IC Engine Fuel

IC Engine Fuel
In IC engines, the chemical energy contained in the fuel is converted into mechanical power by
burning (oxidizing) the fuel inside the combustion chamber of the engine.

As a result of the chemical reactions which occur inside the cylinder, heat is released. The fuel-
air mixture (the working fluid before combustion) must stay in the cylinder for a sufficient time
so that the chemical reactions can be completed.

Hydrocarbon Fuel + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Heat

Hydrocarbon Fuels (Mostly used) contains H2 and C.

 IC Engine Fuel

 The combustion of carbon (C) is indeed an exothermic reaction. The most common form of this reaction is the
combustion of carbon to form carbon dioxide (CO2) in the presence of oxygen (O2):

C + O2 → CO2 + Heat

It's important to note that the exact amount of heat released in such a reaction depends on various factors,
including the conditions under which the reaction occurs and the specific form of carbon (e.g., graphite,
charcoal). The value is typically expressed in terms of enthalpy change (ΔH) and can be measured experimentally.

The standard enthalpy change for this reaction is approximately -394 kJ/mol (at 25 oC and 1 atm). This means
that 394 kilo joules of heat are released for every mole of carbon that undergoes combustion to form carbon
dioxide under standard conditions.
 IC Engine Fuel
The oxidation of hydrogen is also exothermic. The chemical reaction representing the
combustion or oxidation of hydrogen in the presence of oxygen to form water is:

2H2+O2→ 2H2O + Heat

This reaction releases heat energy, and it is highly exothermic.

The standard enthalpy change (ΔH∘) for the combustion of hydrogen gas (H2) to form water
(H2) is approximately -286 kJ/mol under standard conditions (25°C and 1 atm pressure).
 Fuel-Classification
Physical State:
Solid Fuels:
Examples: Coal, wood, biomass.
Liquid Fuels:
Examples: Gasoline, diesel, kerosene.
Gaseous Fuels:
Examples: Natural gas, propane, hydrogen.

Chemical Composition:
Hydrocarbon Fuels:
Contain carbon and hydrogen.
Examples: Gasoline, diesel, natural gas.
Non-Hydrocarbon Fuels:
Include fuels with elements other than carbon and hydrogen.
Examples: Biomass, alcohol-based fuels.

Renewability:
Renewable Fuels:
Derived from sustainable sources.
Examples: Biofuels (biodiesel, ethanol), hydrogen from renewable sources.
Non-Renewable Fuels:
Finite resources, often fossil fuels.
Examples: Coal, oil, natural gas.
 Fuel-Classification
Application:
Transportation Fuels:
Used in vehicles.
Examples: Gasoline, diesel, aviation fuels.
Industrial Fuels:
Used in manufacturing processes.
Examples: Coal, natural gas, HFO.
Residential and Commercial Fuels:
Used for heating and cooking.
Examples: Propane, natural gas, biomass.

Emission Characteristics

Clean Fuels:
Produce fewer pollutants during combustion.
Examples: Hydrogen, natural gas.
Polluting Fuels:
Release more pollutants and greenhouse gases.
Examples: Coal, certain liquid fuels.
 IC Engine Fuel
Fuels suitable for fast chemical reaction have to be used in IC engines.

1. Hydrocarbons in liquid form

2. Alcohols (methanol, ethanol)
3. LPG (propane and butane)
4. Natural gas (methane)
5. Hydrogen
 Hydrocarbon Fuels

Hydrocarbons: Cn Hm

Fuels are mainly mixtures of hydrocarbons, with bonds between carbon atoms
and between hydrogen and carbon atoms.

During combustion these bonds are broken and new bonds are formed with
oxygen atoms, accompanied by the release of chemical energy. Principal
products are carbon dioxide and water vapor.

Fuels also contain small amounts of

O2, N2, S, H2O
 Alkanes

 Alkanes or Paraffins can in general be represented by: CnH2n+2

all the carbon bonds are single bonds – they are “saturated” high number of H
atoms, high heat content and low density (620 – 770 kg/m3).

The carbon atoms can be arranged as,

a straight chain or as branched chain compounds.

