1180
1180

1.50

1088
911
911
413
413
413
413
0.70602

413

2r uncertainties for the isotopic ratio 87Rb/86Sr < 1%, 87Sr/86Sr < 0.01%, 143Nd/144Nd < 0.003%, and 147Sm/144Nd < 0.1. Data for other Precambrian
units of the Colombian Andes are also included (Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997). The right column indicates the most accepted age of the corresponding
geological unit.
Note: WR = whole-rock, Gr = garnet; eNd = [{(143Nd/144Nd)i/(143Nd/144Nd)t-CHUR}1] 104, using 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512638 as present-day CHUR
value. TDM = k1ln [1 + (143Nd/144Nd)i  (143Nd/144Nd)DM/(147Sm/144Nd)i  (147Sm/144Nd)DM], using 143Nd/144Nd = 0.513114 as present-day DM
value, and (147Sm/144Nd)DM = 0.222.
a
Restrepo-Pace et al. (1997).

O. Ordonez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372382

TDM model ages of 1.76 and 1.71 Ga represent average

model ages of the original sediment source areas. Therefore, the maximum age for the protolith sedimentation
must be approximately 1.71 Ga.
3.3.2. Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
These mountains are not part of the main Andean
mountain chain; however, their sialic basement presents
similarities with other high-grade areas of the cordillera
(Fig. 2). The eastern part of the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta contains the most extensive exposures of high-grade
rocks, called Los Mangos granulites (Fig. 2, N4) and Dibulla gneiss. The rst Precambrian metamorphic age in
Colombia was obtained by MacDonald and Hurley
(1969) for the Dibulla gneiss, represented by a RbSr isochron of 1400 Ma with an initial 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.703.
Los Mangos granulite consists of a banded sequence of
mac and granitic gneisses, amphibolites, anorthosites,
and ultramac and calcareous bands, containing mineral
assemblages that indicate granulite facies conditions
(Gansser, 1955; MacDonald and Hurley, 1969; Tschanz
et al., 1974; Ordonez-Carmona et al., 2002).
Restrepo-Pace et al. (1997) date detrital zircons from a
sample of the Dibulla gneiss, obtaining ages between 1.0
and 1.3 Ga, possibly associated with the Grenville event.
They also report a UPb (zircon) upper intercept age of
1.5 Ga, interpreted as the age of crystallization of part of
the protolith of the granulites, and a lower intercept age
of 0.45 Ga interpreted as Pb loss related to an Andean
orogenic event. The ArAr analyses of biotites from two
granulites produce complex age spectra with an integrated
age of 561 6 Ma for one of the samples and a total
fusion age of approximately 845 Ma for the other. A provenance pattern of detrital zircon grains (Cordani et al.,
2005) documents a Mesoproterozoic (1375 Ma) source,
as well as an early metamorphic event between 1190 and
1140 Ma and a later metamorphic event at approximately
990 Ma.
Samples in the present study were collected at the conuence of the Guatapur and Los Mangos rivers, approximately 20 km northwest of Valledupar (Fig. 2, N4).
Additional details about the petrographic and eld characteristics of these rocks may be found in Ordonez-Carmona
et al. (2002).
The samples analyzed belong to three of the most abundant associations of the banded sequence exposed in this
area. Sample GRM-1 (amphibolite) presents the lowest
Sm and Nd concentrations, and the TDM model ages calculated for these rocks are 1.471.87 Ga, suggesting that the
protoliths of the volcanosedimentary sequence are at least
1.47 Ga old. Garnet crystals from sample GRM-10 were
separated and analyzed, and the resulting garnet wholerock isochron indicates an age of 971 8 Ma, considered
to be the age of granulite facies metamorphism and correlated chronologically with the Grenville orogeny. It also
agrees within error with the K/Ar hornblende age of
940 30 Ma reported by Tschanz et al. (1974).

