HSC Core Module 1: Production of Materials

1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substances

Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some fractions from the refining of
petroleum.

Petroleum Refining Recap.

Petroleum is a mixture of crude oil and natural gas. Crude oil is separated into fractions using the process of fractional
distillation. Each fraction contains a mixture of molecules that have a specified range of boiling points. The composition and
boiling ranges of the fractions vary between each oil field.
Boiling Range (C)
<30
30-125

Carbon atoms/chain
1-4
5-8

Name of Fraction
Refinery Gas
Gasoline (petrol fraction)

90-220

7-13

175-275

11-16

Gasoline (naphtha
fraction)
Kerosene

260-340

15-18

Diesel Oil

>350

16-40

>400

>40

Lubricating and fuel oils,

paraffin wax
Residue

Uses
Natural gas, bottled gas
Car fuel, petrochemical feedstock,
solvents
Cracking into smaller molecules to make
more petrol and alkanes
Home heating, aviation fuel, conversion
to petrol cracking
Furnace fuel, diesel engines, conversion
to petrol, cracking
Lubricants, clear waxes and polishes
Asphalt (bitumen road surfaces)

Light Fractions with lower boiling points rise higher in the fractionating column. Heaver fractions with higher boiling points
are
collected
from
lower
in
the
column.
Each fraction is composed of paraffins, naphthenes, and/or aromatics. The proportion however varies all over the world.
Paraffins is a common name for alkanes. I.e. they are hydrocarbon molecules with single covalent bonds between
neighbouring carbon atoms. They are examples of saturated hydrocarbons. They are also called alkanes. The alkanes are
predominantly straight chained although other types appear.
Naphthenes are ring-shaped, saturated molecules that are also called cycloalkanes or cyclcoparaffins. Their boiling points
are higher than that of their respective paraffin molecules.
Aromatic rings are based around benzene (see below):

A tip on Naming:
Select the longest unbranched chain. This is the main chain. Identify the number of carbon in the main chain and
select the appropriate naming stem (also look for any double/triple bonds)
-

Locate and identify any alkyl groups that branch from the main chain

Number the chain from an end so that the alkyl functional groups have the lowest set of location numbers (these
are called the locants).

Name the alkyl functional group using prefixes before the name of the main parent chain. Use locants to identify
their positions. When you have more than one alkyl group, name alphabetically.

Note: Alkenes are examples of unsaturated hydrocarbons as they have less than the number of hydrogen atoms per
molecule.

Hydrocarbon Cracking
The petrol that is derived from the gasoline fraction from crude oil is significantly insufficient to meet the need for fuel in the
world. Thus a proportion of the heavier fractions must be broken down into smaller hydrocarbon chains to produce sufficient
quantities of petrol to supply the increasing number of vehicles.
Many of the smaller molecules that were formed by the cracking process are branched-chain hydrocarbon, and these types
of molecules are better fuels than straight chin molecules because they cause less engine pinging as they combust
Long-chain hydrocarbons can be broken down into smaller chains by a process called cracking. Thermal cracking and
catalytic cracking are two procedures that are commonly used. Ethylene (ethene) is one of the important products of the
cracking process.
Thermal Cracking:
Thermal Cracking of Naphtha
Thermal (or steam) cracking is common used at the Orica petrochemical plant in Sydney. It provides a high yield of
ethylene. Long pyrolysis coils are used to heat the hydrocarbon feedstocks and steam to about 750-900 degrees celcius
inside the furnace. Furnaces can contain up to 100 coils that are 80m in length.
There are three main steps: Initiation, propagation and termination.
Initiation: Free radicals are produced when the hydrocarbon chains are split into fragments at high temperatures. These
radicals are reactive, as they have an unpaired electron.
Propagation: The free radicals decompose to produce smaller free radicals and release alkenes such as ethylene.
Termination: Hydrocarbon molecules can reform when free radicals react with other free radicals. These hydrocarbons can
be recycled for further cracking.