Straight chain group (normal paraffins)

shorter the chain, stronger the bond
not suitable for SI engines – high tendency for autoignition
according to the value of “n” in the formula, they are in gaseous (1 to 4), liquid (5
to 15) or solid (>16) state.
 Alkanes

Branched chain compounds (isoparaffins)

when four or more C atoms are in a chain molecule, it is possible to
form isomers – they have the same chemical formula but different
structures, which often leads to very different chemical properties.

example : iso-octane C8H18

2. 2 .4 trimethyl pentane
 Naphthenes

Also called cycloparaffins : CnH2n

saturated hydrocarbons which are arranged in a circle have stable structure and
low tendancy to autoignite compared to alkanes (normal paraffins)

 can be used both in SI-engines and CI-engines

 low heat content and high density (740 – 790 kg / m3)

 Alkenes

 Also called olefins

 mono-olefins: CnH2n or di-olefins CnH2n-2
 have the same C-to-H ratio and the same general formula as naphthenes,
their behavior and characteristics are entirely different.
 they are straight or branch chain compounds with one or more double bond.
The position of the double bond is indicated by the number of first C atom to
which it is attached, i.e.,
CH2=CH.CH2.CH2.CH3 called pentene-1
CH3.CH=CH3 called propene-2
 olefinic compounds are easily oxidized, have poor oxidation stability can be
used in SI-engines, obtained by cracking of large molecules

 low heat content and density in the range 620 – 820 kg / m3

Alkenes
 Aromatics
 Aromatic hydrocarbons are so called because of their “aromatic” odor
CnH2n-6
 They are based on a six-membered ring having three conjugated double bonds.

 Aromatic rings can be fused together to give polynuclear aromatics, PAN, also called
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAH (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)
simplest member is benzene
C6H6

 Can be used in SI-engines, to increase the resistance to knock not suitable for CI-
engines due to low cetene number

 Low heat content and high density in the range 800 – 850 kg / m3.
Aromatics
Basic Hydrocarbon Family
 Combustion Reactions
 Stoichiometric Combustion
Methane (CH₄): CH₄ + 2 O₂ → CO₂ + 2 H₂O
Isooctane (C₈H₁₈): C₈H₁₈ + 12.5 O₂ → 8 CO₂ + 9 H₂O

 Reactants and Products:

Reactants: Components present before the reaction.
Products: Components present after the reaction or exhaust.

 Use of Air as Oxygen Source:

Pure oxygen could enhance engine efficiency, but cost considerations make it
impractical.
Air (comprising 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, and traces of other gases) is the
economical source of oxygen for combustion.
 Combustion Reactions
 Nitrogen and argon, chemically neutral, don't partake in combustion but influence temperature and
pressure in the combustion chamber.

 Simplification: Assume argon combines with nitrogen; air is modeled as 21% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen.

 Air Composition Calculation

•For every 0.21 moles of oxygen, there are 0.79 moles of nitrogen.
•Every mole of oxygen requires 4.76 moles of air (1 mole of oxygen + 3.76 moles of nitrogen).

 Stoichiometric Combustion Equations:

•Methane (CH₄): CH₄ + 2 O₂ + 2(3.76) N₂ → CO₂ + 2 H₂O + 2(3.76) N₂
•Isooctane (C₈H₁₈): C₈H₁₈ + 12.5 O₂ + 12.5(3.76) N₂ → 8 CO₂ + 9 H₂O + 12.5(3.76) N₂

 Combustion with Excess Air:

•Combustion can occur with more (lean) or less (rich) than stoichiometric air.
•Example: Burning methane with 150% stoichiometric air.
Combustion Reactions
Problem
Problem
 Problem

If a hydrocarbon fuel is represented by the general formula C𝑥H2x, what is its

stoichiometric mass air--fuel ratio?
 Problem

A fuel has the following composition by mass: 10% pentane, 35% heptane, 30%
octane, and 25% dodecane. If its general formula is of the form C𝑥H𝑦, find 𝑥 and y
 Alcohols (monohydric alcohols)
 These include methanol (methyl alcohol), ethanol (ethyl alcohol), propanol
(propyl alcohol), butanol (butyl alcohol) as compounds.

 The OH group which replaces one of the H atoms in an alkane, gives these
compounds their characteristic properties.

 Specific heating value is lower than gasoline (42 – 43 MJ/kg), methanol

(19.7 MJ/kg) and ethanol (26.8 MJ/kg)
 Alcohols (monohydric alcohols)
 For air-fuel mixture s.h.v. is comparable with gasoline (MJ/kg-mixture at
stoichiometric mixtures). Alcohol contains oxygen and thus requires less
air for stoichiometric combustion. More fuel can be burned with the same
amount of air.

 Other alcohol groups such as dihydric and trihydric alcohols are not used
as a fuel in IC engines
 Advantages of Alcohols as Fuel
Derived from diverse sources, both natural and synthetic.

High-octane fuel, often exceeding 100, is achieved with alcohol's high flame
speed, allowing engines to operate more efficiently with increased
compression ratios.

Generally lower emissions compared to gasoline.

Yields more exhaust moles upon combustion, leading to higher pressure and
increased power during the expansion stroke.
 Advantages of Alcohols as Fuel
High evaporative cooling enhances the intake and compression processes,
boosting engine volumetric efficiency and reducing work input in the
compression stroke.