377

3.3.3. Guajira Peninsula

The Guajira Peninsula lies to the northeast of the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta, separated by the right-lateral Oca
fault (Fig. 2). Pb- age of zircons from the Jojoncito granite (Alvarez, 1967) gave an age of 1250 Ma (Banks, 1975);
so far, it is the only Proterozoic unit identied in the area.
According to Cardona (2003), this unit is not a granite but
a paragneiss.
SHRIMP UPb ages of 17 zircons indicate ages of
1529 43, 1342 25, and 1236 16 Ma for three nuclei.
Two overgrowths yield ages of 1167 17 and
1165 37 Ma, and younger overgrowths of other grains
give an average age of 916 19 Ma (Cordani et al.,
2005). The younger ages likely represent metamorphic
events between 1165 and 916 Ma, whereas the older ages
indicate the age of Mesoproterozoic sources that, according to Cordani et al. (2005), were located in the Amazonian
Craton.
3.3.4. Eastern ank of the Central Cordillera
Since the geological mapping project carried out by
Feininger et al. (1972), the gneisses exposed east of the
Otu fault have been considered Precambrian retrograded
granulites, similar to those in the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta, though diagnostic minerals of this facies have not
been found. It is worth noting that the fault that marks
the western limit of the Precambrian outcrops, according
to the map of Feininger et al. (1972), is the Otu fault, not
the Palestina fault as shown in some publications (Cediel
et al., 2002).
Geological evidence of the age is available, because
Ordovician sedimentary rocks (Harrison, 1930; BoteroArango, 1940), metamorphosed at low-grade conditions,
rest unconformably on the medium-grade gneisses. Also,
a RbSr isochron of El Vapor mylonitic gneisses (Fig. 2,
N1), close to the town of Puerto Berro (latitude 630 0 N),
indicates an age of 894 36 Ma (Ordonez-Carmona
et al., 1999) that can be related to ductile deformation of
the gneisses and therefore represents a minimum age of
metamorphism. In addition, the TDM model ages calculated for these rocks are between 1.71 and 1.79 Ga, suggesting
that the protoliths are at least 1.71 Ga old. The extension
of these rocks to the north might occur in the poorly
known Serrana de San Lucas, where the basement is
thought to be formed by Precambrian rocks (Gonzalez-Iregui, 1996). Recently, Ordonez-Carmona and Restrepo (in
press) found granulites in the northeastern region of Serrana de San Lucas, which allows correlation and association
with other Precambrian high-grade metamorphic rocks in
the Chibcha terrain.
Restrepo-Pace et al. (1997) report an ArAr hornblende
age of 911 2 Ma for the El Hgado amphibolite (Fig. 2,
N3) located in the eastern ank of the Central Cordillera
at latitude 211 0 N. Similarly, the Tierradentro Amphibolite
(Fig. 2, N2), at latitude 5N, is dated at 1360 270 Ma by
KAr on hornblende (Vesga and Barrero, 1978), though
large error casts doubt on the exact age.

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O. Ordonez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372382

3.3.5. Central Cordillera west of the Otu fault

Although no Precambrian radiometric ages have been
found west of the Otu fault (i.e., in the Taham terrane),
the latest maps by Ingeominas show two areas where granulitic rocks are exposed: the Puqu Complex and El Retiro
Group, indicated as probably Proterozoic (Gonzalez-Iregui, 1996, 2001). Recent radiometric dates do not support
this assumption (Ordonez-Carmona et al., 2001; Ordonez-Carmona and Pimentel, 2002) but indicate ages of
306 11 Ma (Puqu Complex, RbSr isochron) and
226 17 Ma (Retiro Group, garnet whole-rock SmNd
isochron).
A Proterozoic age for the Cajamarca Group, the main
metamorphic unit in the Central Cordillera, has been
proposed by Gomez and Nunez (2003), on the basis of
the presence of clasts of metamorphic rocks that seem
to be derived from this group and are found in the Santa
Teresa metasediments, dated paleontologically as Ordovician. This unit is located along the Pericos fault, considered the southern extension of the Otu fault, between the
Cajamarca Group to the west and the Tierradentro
Amphibolites to the east. As discussed previously, the
Otu-Pericos fault has been considered the limit between
two dierent terranes. Thus, an allocthtonous origin for
the Santa Teresa metasediments cannot be discarded,
and their original position with respect to both the Cajamarca Group and the Tierradentro Amphibolites remains
uncertain.
4. Early Paleozoic basement
Although no radiometric ages in this interval are currently available for the rock units west of the Otu-Pericos
fault, La Miel orthogneiss, dated by a RbSr isochron at
388 12 Ma, and the Samana orthogneiss, dated by the
same method at 346 26 Ma (Restrepo et al., 1991), contain xenoliths of the country rocks composed of low- to
medium-grade metamorphic rocks. Therefore, a metamorphic event older than 388 Ma is indicated. Restrepo et al.
(1991) and Toussaint (1993) suggest that one of the metamorphic events that formed the basement of the northern
part of the Central Cordillera is associated with a Caledonian orogeny, but geochronological conrmation is
still lacking. With respect to the protholith, a Late ProterozoicEarly Paleozoic age is inferred for at least part of
the metamorphic sequence. In marbles from the eastern
and western anks of the Central Cordillera, an Ediacaran age has been obtained by C-isotope stratigraphy for
the deposition of the limestone that formed marbles (Silva
et al., 2004). Also, locally in the eastern ank of the Central Cordillera, fossils in low-grade metasediments indicate Lower Ordovician deposition (Gonzalez-Iregui,
2001).
In the eastern block (Chibcha terrane), important igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary events took place during the Early Paleozoic. Metamorphic rocks generally
considered to be of this age include the Perija and Silgara

