Introduction To Organic Chemistry

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
A set of organic compounds with similar chemical properties, with a general formula and
showing a gradation in physical properties as a result of increase in the size of mass of the
molecule.
The formula of each member differs from the previous one by an extra CH2 group of atom.

Members in Homologous Series have:

Same chemical reactions
Same general formula
Same functional group (OH COOH)
Different physical property ( difference in Carbon atom, Melting point and Boiling
point)

Why higher Boiling Point:

As the number of Carbon atoms increases, the intermolecular forces of attraction also
increases, hence the more difficult it gets to break the molecules apart. (More heat
energy is needed)

FUNCTIONAL GROUP:
An atom or group of atoms which give the molecule its characteristics properties. E.g. (C-C)

Fractional Distillation Of Crude Oil:

Petroleum which is a non renewable energy is a mixture of different organic
compounds present in depth of soil or sea.
Fractional Distillation is used to separate crude oil into its components.
Petroleum Column is 300 m in length, therefore more efficient.

Uses of Petroleum Fractions:

Refinery Gas Used as a fuel for cooking, heating portable
Gasoline/ Petrol Fuel for car
Naphtha Used in Petrochemical Industry, production of plastic and detergents
Kerosene / Paraffin Jet fuel
Diesel Oil / Gas oil Diesel engines
Lubricating Oil Lubricating oils , waxes and polishes
Bitumen / Asphalt Paving road surfaces, waterproofing material

Moving Up The Group Increase in:

Volatility
Ease of Ignition

Moving Down The Group Increase in:
Boiling point
Viscosity
Carbon atoms in molecule

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ALKANES:
Alkanes are a group of Hydro Carbons having C C single bonds.
General Formula ( Cn H2n + 2 )
Functional Formula ( C C )

As boiling point of alkanes till Butane are below 0, therefore they are in gaseous form when
at Room Temperature. On the other hand alkanes after Pentane are in liquid form at Room
Temperature.

Structural Properties:
General Formula Cn H2n + 2
Saturated Single Covalent Bonds C C

Physical Properties:
Insoluble in Water (H20)
As the number of Carbons increases going down the group :
Mass, Density, Melting Point, Boiling Point increases.
More Viscosity ( Self hindrance offered by liquid towards its flow)
Less flammable

Chemical Properties:
They do not react with most of the chemicals as they are saturated, having only C-C
and C- H single bonds.
They do however undergo combustion and react with chlorine in the presence of
sunlight.

Combustion Reaction:
Complete Combustion:
Alkanes burn in the presence of sufficient supply of Oxygen is called complete combustion
production.
Hydrocarbons on complete combustion produce Carbon dioxide (CO2) and Water (H2O).
E.g.
1) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
2) C3H8 +5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

Incomplete Combustion:
Burning in the presence of insufficient supply of Oxygen gas is called in-complete
combustion.
Hydro Carbons on incomplete combustion produce Carbon Monoxide and Water.

CH4 + 3O2 CO + 4H2O

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Substitution With Chlorine:
A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one or more atoms of an organic compound
are replaced with one or more other atoms.
This reaction can keep on happening (stepwise) until all the hydrogen atoms in the
hydrocarbons have been replaced by a halogen (group 7 elements).
The product produced after this reaction would be known as Halogenoalkanes.
HCl is also the product
Reaction speed depends upon the reactivity of the Halogen
Reactivity of Halogen decreases down the reactivity.
Ultra Violet radiation is providing heat energy to start up this reaction.
Light (sunlight) is needed, to break the covalent bonds between chlorine molecule
atoms.

Cracking Of A Big Alkane Molecule:

Cracking is a reaction, in which bigger Alkane/ H molecules are broken into smaller
molecules. `
The longer chain Alkanes are converted into smaller chain Alkanes, Alkenes and
Hydrogen .
The product formed after the reaction, can have only Alkane or mixture of Alkane,
Alkenes and H2.
Number of Carbons Remain Same, In Reactants And Products.
Temperature requires is 600 c
Alumina Al2O3 and Silica SiO2 are used as catalyst.
E.g.