Low sulfur content in the fuel, contributing to environmental benefits.

 Disadvantages of Alcohols as Fuel

 Lower energy content in alcohol requires nearly twice as much fuel

volume for equivalent engine energy input, impacting efficiency,
storage, and distribution logistics.

 Increased aldehyde emissions pose a potential pollution concern with

widespread alcohol use.
 Disadvantages of Alcohols as Fuel

 Alcohol's corrosiveness affects engine components, necessitating design

modifications and causing long-term deterioration of fuel lines, tanks,
gaskets, and metal parts.

 Poor cold weather starting due to low vapor pressure; often requires
gasoline additives, diminishing the appeal of alcohol as an alternate fuel.

 Challenging ignition characteristics in various conditions.

 Almost invisible flames with alcohol present safety concerns; blending

with a small amount of gasoline is required.
 Disadvantages of Alcohols as Fuel

 Low vapor pressure raises flammability risks in storage tanks, as air

leakage can create combustible mixtures.

 Lower flame temperatures reduce NOx emissions but prolong catalytic

converter heating to efficient operating temperatures.

 Strong alcohol odor is offensive to many, leading to headaches and

dizziness during refueling.

 Potential vapor lock issues in fuel delivery systems.

 Methanol
Methanol CH3OH

 Methanol is considered promising as an alternative to gasoline and has

undergone significant research and development. Various fuel mixtures, such as
M85 (85% methanol and 15% gasoline) and M10 (10% methanol and 90%
gasoline), have been extensively tested in engines and vehicles.

 Smart flexible-fuel engines are capable of using random mixtures of methanol

and gasoline, adjusting parameters like air-fuel ratio and ignition timing based on
sensor feedback.

 One challenge with gasoline-alcohol mixtures is the tendency for alcohol to

combine with water, causing non-homogeneous mixtures that can lead to erratic
engine performance.
 Alcohols
 Sources of Methanol:
Methanol can be obtained from various sources, including fossil fuels (coal,
petroleum, natural gas) and renewable sources (biomass, wood, landfills,
ocean).
However, sources requiring extensive manufacturing or processing can raise
fuel prices and have environmental implications.

 Current Usage:
M10 fuel (10% methanol and 90% gasoline) is sold at local service stations in
USA as an alternative to gasoline.
Emissions from engines using M10 fuel are reported to be similar to those using
gasoline, with the advantage of a 10% decrease in gasoline use.
 Alcohols
 Emissions and Dual-Fuel CI Engines:
Engines using M85 fuel show a measurable decrease in hydrocarbon (HC) and
carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, but there is an increase in nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and a significant rise in formaldehyde formation.
Methanol is used in some dual-fuel compression ignition (CI) engines, where a
small amount of diesel oil is added for ignition, making it attractive for regions
where methanol is more cost-effective than diesel.
Ethanol C2H5OH
Ethanol

 Ethanol as Automobile Fuel:

 Brazil is a leading user of ethanol in vehicles, with 4.5 million operating on
93% ethanol in the early 1990s.
 Gasohol, a mixture of 90% gasoline and 10% ethanol, has been available in
the United States, mainly in the Midwest corn-producing states.

 Development of Ethanol-Gasoline Systems:

 Ongoing development of systems using gasoline and ethanol mixtures.
 Key mixtures include E85 (85% ethanol) and E10 (gasohol).
 E85 is 85% ethanol with 15% gasoline, addressing issues like cold starting
and tank flammability associated with pure ethanol.
 E10 reduces gasoline usage without requiring engine modifications.
 Ethanol
Ethanol C2H5OH

 Ethanol Production Sources:

 Ethanol can be made from ethylene or through fermentation of grains, sugar,
sugar beets, sugar cane, and cellulose.
 In the U.S., corn is a major source of ethanol.
 Cost and Energy Considerations:
 Presently, ethanol production costs are high due to manufacturing and
processing.
 Larger-scale ethanol use could reduce costs, but high production may lead to
food-fuel competition, raising costs for both.
 Some studies suggest that, in the U.S., the energy input for ethanol
production from crops exceeds the energy in the final product.

 Emissions Characteristics:
 Ethanol has lower hydrocarbon (HC) emissions than gasoline but higher than
methanol.
 Problem-4
A taxicab is equipped with a flexible-fuel four-cylinder SI engine running on a mixture of
methanol and gasoline at an equivalence ratio of 0.95. How must the air-fuel ratio change
as the fuel flow to the engine shifts from 10% methanol (M10) to 85% methanol (M85)
Problem-4
Problem-4
NG Composition in Bangladesh
Gasoline Composition
Gasoline Composition
Diesel Composition
 Manufacture of Engine Fuels
Crude oil is the liquid part of the naturally occurring organic material composed mostly of
HCs that is trapped geologically in underground reservoirs – it is not uniform and varies in
density, chemical composition, boiling range, etc. for different fields.