formations, the Quetame Group, and La Cristalina metasediments. The main plutonic unit is the Santander Plutonic
Group, which presents KAr ages of 457413 Ma, whereas
La Cristalina, Amoya, and El Hgado formations represent
the sedimentary record for the Early Paleozoic.
4.1. Santander Plutonic Group
The only dated magmatic unit of Early Paleozoic age in
the Colombian Andes is found in the Santander Massif of
the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 2). This unit comprises both
granitic and gabbroic rocks that intrude the metamorphic
basement, consisting of the Bucaramanga gneiss and Silgara Formation.
In the massif, the metamorphic basement and intrusions are covered by Devonian and Carboniferous sediments, thus indicating a pre-Devonian age for the
basement rocks. This age relationship is conrmed by
KAr data that yield ages for the intrusions in the range
of 456 23 Ma (whole-rock) to 413 30 Ma (hornblende) (Goldsmith et al., 1971; Boinet et al., 1985). However, some igneous rocks considered related to the Early
Paleozoic event yield Mesozoic KAr and UPb ages
(Goldsmith et al., 1971; Boinet et al., 1985; Dorr et al.,
1995), which suggests Mesozoic intrusions are present in
the area or an important younger tectonothermal event
has somehow reset the isotopic systems, yielding Mesozoic
ages.
Four samples of the Ocana Batholith (Fig. 2, N5), composed of medium- to coarse-grained pink granites, with
quartz, k-feldspar, plagioclase, and biotite, were collected
for the analyses. In the study area, the batholith intrudes
the metamorphic rocks of the Bucaramanga gneiss. A N
Selongated diorite body that intrudes the Bucaramanga
gneiss in this region also is known as the Sanin Villa diorite. A sample was collected in the Sanin Villa sector of
the AguachicaOcana road. It is composed of a mediumto ne-grained diorite with hornblende, plagioclase, and
some K-feldspar and quartz.
Sr and Nd isotopic analyses were carried out on these
ve samples (Table 1). Sm and Nd concentrations, as well
as the isotopic ratios, are quite uniform in the ve samples
analyzed. eNd(T) values were calculated for a tentative
intrusion age of 413 Ma. The Rb/Sr data are linear
(MSWD of 1.04), but the initial Sr87/Sr86 ratio of 0.7007
for the isochron makes the obtained age of 268 26 Ma
meaningless. Also, the Ocana Batholith is covered by the
Middle Devonian Las Mercedes Formation (Bayer et al.,
1973). The TDM ages are as old as 1.30 Ga for the diorite
and between 1.21 and 1.28 Ga for the batholith, which suggests the magma crustal contaminants are at least Mesoproterozoic in age. In the case of the Ocana Batholith,
the uniform model age values indicate magma homogeneity and perhaps contaminant homogeneity as well.
The eNd(413Ma) values for these rocks are negative (2.23
to 4.38), indicating an important crustal component in
the parental magma.