Thermal Cracking of Ethane:

Ethylene can also be produced by the cracking of Ethane (C2H6). The vast oil and gas fields of the Cooper Basin in the
central Australian desert supply the liquefied natural gas (LNG) from which ethane (about 9%) is extracted.
Ethan can be cracked at 850 degrees celcius to from ethylene and hydrogen. The mixture is rapidly cooled after the cracking
so that the products are not reformed. If the products are allowed to stay too long at high temperatures, they decompose to
from carbon. The steam is generated for this process using the waste heat.
Chemical Eqn:

This reaction is endothermic. Thus higher yields of ethylene are favoured by higher temperatures.
Some safety issues:
Fire is a major risk. There is a potential for leaks of flammable hydrocarbon vapours from this closed process.
Stem build up has the potential to cause explosions if the structural integrity of the equipment is not continuously
monitored and maintained.
Some hazardous gases (such as carbon monoxide and dihydrogen sulfide) are produced and ventilation is essential
to avoid poisoning if leaks do occur.
Catalytic Cracking:
In modern society the demand for petrol is very high. This demand is not met by fractional distillation of crude oil alone. To
boost the supplies of petrol, very long-chain hydrocarbons (C25-C100) are cracked into smaller chains using catalytic
cracking.
The heavy crude oil is heated in the presence of a catalyst composed of zeolite (an aluminium silicate FIND FORMULA).
The many cavities and channels inside the porous catalyst provide a high internal surface area for the reaction. The lower
temperature can then be used and this produces considerable savings in energy. Hydrogen atoms are removed from the
hydrocarbons into the catalysts surface. The positive hydrocarbon ion that forms undergoes further reactions leading to the
formation of the final products.
Catalytic cracking can also yield small molecules such as ethylene or propene. These hydrocarbons can be recovered and
used by the petrochemical industry.
For example:

Identify that ethylene (ethene), because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into
many useful products.
Alkanes and alkenes are non-polar molecules. They are insoluble in water, but soluble in many other non-polar solvents
such as benzene, turpentine and kerosene.
Alkanes are commonly called paraffins because of their relative unreactive towards common chemical reagents. In order to
make alkanes react with reactive molecules such as chlorine, UV light is used to produce reactive free radicals.
Alkenes are often called olefins due to their oily nature compared to alkanes. Alkenes are more reactive molecules due to
the high electron density of the double bond. Electronegative elements (such as chlorine) are attracted to the double bond
and electrons are transferred as they react.
Alkenes commonly react with molecules such as chlorine, bromine, and water by a process called addition. Addition is a
chemical reaction in which a small molecule adds across a double or triple bond of a hydrocarbon molecule. When a
hydrogen gas reacts with an alkene in the presence of a suitable catalyst (such as nickel) the process is known as
hydrogenation. Hydrogenation is an addition reaction in which hydrogen molecules add onto an unsaturated molecule.

Hydrogenation is an important reaction in the food industry where the proportion of double bonds to single bonds can be
changed by reaction with hydrogen. In this way liquid fats can be transformed into more-solid fats.

Hydration
Alkenes will react when heated with water in the presence of a suitable acid catalyst such as phosphoric or sulfuric acid. The
O-H bond of the water breaks and an H atom along with the OH group add across the double bond, causing it to break. This
results in alkanol and no more double bond.

Bromination
When an alkene is mixed with a solution of bromine in an organic solvent (like chloroform), the bromine molecule reacts
with the double bond and the bromine atoms add across the double bond. The final product is called a dibromoalkane.
Note: Decolourisation of the bromine solution indicates that the addition reaction has occurred. Where the decolourisation is
of bromine is used to test for the presence of unsaturation in hydrocarbons, it is important to exclude UV light as this will
promote a substitution reaction with alkanes, causing the bromine solution to decolourise.
Substitution reaction is a reaction in which hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon are replaced by other atoms.

Further Reactions of Alkenes (ethylene)

Addition Reactions
1)

Hydrohalogenation

In this type of addition reaction, a hydrogen halide (eg. HF, HCl, etc.) is reacted with an alkene. The addition product is a
haloalkene.
Eg.

The product formed is chloroethane, which can be used as a solvent, as a refrigerant or as an ethylating agent in other
reactions.
2)

Production of Ethanol

Ethylene reacts with water vapour at 300C under high pressure and in the presence of phosphoric acid catalyst in order to
produce ethanol. This is the common method of preparing ethanol industrially, although the fermentation of sugar is also a
common method.

Ethanol is an important solvent used in toiletries, cosmetics, detergents, disinfectants and flavourings.
Oxidation Reactions
1) Production of Vinyl Chloride.
Ethylene will react with chlorine in the presence of oxygen to form vinyl chloride (chloroethene). The reaction is performed
at 150C over a copper (II) chloride catalyst. The vinyl chloride that is formed is the monomer that is used to make the
plastic known as PVC (polyvinyl chloride).