Four different crude oils are shown in Table for different boiling ranges :

Table - Main products from crude oil by distillation (%)

 Refining

Crude Oil Composition:

Crude oil contains a vast array of hydrocarbon fractions, ranging from
gases to viscous liquids and waxes.
Approximately 25,000 different compounds have been found in a
sample of crude oil.

Refinery Purpose:
Refineries aim to physically separate crude oil into various fractions
and then chemically process these fractions into fuels and other
products.
 Refining
Refinery Products:
A full-scale refinery produces fuels for engines (gasoline, diesel, jet), fuels for
heating, chemical feedstock, and asphalt.
On average, a refinery refines about 40% of crude oil into gasoline, 20% into diesel
and heating fuel, 15% into residual fuel oil, 5% into jet fuel, and the remainder into
other hydrocarbons.

Distillation Process:
Fraction separation is achieved through distillation
in a fractionating column or still.
Fractions include naphtha, distillate, gas oil, and
residual oil, with further subdivisions using terms
like light, middle, heavy, virgin, or straight run.
 Refining
Chemical Processing:
Chemical processing is required to convert one fraction into another or to upgrade a
given fraction.
Examples include alkylation to increase octane number and catalytic cracking to
produce naphthas for high octane gasolines.

Specific Processes:
Alkylation:
The alkylation reaction involves combining the isobutane with an olefin in the
presence of a catalyst, commonly sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric acid. The catalyst
facilitates the rearrangement of atoms, leading to the formation of larger, branched-
chain hydrocarbons.
The primary reaction:
Catalyst
Isobutane + Olefin High-Octane Alkylate + By-products
 Refining
Catalytic Cracking
Catalytic cracking typically involves the use of heavy hydrocarbons, which are obtained
from the distillation of crude oil. These heavy hydrocarbons are rich in long-chain
molecules that need to be broken down into smaller, more valuable products.
Catalyst
Heavy Hydrocarbon ​ Lighter Hydrocarbons (e.g., Naphthas, Gasoline) +
By-products

The catalyst used in catalytic cracking is usually a solid material, often composed of
zeolites or other materials with high surface area and acidity
 Refining
Reforming
Reforming is a refining process that involves altering the molecular structure of certain
hydrocarbons to increase their octane rating, resulting in higher-octane gasoline. This
process is crucial for producing high-quality gasoline that meets the performance
requirements of modern internal combustion engines.

 The primary feedstock for reforming is naphtha, which is a liquid hydrocarbon mixture
obtained from the distillation of crude oil or other refinery processes. Naphtha typically
contains a range of hydrocarbons, including straight-chain and branched-chain
molecules.

Reforming is a catalytic process, meaning it requires a catalyst to facilitate the desired

chemical transformations. The catalyst used in reforming is usually composed of
platinum, palladium, or other metal components supported on a solid material like
alumina.
 Refining
The reforming reaction involves the rearrangement of hydrocarbon molecules to
produce higher-octane components. The primary reactions include dehydrogenation,
isomerization, and cyclization:

Dehydrogenation: Removal of hydrogen atoms to create double bonds, increasing the

number of carbon-carbon double bonds.

Isomerization: Rearrangement of hydrocarbon molecules to create isomers, which have

the same molecular formula but different structures.

Cyclization: Formation of cyclic (ring-shaped) hydrocarbons from straight-chain or

branched-chain molecules.

The overall goal is to produce aromatic hydrocarbons and branched-chain alkanes,

which contribute to the higher octane rating of the resulting gasoline.
 Refining
Coking:
Coking is a refining process that involves the thermal cracking of heavy hydrocarbons,
particularly the residue left after initial crude oil distillation or other refining processes.
This process is employed to convert heavy, low-value fractions into more valuable
products such as naphtha and distillate fractions.

The feedstock for coking is typically the residue obtained from atmospheric or vacuum
distillation units. These residues are the heaviest and least valuable fractions of crude oil,
containing high molecular weight hydrocarbons with long carbon chains.

In coking, the feedstock is heated to very high temperatures in the presence of a
catalyst or without a catalyst (thermal cracking). This intense heat causes the large
hydrocarbon molecules to break apart into smaller, more valuable fractions.

The cracking reactions result in the production of lighter hydrocarbons, such as

naphtha and distillate fractions, along with coke, which is a solid carbonaceous material.
Typical Refinery Production
1 Barrel of Crude Oil
 A standard barrel of crude
oil has a volume of 42 U.S.
gallons. In the metric
system, this is
approximately 159 liters.