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4.2. Silgara Formation

Stratigraphically the Silgara Formation rests on top of
the Bucaramanga Gneiss. However, the nature of the contact between them remains unclear, so an unconformity
between the two units cannot be ruled out. It comprises
slates, phyllites, schists, metasandstones, marbles, and
ortoamphibolites (Ward et al., 1973; Shafer et al., 1998).
The metamorphic conditions vary from greenschist to
low amphibolite facies, but some local upper amphibolite
facies associations have been described (Shafer et al.,
1998). These rocks show ne-banded structures and abundant phyllites and schists compared with the Bucaramanga
gneiss rocks. Where contact is covered, the thickness of the
banding and rock association is useful to distinguish
between the two rock units. In other cases, the contact
often is dened by the biotitesillimanite isograd (Ward
et al., 1973; Restrepo-Pace et al., 1997), though this dierentiation method seems to imply a common metamorphism
for both units.
For the Silgara Formation, a pre-Devonian age is certain, because the fossiliferous La Floresta Formation, of
Middle Devonian age, rests unconformably on it. In addition, dykes and granitoids intrude the metamorphic rocks
of the Santander Massif, and some KAr ages for these
bodies range between 457 and 413 Ma, as previously discussed. According to these dates, the ages of metamorphism of the Bucaramanga gneiss and Silgara Formation
are older than 460 Ma. With respect to the protholith, Cisotope stratigraphy obtained from some marbles of the
Silgara Formation indicates an EdiacaranEarly Cambrian
deposition of the original limestone (Silva et al., 2005);
therefore, a common age for metamorphism of the Bucaramanga gneiss and Silgara Formation is not possible, contrary to the point of view of Ward et al. (1973) and
Shafer et al. (1998). These authors propose that the age
of metamorphism is the same for both units, but the gneiss
simply represents the lower, more strongly metamorphosed
portion of a single volcanosedimentary sequence, whereas
the Silgara Formation represents the upper, less metamorphosed part.
In contrast, Toussaint (1993) considers the possibility of
an unconformity between the Bucaramanga gneiss and the
Silgara Formation, as well as a dierence in the metamorphic grade, which enables the separation between the two
units, with the gneiss Precambrian in age and the Silgara
Formation Early Paleozoic. Presently, the Early Paleozoic
age for the Silgara Formation is widely accepted by Colombian geologists, as rearmed recently by Ros et al. (2003).
4.3. Perija Formation
According to Forero (1970), this formation is composed
of a sequence of phyllites and metasandstones in which
some sedimentary structures are preserved. These rocks
represent the basement of the Serrana de Perija, one of
the branches of the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 2) for which

379

no absolute ages are available. Undeformed sediments with

Middle Devonian (390 Ma) fossils cover this sequence,
indicating that the metamorphism is pre-Devonian. Thus,
the rocks may be either Lower Paleozoic or represent the
northern continuity of the Precambrian metamorphic rocks
of the Santander Massif, metamorphosed at a lower grade.
4.4. Quetame Group
The Quetame Massif (Fig. 2) comprises a sequence of
low-grade metamorphic rocks that attain the biotite zone.
No absolute ages are available, but stratigraphic relationships show that they are pre-Devonian, because they are
covered by the undeformed fossiliferous sediments of the
Lutitas (shales) de Portachuelo Formation of lower Devonian age and the Areniscas (sandstones) de Gutierrez Formation of Middle to Upper Devonian age (Renzoni, 1962,
1968; Stibane, 1969).
These rocks also contain palynomorphs of Ludlovian
age (Groser and Prossl, 1991) and are the only rocks with
Silurian fossil material in Colombia. Therefore, the metamorphic event that aected the Quetame Group is
post-Ludlovian and pre-Middle Devonian, chronologically
correlated with the Caledonian orogeny (425390 Ma).
4.5. La Cristalina metasediments
Along the eastern ank of the Cordillera Central, in the
Puerto Berro area, a sequence of low-grade metamorphic
rocks is exposed (Feininger et al., 1972), covering the basement rocks represented by El Vapor mylonitic gneisses
(Fig. 2). These rocks, known as La Cristalina metasediments, include preserved fossil fauna that corresponds to
Lower Ordovician graptolites (Harrison, 1930; BoteroArango, 1940). Consequently, the age of metamorphism
is considered post-Lower Ordovician, though due to a lack
of geochronological data, regional correlations remain
uncertain.
4.6. El Hgado and Amoya formations
South of La Cristalina rocks and in faulted contact with
El Hgado Amphibolites (Fig. 2, N3), a sequence of shales,
sandstones, and limestone corresponds to El Hgado Formation (Mojica et al., 1987). The sedimentary structures
and substantial fossil fauna are preserved in this unmetamorphosed sequence, indicating Middle Ordovician
sedimentation.
North of the type section of El Hgado Formation,
another set of sedimentary rocks is known and may be correlated with it. These rocks were aected by low-grade
metamorphism and constitute the Amoya Formation
(Nunez et al., 1982).
Considering that these formations, together with La
Cristalina metasediments, are located in the eastern ank
of the Central Cordillera and contain Middle Ordovician
fossils, they might be interpreted as a sedimentary belt that