2) Production of ethylene oxide

Ethylene oxide is an intermediate in the production of other important petrochemicals such as antifreeze and polyesters
used in fibres. Ethylene is oxidised at 250C in the presence of silver catalyst to form ethylene oxide.

The ethylene oxide can be converted into antifreeze (ethylene glycol), by reacting it with acidified water.

Ethylene glycol is widely used in the manufacture of condensation of polymers.

Alkylation
1)

Production of Styrene

Ethylene reacts with benzene (C6H6) to produce ethylbenzene. The reaction requires an aluminium catalyst at high
temperatures and pressures (100C / 0.1 MPA). The product then undergoes catalytic dehydrogenation in the presence of
sulfur to produce styrene. The styrene formed is used as the monomer for the production of polystyrene.

Ethylene and Petrochemicals

- Ethylene occurs in nature it is a colourless and sweet smelling gas, that is a plant hormone.
- Ethylene is flammable and has low solubility in water.
- Its melting point is -169 and boiling point is -104
-

It is manufactured from various hydrocarbon fractions produced by the frac. distillation of oil.
Naphtha and LPG are the two fractions which are cracked to produce ethylene
More than half the worlds ethylene is made from the cracking of naphtha.
Ethylene and other products made from frac. distillation of crude oil are petrochemicals.

The high reactivity of the double bond in ethylene is responsible for the cast variety of products that can be made from it.
Process
Polymerisation
Oxidation
Halogenation
Alkylation
Hydration

Products
Polyethylene
Ethylene glycol, polyvinyl acetate
Ethyl Bromide, polyvinyl chloride
Polystyrene
Ethanol

Uses
Film, sheeting, pipes.
Antifreeze, adhesives, paints
Solvents, refrigerants, pipes, insulations
Packaging, insulation
Solvents, antiseptics, fuel

Extra Information:
Ethylene and Society
1) Early Methods of Ethylene Production
The seventeenth century scientist Becher prepared impure ethylene from alcohol (ethanol) by dehydrating it with
concentrated sulfuric acid. Later it was discovered that ethylene could also be produced by passing ethanol vapour over red
hot clay. It was shown that heated silica (SiO2) or heated alumina (Al2O3) also dehydrated ethanol to produce ethylene.

2)

Ethylene and the sugar industry

Until 1966, ethanol was solely produced through fermentation of molasses. One method of dehydrating ethanol is to react it
with concentrated sulfuric acid. Ethylene is still produced by ethanol dehydration, where ethanol vapour is passed over a bed
of alumina and phosphoric acid in a reactor. The reaction occurs in two steps, where an intermediate ether forms:

This process has a typical ethylene yield of 94%

3)

Ethylene and the coke ovens

When coal is heated in the absence of air various volatile materials including ethylene are produced. About 2% of the coke
oven gas is ethylene. It is extracted through liquefaction which was important prior to WWII.
4)

Ethylene from coal

A mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas is known as synthesis gas. It can be made by heating coal with steam and
air. After purification, synthesis gas can be converted at certain conditions of temperature and pressure to a mixture
hydrocarbons, including ethylene, by passing the gas over different catalysts.
Environmental issues in Ethylene production
The main issues to be considered in the production of ethylene are:
-

reducing the use of fossil fuels and the associated release of greenhouse gases. This can be achieved by cracking
ethane from LPG rather than cracking naphtha.

Reducing water usage (used for heating or cooling) by recycling.

Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made.
In the last 50 years there has been a rapid increase in the production and use of ethylene. This increase has been largely
due to the production of polyethylene (polyethane). About 60% of out ethylene production is directed towards the
production of polymers.
Polymers are long-chain molecules composed of repeating sub-units called monomers. Polymers are sometimes called
macromolecules as they can have very large molar weights.
Ethylene and propylene are common monomers. The figure below shows a section of a polymer chain of polyethylene
derived from the ethylene movement. During the reaction the double bond of the monomer is broken in order to form the
polymeric chain.

Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term.
Polyethylene is one member of a class of monomers known as addition polymers. The production of these polymers involves
alkene monomers reacting together via addition reaction.
An addition polymer is a polymer made of a long chain macromolecule composed of repeating subunits called monomers.
Addition polymerisation is achieved in two ways. One method involves the use of initiator molecules; the other uses catalytic
surfaces. Polyethylene is produced by both methods.
Synthetic polymers are commonly referred to as plastics. The word plastic literally means pliable or able to be moulded.
This ability to be moulded is not shared by all polymers.

Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially important
polymer.
Monomers do not start to from polymers unless a molecule called an initiator is added. The initiator molecule is decomposed
(by laser light or heat) to form reactive free radicals. The role of the free radical initiator is to combine with and break the
C=C (double bond) to from a reactive (or activated) monomer free radical. The monomer free radicals then combine with
alkene monomers via an addition reaction to form a dimer radical. This addition process continues and the polymer chain
grows longer. To stop the reaction, an inhibitor is often added to halt the formation of radicals. This can be done at any time
so the size and molecular weights of polymer chains can be controlled to some degree.
Note: A Dimer is two monomers that have bonded together.

Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is produced in this way. The figure in the next page shows how the presence of
radicals leads to the formation of the polymer chain in the production of LDPE. This process occurs at a high pressure (1003000 MPa) and a moderately high temperature (300C).
The steps go as follows:
Step 1: A peroxide initiator such as benzoyl peroxide is used. The peroxide is heated to produce peroxide free radicals.
Let R = benzoyl group or another suitable chain.
R-O-O-R

2R-O

Step 2: Activated monomers form as the peroxide free radicals combine with some monomers. This is called activation.
R-O + CH2=CH2

R-O-CH2-CH2

Step 3: Activated monomers react with more ethylene monomers to increase the chain length. This is called propagation
R-O-CH2-CH2 + CH2=CH2

R-O-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2

Some branching of the polymer chain occurs, as during chain growth the radical end often curls back or bites back on part
of the existing chain and removes a hydrogen atom resulting in an unpaired electron within the chain rather an the end.
See dot point below.
Step 4: The process of chain growth terminates when the free radicals (of variable chain length) combine to form nonactivated species.
R-O-CH2-CH2
OR

R-O-CH2-CH2 +

+ R-O-CH2-CH2

R-O-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2

R-O-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2O-R
R-O-CH2-CH3 + R-O-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2

analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits or
multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process

Polymerisation using a surface catalyst

Various compounds can act as a surface catalyst in the production of addition polymers.
A commercial low pressure process to produce high density polymers (HDPE) was developed by Karl Zeigler to produce
HDPE. Ziegler discovered that that a HDPE could be readily manufactures by passing ethylene gas through liquid alkane
solution (at 60C) which contained tiny amount of titanium chloride and triethyl aluminium chloride, which acted as catalysts.
This meant that they could manufacture polymers that had molar weights of 3million grams per mole.
Metallocene catalysts are gradually replacing the Ziegler-Natta catalysts in modern plants. These catalysts consist of
zirconium or titanium atoms bonded to chloride and two cyclopentadienyl rings. Metallocene catalysts have only one active
site on the catalyst surface. The monomers link to the growing chain at this site. Consequently, linear chains of polyethylene
of similar length can be formed. Greater control of polymerisation process and improved quality of product are therefore
major reasons for the shift to Metallocene catalysts.

identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

vinyl chloride
styrene

by both their systematic and common names

Monomer

Polymer

Uses

Chloroethene, Chloroethylene,
Or commonly known as Vinyl Chloride.

Polyvinyl Chloride
(PVC)

Soft furnishing, credit cards, guttering and pipes, floor tiles

and flexible tubing.

Phenylethene or ethenyl benzene or

Vinyl benzene or commonly Styrene

Polystyrene (PS)

CD and cassette tape containers, plastic drinking glasses,

packaging material and insulation.