Uses of Cracking:
To produce alkanes and alkenes and Hydrogen.
To breakup large hydrogen carbon molecules into smaller ones to produce fuel for
motor vehicles.
Ethene is produced, It is useful in production of Ethanol and Plastic (Polyethene).

Isomerism:
Isomers are organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.
Due to difference in chain length (structural properties), they have different physical
properties (e.g. Boiling point, Melting point)
They can occur in both Alkanes and Alkenes
As the # of Carbon atoms increases, the number of isomers also increases.
As they have same molecular formula, therefore their percentage composition by
mass remains the same.

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 Isomerism is used in the petroleum industry e.g. car

ALKENES:
Alkenes are a group of hydrocarbons, with a C=C double bond, as not all Carbon atoms are
bonded to the maximum number of 4 other atoms.
General Formula: ( Cn H2n )
Functional Formula: ( C = C )
All alkenes name ends with ene.
They are Unsaturated hydrocartbons
Each member of the alkene differs from the next by a CH2

Note: As you go down the group, the mass and boiling point increases.

Branched And Unbranched Alkenes ( Isomerism in Alkenes):

They have the same molecular formula C4H8, but have different structural formula.
Butene is a straight-chain unsaturated hydrocarbon while methylpropene is a
branched-chain, unsaturated hydrocarbon.
Butene and methylpropene have different melting and boiling point.

Isomerism for Alkenes:

Isomers can be created in Alkenes by changing the direction of Carbon atoms or by changing
the position of Carbon Carbon double bonds (C=C).

Preperation Of Alkenes ( Cracking):

Alkenes are created by the cracking of heavier fractions of petroleum.
High temperature and pressures are needed to break up the large molecules.
The two catalyst used are Alumina Al2O3 and Silica SiO2 are used.
Note: More details about this topic is given in the Alkanes.

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Saturated:
These are those hydro carbons, that have Carbon-Carbon single bond (C-C)
In these the combining capacity of the carbon atoms is fully used as possible in bonding with
Hydrogen atoms
Note: that Carbon double bond with Oxygen doesnt make them unsaturated.

Unsaturated:
These are those hydro carbons, that have Carbon-Carbon double bond (C=C).
In these the combining capacity of the Carbon atoms is not fully used e.g 2 or 3 Hydrogens
are attracted to a one single Carbon atom.

Test for detecting unsaturated HydroCarbons:

Add liquid Bromine or Bromine water ( reddish brown).
If a C=C bond is present, an addition reaction takes place and the colour will be discharged.
However, in saturated compounds ( where C-C bond is present) Bromine colour will remain
same.

Combustion:
All Alkenes will have more Carbon content, then their respective Alkane. Hence they would
be needing more Oxygen for combustion.
Thus there is more chances of incomplete combustion.

Complete combustion of Alkenes (Excess supply of O2):

Alkene + O2 CO2 + H2O
Incomplete combustion of Alkenes (limited supply of O 2)
Alkene + O2 CO + H2O

Addition Of Hydrogen / Hydrogenation:

Alkenes react with Hydrogen to form Alkanes.
Alkane + H2 Alkane
Catalyst used are Platinum (Pt), Rubidium(Rn) and Nickel( Ni)
Temperature required is 200C.

E.g.
As Alkene is turned into Alkane, Hydrogenation is used, to change vegetable oil, into
Margarine.

Vegetable oil contains unsaturated fats with many C=C bonds, therefore it can be hardened
to form margarine, the greater the Hydrogen used, the more solid(harder), the margarine
becomes.

Note: Butter higher degree of saturation (C-C bonds)

Oil higher degree of un saturation (C=C bonds) liquid bromine can be added to
test oil, colour will change.

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Addition Of Water (H2O)/ Hydration:
Alkenes react with steam, to produce Alcohols during hydration process.
Alkenes + H2O Alcohol
In this process, steam is added onto C=C Bonds in Alkene.
Catalyst used are Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)
Temperature required is 300C
Pressure 60 atm
E.g.
C2H4 + H20 C2H5OH

Hence, hydration is used to covert Ethene into Ethanol and Propene into Propanol.

Halogenation:
Halogenation is used, to convert Alkene to Alkane
Halogen (group 7 elements) is added across the double bonds of Alkene to covert the C=C to
C-C.