 A commonly used
approximation is that one
barrel of crude oil is
equivalent to
approximately 136
kilograms or 299.8
pounds. This
approximation is based
on the average density of
crude oil.
 Some important properties of fuel

 Relative density (specific gravity)

 Fuel composition
 Specific heating value
 Flash point
 Viscosity
 Surface tension
 Freezing point
 Moisture content
 Carbon Residue
 Vapor Pressure
 Octane Number (for Gasoline)/ Cetane
Number (for diesel)
 Relative Density
 Relative density (specific gravity) is related to the measurement of the ratio of the
weight of a given volume of fuel to the weight of the same volume of water, both
at 20OC and 101.325 kPa

 American Petroleum Institute, also defines API gravity as,

 It is used to classify crude oils and other liquid hydrocarbons. The API gravity scale is
inversely related to density; lighter oils have higher API gravity.

 For gasoline, the relative density is around 0.72 to 0.78 - which is equivalent to an
API range of 65 to 50.
 Relative Density
 The API gravity scale is divided into ranges:

Light Crude Oil: API gravity > 31.1°

Medium Crude Oil: 22.3° < API gravity ≤ 31.1°
Heavy Crude Oil: API gravity ≤ 22.3°

 The term "degrees API" refers to the API gravity value measured in degrees
on the API gravity scale. Higher API gravity values indicate lighter, more
valuable crude oils, as they often contain a higher percentage of more
valuable light hydrocarbons.

 In general, oil with an API gravity of 40 to 45° is the most valuable.

 How to measure fuel Density

Hydrometer Pycnometer
 Relative Density
 For gasoline, the relative density is around 0.72 to 0.78 - which is equivalent to an
API range of 65 to 50.
ρ = 700 −800 [kg/m3]

 for unleaded gasoline this value is higher due to the aromatics.

For diesel fuel,
ρ = 830 − 950 [kg/m3]
 Fuel Composition

 C and H : carbon content of aromatics is around 89%, and of paraffins and

naphthenes is around 86%.

 Benzene : max allowable concentration is specified because it is highly toxic

material, the level is 5 %.

 Sulphur content : HC fuels contain free sulphur, hydrogen sulphide and other
sulphur compounds which are objectionable.

 It is a corrosive element that can corrode fuel lines, carburetor and injection
pump. It will unite with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide, which in presence
of water at low T, forms sulphurous acid (H2SO3).
 It has low ignition T, promote knock in SI engines. limited to approx. 250
ppm.
 Fuel Composition

 Gum deposits – gasoline with unsaturated HCs forms gum in the engine,
paraffin, naphthene and aromatic HCs also form some gum – it causes
operating difficulties, sticking valves and piston rings, deposits in the manifold,
etc.

 Water - both dissolved and free water can be present in gasoline, free water is
undesirable because it can freeze and cause problems.
Dissolved water is usually unavoidable during manufacture.

 Lead - for leaded and unleaded gasoline max lead content is specified, lead
causes pollution and destroys catalytic converters in the exhaust system.
 Fuel Composition

 Manganese - used for antiknock in gasoline (MMT), max amount is specified,

0.00025 to 0.03 gMn/L

 Oxygenates - oxygenated compounds such as alcohols are used in gasoline to

improve octane rating.
 Fuel Composition-Determination
 Elemental Analysis:
• Combustion Analysis: Determine the elemental composition by burning a known
quantity of fuel and analyzing the combustion products. This can help identify the
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen content.
• CHN Analysis: Specifically used for determining carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen
content.
 Fuel Composition-Determination
 Chromatography Techniques:
• Gas Chromatography (GC): Separates and analyzes individual components of a gas
or liquid sample. It is commonly used to analyze hydrocarbons in fuels.
• Liquid Chromatography (LC): Similar to GC but used for liquid samples. High-
Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is a common variant.
 Mass Spectrometry:
Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS): Coupling GC with MS helps
identify and quantify individual components based on their mass-to-charge ratio.
 Fuel Composition-Determination
 Titration for Sulfur Content: Titration methods can be used to determine the sulfur
content in fuels.

 Water Content Analysis:

Karl Fischer Titration: Measures the water content in the fuel.
Standards for determination of different fuel properties
 Specific Heating Value

Specific heating value, Hu is a measure of the energy content of the fuel per unit
mass (kJ/kg or kcal/kg).

Gaseous fuels specific heating value is given in terms of energy content per unit
volume (kJ/liter or kJ/m3 , kcal/m3).