Many commercial polymers are made by addition polymerisation. Many of them are also thermoplastics. This means that
they can be heated then moulded and then reheated and moulded again. As the polymer is heated, the dispersion forces
between the chains begin to break down and the polymer softens in order to form a viscous, moudable substance. The
crystalline regions of the polymer melt at a higher temperature than that of the amorphous regions.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Vinyl chloride monomers are used to manufacture PVC. PVC chains vary in length (400 4000 monomers). PVC can be used
to package fatty and oily foods as it is moderately resistant to chemical attack. Caustic chemicals however may attack PVC.
PVC is a hard, inflexible and brittle polymer. The presence of large chlorine atoms along the chain increases the polymers
stiffness. Additions of certain compounds can enhance the polymers properties.
Eg 1) Softer PVC can be produced by adding a plasticiser. The plasticiser decreases the dispersion forces between the
polymer chains and thus it becomes more flexible.
Eg 2) PVC will break down in UV light. Thus outdoor PVC contains a UV absorber which prevents the decomposition of PVC
when it is exposed to sunlight
Eg 3) PVC will decompose in temperatures above 80C since the dispersion forces will be completely broken. Adding heat
stabilizer will improve the heat resistance of PVC allowing it to be used for hot water pipes.
Eg 4) Just like all plastics, PVC is flammable however adding a flame retardant chemical reduces its flammability.
Polystyrene
The monomer Phenylethene (or styrene) is used to manufacture the addition polymer called polystyrene. Two major types
of polystyrene that are commercially manufactured: Crystal polystyrene and expanded polystyrene.
Crystal Polystyrene
This is a clear amorphous polymer that exhibits high stiffness and good electrical insulation properties. The stiffness results
from the presence of the large benzene rings that are attached along the polymer chains. This high stiffness makes the
polymer suitable for rigid items like car battery cases and handles for tools.
Crystal Polystyrene is brittle but the addition of up to 10% butadiene monomer produces an opaque polymer that is more
impact resistant. Polystyrene is most widely used plastic for heat-pressed food packaging, because it is tough, rigid, cheap
and stable towards most chemicals.
It also has a high refractive index and this makes it suitable for containers such as drinking glasses or CD cases.
Furthermore is also has a low softening temperature (94C) thus it is used in medical fields for disposable items (also
because it cannot b sterilized by autoclaving where it is subjected to extreme temperatures).
Expanded Polystyrene.
Expanded polystyrene (Styrofoam) is white and has good heat and sound insulation properties. It can be produced by
blowing gases through molten polystyrene and then allowing it to cool. Expanded polystyrene is used as a protective layer in
packaging. Rigid polystyrene foam is an important product in protective packaging, which accounts for up to 15% of its use.
Polystyrene burns incompletely in air which a hot smoky flame.

Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties

The conditions of the polymerisation process lead to changes in the properties of the polymer. Polyethylene polymers are
chemically unreactive. They are also electrical insulators. Some polymer chains are linear while others are branched or cross
linked.
Linear polymer chains
Linear polymer chains can pack closely together, and the dispersion forces between chains hold the chains tightly. This
results in polymers that are quite rigid. High density polyethylene (HDPE) is an example of a linear polymer with very little
side branching. These polymers have crystalline regions where the molecules are uniformly arranged. The greater the
proportion of the crystalline regions, the greater the strength of the polymer. About 80-95% of HDPE consists of crystalline
regions that extensively scatter and refract right, so that the polymer appears translucent or white. The non-crystalline
regions are said to be amorphous (lacking unity).
HDPE has a typical melting point of 135C and is tough, thus it is used to make durable items like bowls, buckets, agricultural
pipes, and petrol tanks.
Branched Polymer Chains
In some polymers, small chains branch off the main chain. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) is one example. The branches
can vary in length and the branching causes a disruption in the packing of the polymer chains in the lattice. Due to this
there are fewer crystalline regions present in such polymers. About 40-55% of LDPE has these crystalline regions. Thus this
makes them softer and more flexible than HDPE (since there are weaker dispersion forces between the chains).
Furthermore, LDPE is more transparent since there is less refraction/scattering of light that passes through the solid. Due to
weaker dispersion forces, the melting points of LDPE are reduced to around 80C.
LDPE is commonly used to make plastic bags, electrical insulation, cling wrap, and drink containers.
Cross Linked polymer chains
Some polymer chains are interconnected by covalent bonds. These polymers are said to be cross-linked. Cross linking
significantly enhances the rigidity and strength of a polymer. The melting point rises as the extent of cross-linking increases.
Polymers that are used in adhesives and laminates tend to be cross-linked. The very tough plastic in the caps of soft drink
bottles is made from CLPE (cross linked polyethylene).

Extra Information: From Conquering Chemistry HSC Course Roland Smith

Laboratory Test for alkenes
Reaction with bromine is often used in the laboratory to distinguish between alkenes and alkanes. The
bromine can be used as a solvent or in aqueous form. In either case, drops of the bromine solution are added
to colourless sample to be tested with gentle shaking. If the sample decolourises the bromine solution, the
sample is an alkene; if the same takes on the brown colour of the bromine, it is an alkane.
Note: The test must be performed in subdued light because in the presence of ultraviolet light alkanes will
slowly react with the bromine.
Example:
2-pentene will decolourises drops of a solution of bromine in hexachloroethane, the reaction being:

Pentane will not decolourises the solution.