Note: In substitution reaction in Alkanes, Halogens were added in a step wise reaction,
where as in case of Alkenes, Halogens are added up at once.

Polymerization:
Alkene molecules undergo an addition reaction, where they add on to each other to form
addition Polymers. Therefore, in this reaction Alkene molecules are used as Monomers, to
form addition Polymers.
Alkene molecules monomers
Long chained compound formed polymers
Reaction polymerization
E.g. Ethene is polymerized to form Poly(ethane) or Polythene.

Polyethene is used to make plastic films, plastic bags and drinking bottles.

Detection Of Alkenes:
Alkenes can be detected by using cold aqueous Potassium Manganate(VII).
The purple colour of the Potassium Manganate(VII) is discharged, leaving behind a brown
precipitate of Manganes (IV) Oxide MnO2 .
The Manganate(VII) ions are reduced to Manganese (IV) Ions.

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Difference Between Alkenes And Alkanes:
Similarities:
Both are compounds that only contain Carbon and Hydrogen in them.
Both are flammable
Form CO2 + H2O during complete combustion.

Differences:
Molecular structure:
Alkanes C-C bonds
Alkenes C=C bonds
Reactivity:
Alkanes are mostly unreactive.
Alkenes are more reactive than the Alkanes
Reaction with Bromine:
Liquid Bromine when added to Alkane will not change its colour.
Liquid Bromine when added to Alkene will change its colour due to the
presence of C=C bonds.
During Combustion Alkenes produce a much smokier flame then Alkanes.

FATS AND OILS:

Fats: Oils:
These are saturated fat molecules. These are un saturated fat molecules.
(Solid at room temperature). (Liquid at room temperature).

Poly unsaturated:
These are those fats and oils whose hydrocarbon chains contain more than one C=C Bonds
in their structure.

ALCOHOLS:
Alcohols are a series of compounds with a hydroxyl group (-OH) joined to a carbon atom in a
hydrocarbon chain.
General Formula: ( Cn H2n + 1 OH)
Functional Group: (OH)

Note: The above mentioned Alcohols are all in Liquid state at room temperature as their
boiling point > room temperature. Also moving down the group, the mass and boiling points
of Alcohols increases. Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids are not Hydrocarbons as they contain
Oxygen atoms in their compounds.

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Physical Properties:
Alcohols are soluble in water(H2O).
Alcohols have OH in them but they are not Alkalis.
Alcohols are more reactive than Alkanes and Alkenes, as they have more electronic
density, and presence of hydroxyl (-O-H) and carboxyl group (-C-O) as shown below.

Combustion:
Alcohol requires less Oxygen for combustion, as Oxygen is a part of it.
Complete Combustion:
Alcohol + O2 CO + H2O
C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
Incomplete Combustion:
Alcohol + O2 CO + Carbon Soot
This reaction, is highly exothermic, thus alcohols are used as fuels.

Oxidation:
Oxidation is gain of Oxygen and loss of Hydrogen.
Alcohols upon oxidation will form Carboxylic Acids + H2O
In the presence of acidified Potassium Dichromate (H2SO4 & K2Cr2O7) an oxidizing agent.

Hence:
Ethanol will become Ethanoic Acid and Propanol will become Propanoic Acid.
In this oxidation process, we can use either:
Atmospheric Oxygen
Acidified Potassium Dichromate , which changes its color from Orange to Green.
Purple acidified Potassium Manganate (VII) which is decolorized(K2Cr2O7 MNO4)

Preperation Of Alcohol:
There are two methods to obtain alcohol:
Hydration Of Alkene (Lab Method)
Fermentation (Industrial Method)

Hydration of Alkene (Lab Method):

In this method, steam is added to Alkene, to convert it to Alcohol.
Conditions:
Catalyst Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)
Temperature 300 C
Hydration of Alkene, is actually adding water (H2O) across the two double bonds Carbon of
Alkenes

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Fermentation (Industrial Method):
Fermentation is a process whereby an enzyme is used to break down glucose in sugar or
starch into ethanol and CO2 gas.
Fermentation is catalyzed by the enzymes present in yeast.