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O. Ordonez-Carmona et al. / Journal of South American Earth Sciences 21 (2006) 372382

covers the Grenvillian basement of the eastern ank of the

Central Cordillera. Subsequent to the sedimentation, part
of this belt was aected by a low-grade metamorphic event
that is more evident in the north (La Cristalina metasediments) and not detected in southern rocks (El Hgado Formation). This metamorphic event is post-Middle
Ordovician.
5. Geological evolution
The rocks of the Mitu migmatitic complex and Parguaza
granite are the oldest rocks dated in Colombia. They were
incorporated into the Amazonic Craton during the Rio
Negro-Juruena event. Although they crop out in limited
exposures at the limits with Venezuela and Brazil, they
probably form most of the basement of the Colombian
eastern atlands, in that they are covered by mostly Tertiary sediments.
For other Proterozoic rocks in Colombia, according to
the data reviewed previously, the presence of a Grenvillian
belt in the Colombian Andes, as proposed initially by
Kroonenberg (1982a), is generally conrmed. The highgrade metamorphic rocks of the Andaqu and Chibcha
terranes formed during this orogeny, though some dierences emerge between the rocks in the two terranes.
In the Andaqu terrane, the Garzon Massif underwent a
rst metamorphic event between approximately 1050 and
1015 Ma, with other ages in the range of 1000905 Ma,
which reects either cooling of the rocks or, more probably, a second metamorphism. Ages around 1100 Ma may
correspond to the intrusion of the granites. An important
characteristic of this terrane alone is that after the Grenville orogeny, the block remained attached to the Amazonic Craton, covered in the Sierra de la Macarena by
unmetamorphosed Cambrian sediments. In this way, during the Phanerozoic, it constituted part of the Autochtonous Block, though part of it was uplifted during the
Andean orogeny as a component of the Eastern Cordillera.
The other Grenvillian blocks, including the Santander
Massif, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Guajira Peninsula,
and eastern ank of the Central Cordillera, all grouped in
the Chibcha terrane, followed a dierent evolution. There
is no certitude that a continuous belt of Neoproterozoic
rocks links these massifs, in part because little is known
about the basement that underlies the thick sedimentary
basins that separate them. In all, there was a rst metamorphism between 1200 and 1100 Ma, followed by a second
one in the range 1000900 Ma. Little is known about the
evolution of these massifs between 900 and 500 Ma, but
during Early Paleozoic times, the region initially underwent
sedimentation followed by metamorphism and plutonism
(Quetame event), probably as a collision between Gondwana and eastern North America. The exact position of
these blocks at the moment is unknown. Several dierences
in tectonic styles, sedimentation, and the presence or
absence of metamorphism led Toussaint (1993) to propose
that the Chibcha terrane followed a dierent evolution

than that of the Autochtonous Block, at least until the Early Paleozoic. The Chibcha terrane probably was located
somewhere within the SilurianDevonian collision zone
but not connected to the Autochtonous Block in its present
position, being displaced, possibly by faults (Paleo-Guaicaramo fault), during the Late Paleozoic to its present location. Thus, the eastern part of the Colombian Andes
(Oriente Andino) was completely amalgamated to the
Amazonic Craton by the beginning of the Mesozoic.
Acknowledgments
This study was partially supported by the Institute of
Geosciences of the University of Braslia, Brazil, by
CNPq, the Brazilian Research Council, and the National
University of Colombia through DIME and DINAIN.
The authors thank the sta of the Geochronology Laboratory of the University of Brasilia and the National University (GEMMA Group) for logistic support during
eldwork. They also appreciate the concepts and corrections made by the reviewers, which were very relevant
to structure this article.
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