In IC engines lower heating value is given as the combustion products contain

water in vapor form.
For gasoline and diesel fuel

heating value of the combustible air-fuel mixture is a decisive factor for engine
performance.
 Problem
Using the 298.15 K reference state, calculate the higher heating value (HHV)
for the natural gas from the Bergen field in Kuwait.
Solution
Solution
Solution
 Flash Point

Flash point is the lowest temperature of a sample at which the fuel vapor starts to
ignite when in contact with a flame (ignition source).

Marcusson method – fuel container is slowly heated, while the fuel vapor is in
contact with an open flame – T is measured.

For gasoline it is 25OC, diesel fuel 35OC and heavy diesel 65OC
 Viscosity

Viscosity is an important parameter for CI engines, also influences fuel metering

orifices since Re is an inverse function of fuel viscosity.

lower the viscosity, smaller the diameter of the droplets in the spray.

Below certain limits, low viscosity increases the leaks in the fuel system. It is a
strong function of T – must be given at certain T values

at 50OC, 0.5 to 0.6 centistokes

 Freezing Point

The precipitation of paraffin crystals in winter can lead to clogged filters. It can be
prevented by either removing paraffins from the fuel or adding flow improvers
(additives).

Antifreezing properties are determined by its filterability.

For gasoline freezing point is –65OC and for diesel fuel –10OC.
 Surface Tension

Surface tension is a parameter which effects the formation of fuel droplets in

sprays.

Lower the value, smaller the droplet diameter.

diesel fuel :0.023 – 0.032 N/m

gasoline : 0.019 – 0.023 N/m
Heat Capacity
 Heat Capacity
If the mass composition of a hydrocarbon fuel mixture is 55% paraffins, 30% aromatics,
and 15% monoolefins, what is its specific heat? [At 30-deg C]
 Gasoline
Gasoline has been the dominant vehicular fuel since the early 1900s. It has a
very high volumetric energy density and a relatively low cost. It is composed of
a blend of light distillate hydrocarbons, including paraffins, olefins,
naphthenes, and aromatics. It has a hydrogen to carbon ratio varying from 1.6
to 2.4. A typical formula used to characterize gasoline is C8H15, with a
molecular weight of 111. A high hydrogen content gasoline is C7H17.
 Product of Eastern Refinery

https://erl.com.bd/site/page/6449906e-96f2-4b2d-8eaa-bd0321e2ad5a/-s
 Gasoline
Gasoline Volatility
Benzene for example has vapor pressure of 0.022 MPa at 38OC

In a closed container of 38OC, benzene evaporates until the partial p has a value of
0.022 MPa, If T is raised to 80.5 OC, then saturation p will be 0.1 MPa and will be
constant during the boiling.

For gasoline it is not possible to indicate a single value of evaporation T or vapor

pressure.
Gasoline contains large number of compounds - up to about 400

It has a smooth distillation curve - with good fractionation efficiency

 Gasoline Distillation Curve
engine performance at different operating conditions :
if distillation curve is displaced downward, gasoline becomes more volatile - poor
hot start, vapor lock, high evaporative losses.

One way that is sometimes used to describe a

gasoline is to use three temperatures:
the temperature at which 10% is vaporized,
at which 50% is vaporized, and
at which 90% is vaporized.
The gasoline therefore be classified as
49-81-140°C.
 Gasoline Distillation Curve
Gasoline having boiling point up to 70 OC controls ease of starting and hot weather
problems such as vapor lock.

Mid-range controls the driving in cold weathers, particularly at warm up period of

engine. It also influences the ice forming in carburetor.

Back end of the curve contains all the heavier, high boiling point compounds and
these have high heat content - they are important in improving fuel economy for
fully warmed up engine.

Some of the heavier compounds may pass into the crankcase and dilute the
crankcase oil. They are not readily combusted as the lighter compounds - cause
combustion chamber deposits.
 Gasoline Distillation Curve
%10 evaporation point should be at low T for start up at cold temperatures - at hot
weathers this may cause problems - vapor lock.

50% evaporation should be slightly above 100 OC at summer and slightly below
100 OC at winter. For warmed up engine conditions this point is not important.

90% evaporation must not be high - produces fuel film on intake manifold walls
and dilutes lubricating oil. Back end of the curve must not exceed 215 OC.

Gasoline volatility should be arranged according to weather conditions -

particularly ambient T. Altitude has some minor effect due to pressure changes.

It is also effected by the characteristics of the vehicle itself (drivability, fuel system
design etc.).
 Cold Starting
For SI engines to start, A/F ratio must be within the ignitable range, i.e. in
general must be between 7:1 to 20:1 by weight.

When the engine is cold, it is difficult to ignite lean mixtures, because fuel may not
vaporize sufficiently - under these conditions the mixture is richened to bring it to
ignitable range.