Conditions:
Temperature 37C (25 40C)
Temperature too high would destroy the yeast and temperature too low would
result in yeast becoming dormant.
Catalyst/ Biological Catalyst Yeast (enzyme)
No Oxygen should enter the setup. As Oxygen can react with Alcohol to convert it
into Carboxylic Acid.
CO2 test (limewater turns milky ) to check the alcohol preparation.
Alcohol can be separated after the process is completed, through fractional
distillation, by using their respective boiling point.

Uses Of Alcohol:
There are different uses of Alcohols such as:
Alcohol can be used as a constituent of alcohol beverages.
As a solvent for detergents, perfumes and in medicines.
As a fuel.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS:
Carboxylic Acids are homogenous Series/ organic compounds containing the (CO2H) group.

General Formula: CnH2n + 1 COOH

Functional Group:

Carboxylic Acids are not Hydrocarbons, as they contain Oxygen in their Compounds. Hydro
carbons are those organic compounds containing only Hydrogen and Carbon.

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Properties Of Carboxyic Acids:
All of them are 100% soluble in water.
Chemical reaction of Carboxylic Acids are dependent upon C = O (Carboxyl) and H =
O (Hydroxyl).
They are weak acids (partially ionizes in water).
i.e. weaker than inorganic acids inorganic compounds completely ionize hence more
reactive than carboxylic acids.

In Organic Acid:

Organic Acid:

Carboxylic Acids are partially ionized, to give Hydrogen ions in H2

They disassociate only partially in water to form hydrogen ions.

Reactions With Metals:

Carboxylic Acid + Metal Metal Salt + Hydrogen
Ethanoic Acid + Metal Magnesium Ethanoate + H2
2CH3COOH + Mg (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
2HCOOH + Ca (HCOO)2Ca + H2
Reactions With Carbonates + Bi Carbonates:
Carboxylic Acid + Metal Carbonates Salt + CO2 + H2O
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CHCOONa + CO2 + H2O

Reactions With Basis:

Carboxylic Acid + Base Salt + H2O
2CH3COOH + CaO (CH3COO)2Ca + H2O
HCOOH + KOH HCOOK + H2O

Production Of Ethanoic Acid (Carboxylic Acid):

Ethanoic Acid is dropped by the oxidation of Ethanol.

Using Atmospheric Oxygen:

By the oxidation of Ethanol in fermented solution with atmospheric oxygen in the
presence of certain bacteria.
When ethanol is left standing in air, bacteria bring about its oxidation to Ethanoic
acid acid fermentation.
Acid fermentation is used to make vinegar (a dilute solution of Ethanoic acid.) The
vinegar is produced from foods such as apples, rice and honey which are first
fermented to give ethanol.
C2H5OH(l) + O2(g) CH3COOH(l) + H2O(l)

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Using Oxidizing Agents:
By heating Ethanol with an oxidizing agent such ad acidified Potassium
Dichromate(VI) (K2Cr2o7).
Ethanol is oxidized much faster by warming the oxidizing agent K 2Cr2o7 in the
presence of an acid.
K2Cr2o7 produces atomic Oxygen which more reactive than normal Oxygen (O).
The Orange K2Cr2o7 solution changes its colour to Green.

H2O is also produced as a byproduct while producing ethanol.

Esterification:
Esters are organic compounds formed by the combination of Carboxylic Acid with an
Alcohol.
Catalyst Concentrated Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)
This Reaction is reversible.
H2O is produced.
Ester is a sweet smelling organic compound.
Preparation of Ester is known as esterification.

We can add acid catalyst (H+ ion) and heat mixture to obtain Carboxylic acid and alcohol
from ester This is Hydrolysis.
OH form acid H form alcohol Ester formation

The two functional groups react with each other. The C of the Carboxyl group bonds to the
O of the OH group. The COO group where they join is called ester linkage.

The two molecules have joined by getting rid of a small molecule, water. This is called
condensation reaction.

In Condensation reaction, two molecules join together to form a large molecule, with the
loss of a small molecule.

Uses of Esters:
As a flavouring agent in foods.
Used in cosmetics.
Used as a solvent, to dissolve organic compounds that are insoluble in water. They
are volatile, hence they evaporate easily. (painting, ink, glues and nail polish).
Esters are used in creating vegetable oils.

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