Relating properties and Uses to Structure:

As with all compounds, the properties of polymers are affected by their structure. Important structural
features for addition polymers are:
Average molecular weight (or chain length)
Crystallinity (extent of chain branching)
Chain stiffening
Cross-linking
Average Molecular Weight
The average molecular weight of a polymer reflects the number of monomer units that combine to make one
polymer molecule. For any given type of polymer, the longer the polymer chain (higher the molecular weight)
and the smaller the spread of molecular weights, then the higher the melting point and the harder the
substance is.
Chain Branching
If long unbranched chains are able to be formed, then these chains are able to intertwine and align closely.
This leads to an orderly arrangement; the substance is crystalline. A high degree of Crystallinity leads to high
density, a high melting point and a relatively hard and tough material. On the other hand, if there is significant
chain branching, thus there is minimal orderly arrangement so the material is non crystalline or amorphous.
This leads to low density, low mp, greater flexibility and softness.
Chain Stiffening
Chain stiffening of an addition polymer involves putting a bigger side-group into the linear chain to reduce
its flexibility. When a bigger side chain is added, for example a benzene ring, the ability of the chain to move
around greatly reduces. The material becomes stiffer and much more rigid. PVC without additives

(plasticisers) to soften it is quite rigid. Polystyrene, which contains a benzene ring, is a hard plastic.
Polyethylene can never be as hard or as rigid as the above two polymers as it lacks chain stiffening.
Note: When polystyrene is formed with gas being blown through it, it forms soft beads or foam. The softness
however, is due to the gas trapped inside the beads, not to the polymer itself.

Cross linking
The rigidity or hardness of a polymer can be increased by what is called cross-linking. This is a process in
which two or more linear chains are joined together to form a more extended two-dimensional network.

Solubility of Addition Polymers

None of the polymers mentioned above contain the OH groups or exposed O atoms and so these polymers
cannot form hydrogen bonds with water. Although some of them contain polar C-Cl or C-(3)-N, there are many
more non-polar bonds. Consequently these polymers are quite insoluble in water and are generally
hydrophobic which means that they are not easily wetted by water.
Stability of Addition Polymers
Most of the bonds in these polymers are strong C-C and C-H bonds and so these molecules are fairly stable.
Polytetraflouroethene has C-F bonds which are much stronger and than C-H bonds. This makes the polymer
the most stable of those discussed so far. On the other hand, PVC has C-Cl bonds which are weaker than C-H
bonds and thus PVC is vulnerable to attack by UV light.

Uses of Polyethylene, PVC and Polystyrene

Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
Soft and Flexible Due to extensive chain branching, lack of stiffening side groups, lack of cross-linking
Therefore suitable for wrapping materials, disposable shopping bags, milk bottles, flexible toys etc.
High Density Polyethylene
Hard, Strong + High Mp / Bp Due to: No chain branching (therefore the molecules can pack closely together
in an orderly fashion, which results in the polymer being harder and stronger + high mp / bp.
Fairly Hard and Brittle But the absence of chain stiffening and cross linking limits this.
Widely used to make kitchen utensils and containers, tougher carry bags, more rigid toys, bins, pipes for
transporting natural gas.
Uses of PVC
Has a side chain Cl group which results in significant chain stiffening and with its polar C-Cl bonds it produces
quite strong intermolecular forces, and thus is a hard inflexible polymer.
C-Cl bonds can be decomposed in U.V light, thus when used outdoors, an inhibitor is need to absorb the u.v.
Rigidity can be adjusted with the addition of non-volatile plastics
PVC is quite softy and can be used for electrical insulation and garden hoses
PVC is also the common insulation on electrical wiring.
More rigid formulations are used for many household items, for drainage and sewage pipes, household
guttering and increasingly for window frames
Polystyrene
Has a large phenyl side group and is the most stiffened of the common plastics very hard + rigid.
Stable to heat and U.V. light as it has only C-C or C-H bonds.
Minimal chain branching thus it is very crystalline can be formed into transparent objects.
Widely used for tool handles, car battery cases, modern furniture, CD cases, clear disposable drink glasses.
Despite its hardness, polystyrene is used to make drink cups, bean bag filler and foam. These uses arise
because if gas is bubbled through the styrene mixture as it is polymerizing, a very light weight foam is formed
which solidifies as a very spongy material. The sponginess arises from the gas bubbles that are trapped inside
the polymerized material. It is the compressibility of the gas that gives polystyrene foam its softness and
lightness; the actual polystyrene is still quite hard.