This is done by increasing the injection time or by the use of a choke with
carbureted engines.
 Cold Starting
.
 Typical distillation curve
.
 Measurement of Gasoline Volatility
Tests usually define Reid Vapor Pressure - ASTM Distillation test and Vapor/Liquid
ratio.
Reid vapor pressure - obtained at air-to-liquid ratio of 4:1 and temperature 37.8OC.
Fuel is filled into a metal chamber which is connected to an air chamber and that
is connected to a pressure gauge.

The apparatus is immersed in water bath at 37.8 OC and is shaken until constant p
is obtained - Reid VP.
 Measurement of Gasoline Volatility
For gasoline allowable RVP is 0.7 bar in summer and 0.9 bar in winter(at 37.8 OC )
ASTM Distillation procedure - distillation rate is controlled by the heat input -
distillation curve is plotted (temperature vs % evaporated).
 Antiknock Quality of Gasoline
Knock occurs when the unburnt gases ahead of flame front (the end gases)
spontaneously ignite causing a sudden rise in pressure accompanied by a
characteristic pinging sound - this results in a loss of power and can lead to
damage the engine.

Combustion chamber shape, spark plug location, ignition timing, end gas
temperatures, in cylinder gas motion, air-fuel ratio of the mixture, fuel
specifications, etc. effects the occurrence of knock.

Compression ratio of the engine also strongly effects knock. The higher the CR, the
better the thermal efficiency - but the greater the tendency for knock to occur.

Critical compression ratio - when knock starts.

So higher fuel octane quality is required.

Gasoline
 Measurement of Gasoline Antiknock Quality
Prior to 1929, fuels were rated using an engine in which CR could be varied
between 2.7:1 to 8:1 - each fuel was run in this engine at various A/F ratios and
ignition timing to obtain conditions for max power output.

Fuels were assigned values in terms of Highest Useful Compression Ratio, HUCR.

In 1929, Octane scale was proposed by Graham Edgar. In this scale two paraffinic
HCs have been selected as standards (PRF, primary reference fuels)- iso-octane (2-
2-4 trimethyl pentane) with very high resistance to knock (arbitrary assigned a
value of 100) and n-heptane with extremely low knock resistance (assigned a value
of 0).

Octane number of the fuel is the volume percentage of iso-octane in a blend with
n-heptane (PRF), that shows the same antiknock performance as test fuel tested in
standard engine and standard conditions.
 Octane Number
Test engine for determining Octane values, was developed by Cooperative Fuel
Research Committee (CFR). It is a single cylinder, variable CR engine.

Two different test conditions specifies the Research Octane Number (RON) and the
Motor Octane Number (MON).

RON correlates with low speed, mild driving conditions, MON relates to high
speed, high severity conditions. Most gasolines have higher RON than MON. This
difference is called fuel sensitivity (=RON-MON) – for fuels of same RON, high
sensitivity gasoline has lower MON.

Antiknock Index = (RON + MON) / 2

For PRF, Octane Number changes linearly (for paraffinic fuels)

 Ignition Quality

 For reciprocating engines, the ignition quality of the fuel is extremely important.
Because the combustion processes occurring in spark-ignition (premixed combustion)
and diesel engines (nonpremixed combustion) result in different considerations of
ignition quality, we consider them separately.

 For spark-ignition engines, ignition quality relates to the prevention of engine knock.

 The octane rating or octane number is a measure of a spark ignition engine fuel’s
ability to resist autoignition.

 antiknock index (AKI) and is an average of the laboratory-based research octane

number (RON) and motor octane number (MON)
 Ignition Quality
Operating conditions used to measure MON are more severe than those used to
measure RON. Some fuels, therefore, will have a RON greater than MON.

The difference between these is called fuel sensitivity: FS = RON - MON

Fuel sensitivity is a good measure of how sensitive knock characteristics of a fuel will
be to engine geometry. A low FS number will usually mean that knock characteristics
of that fuel are insensitive to engine geometry. FS numbers generally range from 0 to
10.
 Ignition Quality

 The octane number has no effect on the performance of an engine other than
allowing the delivery of maximum power without knocking.

 ASTM International defines standard test procedures for determining research

octane numbers and motor octane numbers.
ASTM D2699: Standard Test Method for Research Octane Number of Spark-Ignition
Engine Fuel
ASTM D2700: Standard Test Method for Motor Octane Number of Spark-Ignition
Engine Fuel

 In these tests, a standardized, variable–compression ratio, single-cylinder engine is

equipped with a knock sensor to measure knock intensity. In both procedures, the
knock intensity of the fuel being rated is compared to that resulting from burning a
blend of two primary reference fuels: isooctane (2,2,4-trimethyl pentane) and n-
heptane. The octane number of isooctane is defined to be 100, and the octane
number of n-heptane is defined to be zero.
Ignition Quality
 Increasing Octane Number
Modern gasoline contains some chemical additives designed to improve fuel
quality. These are used to raise ON, control surface ignition, reduce spark plug
fouling, resist gum formation, prevent rust, reduce carburetor icing, remove
carburetor or injector system deposits, minimize deposits in intake system,
prevent valve sticking.

ON can be increased by antiknock agents - at less expense than modifying HC

composition by refinery process.

Most effective agents are lead alkyls -

 TEL - tetraethyl lead, (C2H5)4 Pb
 TML - tetramethyl lead,
 MMT (Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl)
Addition of about 0.8 g lead per liter, provides a gain of about 10 ON in gasoline
 Diesel Fuel
Diesel fuel is a blend of hydrocarbons, sometimes containing additives,
formulated specifically for use in compression-ignition (i.e., diesel) engines.
In the United States, designations and properties of diesel fuels are specifi
ed by ASTM International Standard D975–08a. There are three numerical
grades of diesel fuel :

• No. 1-D, a light middle distillate fuel

• No. 2-D, a middle distillate fuel; and
• No. 4-D, a heavy distillate fuel, or a blend of distillate and residual oil.

The mean molecular weight and viscosity of the fuels increase as the
number designation increases.
 Diesel Fuel
The numerical grades are also categorized regarding their sulfur content to
create a total of seven grades; the sulfur designations being
• S15
• S500, and
• S5000
which refer to maximum sulfur contents of 15, 500, and 5000 ppm (by
weight), respectively.

For example, the three grades of No. 2-D fuel are denoted as No. 2-D S15,
No. 2-D S500, and No. 2-D S5000, and similarly, for No. 1-D fuel. There is
only one grade specification for No. 4-D, and thus no additional designation
is applied.

The maximum allowed sulfur content for No. 4-D is 2 wt.%.

 Diesel Fuel
Most on-road diesel-powered vehicles (automobiles, trucks, and buses) are fueled by No.
2-D S15 fuel.

Diesel fuels consist of blends of primarily C9–C16 hydrocarbons (No. 1) and C11–C20 (No.
2) [17].

For simple combustion calculations, these fuels are frequently approximated as single
molecules. For example, C12H22 and C15H25, respectively, are reasonable
approximations of these fuels. Other values are also used
Diesel Fuel
Diesel Fuel
 Ignition Quality
If the temperature of an air-fuel mixture is raised high enough, the mixture will self ignite
without the need of a spark plug or other external igniter. The temperature above which
this occurs is called the self-ignition temperature (SIT).
 Ignition Quality

 The combustion process in a diesel engine is initiated by the autoignition of the fuel–
air mixture formed during the initial stages of the fuel-injection process. The time
interval between the start of fuel injection and the onset of combustion, as
distinguished by a pressure rise, is termed the ignition delay.

 The cetane rating or cetane number is a measure of a fuel’s ability to autoignite.

Low cetane numbers result in relatively long ignition delays and, conversely, higher
cetane numbers imply relatively short ignition delays.

 blend of two primary reference fuels: n-cetane1 and heptamethyl nonane. The
cetane number of n-cetane (C16H34) is defined to be 100, and the cetane number of
heptamethyl nonane (also C16H34) is defined to be 15. Thus, the cetane number is
determined by Cetane no. ≡ vol.% n-cetane + (0.15) vol.% heptamethyl nonane.
 Problem

 A gasoline-type fuel is generate by blending 15% by weight butane-1, 70% triptane,

and 15% isodecane.
 Detaermine:

 (1) the anti-knock index

 (2) The anti knock index if 0.4 gm of TEL is added per liter of fuel
 (3) if the fuel is sensitive to combustion chamber geometry.
Problem
Problem
Problem
Aviation Fuel
Natural Gas
 Propane

Propane (C3H8), is a saturated paraffinic hydrocarbon. When blended with butane

(C4H10) or ethane (C2H6), it is also designated as liquefied petroleum gas. A common
LPG blend is P92, which is 92% propane and 8% butane.
 Hydrogen
Advantages:
Zero emissions at the point of use, as hydrogen combustion produces only water vapor.
High energy density by weight, leading to potentially longer driving ranges.
Fast combustion with a high flame speed, contributing to efficient engine performance.
Compatibility with existing infrastructure to some extent.
Potential for decentralized production through methods like renewable-powered
electrolysis.

Challenges:
Storage and distribution require efficient systems due to hydrogen's low energy density by
volume.
Significant infrastructure investment is needed for production, distribution, and refueling.
Internal combustion engines may not be as efficient as fuel cells in converting hydrogen to
mechanical work
Biodiesel
Biodiesel