صورة الجنة في القرآن الكريم PORTRAYAL OF PARADISE IN THE HOLY QORAN (Linguistic Behaviorism Analysis) in Proceeding of International Conference on Language and Religion

THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
LANGUAGE AND RELIGION
Friday, 24 October 2014

Convention Hall UIN Sunan Kalijaga
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL

CONFERENCE ON LANGUAGE AND RELIGION
Quo-Vadis Language and Literature in the Religious Life?
Keynote Speakers:
Anthony J. Liddicoat
Ibrahimian
Sahiron Syamsuddin
Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra
ISBN
978-602-1048-03-0
Cetakan Pertama
Oktober 2014
Published by
Azzagrafika Publishing
Seturan 2 Num.128 Caturtunggal
Depok, Sleman, Yogyakarta
Telp/Fax. +62274486466
RELUNG-RELUNG AGAMA
Potret Akomodasi Sosio-Kultural, Politik, dan Pendidikan

: ...
O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and
made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another(QS
al-Hujurat [49]: 33)
DAFTAR ISI
Keynote Speakers:
Research Centre for Languages and Cultures
University of South Australia
LANGUAGE APPROACHES IN THE PUBLIC PRACTICE
OF RELIGION
(hlm. 1-15)
Sahiron Syamsuddin
UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
IN SEARCH FOR THE INTEGRATION
OF HERMENEUTICS AND ULUM AL-QURAN
(hlm. 16-32)

Antropologi Budaya, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya
Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta Indonesia
KAJIAN ANTROPOLOGI DAN BAHASA DI INDONESIA
(hlm. 33-58)
Presenters:
Sugeng Sugiono
UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia
READING RELIGIOUS PHENOMENON
THROUGH SIGN POWER
(hlm. 59-72)
Bermawy Munthe
WACANA MAHASISWA UNIVERSITAS KAIRO
DALAM AL-QAHIRAH AL-JADIDAH KARYA NAJIB MAHFUZ
(hlm. 73-87)
Hanung Triyoko
STAIN Salatiga
ISLAMIC ENGLISH: THE CASE IN ENGLISH TEACHING
LEARNING IN INDONESIA
(hlm. 88-106)
UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta
iii
Ismail Sulaiman
STAIN Zawiyah Cot Kala Langsa NAD
ACCULTURATION AND RELIGIOUS LIFE CHALLENGE
THE TIONGHOA ETHNIC IN SYARIA LAND TOWARD
PEACE AND HARMONY IN ACEH (CASE STUDY IN
ACEH TAMIANG DISTRICT)
(hlm. 107-121)
Muhammad Najib Al Adib
UNSIQ Wonosobo Jawa Tengah
STUDY ON A PESANTREN-BASED SENIOR HIGH
SCHOOL STUDENT IN WONOSOBO
(hlm. 122-135)
Muhammad Zuhri Dj.

STAIN Watampone
BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
(A COMPARATIVE STUDY ON STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS)
(hlm. 136-151)
Saifuddin Ahmad Husin
IAIN Antasari Banjarmasin
BECOMING LOCAL: USE OF MALAY AND DUTCH
LOANWORDS IN ARABIC CORRESPONDENCES OF THE
ARABS IN THE 19TH CENTURY INDONESIA
(hlm. 152-170)
Sri Sarwanti, Lilia Indriani
English Deparment FKIP Tidar University
SCAFFOLDING-ICT BASED TECHNIQUE TO PROMOTE 2013
CURRICULUM CHARACTER BUILDING AMONG
RURAL EFL STUDENTS
(hlm. 171-190)
Yusri
Linguistic Science Program, Faculty of Humanities
Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
IMPROVEMENT
MOTIVATION AND RESULT THE
GERMAN
LANGUAGE
LEARNING
THROUGH
COOPERATIVE LEARNING MODEL TYPE TWO STAY TWO
STRAY LANGUAGE CLASS XI MAN I WATAMPONE
(hlm. 191-205)
iv
International Conference on Language and Religion
Roma Ulinnuha
THE RELATIONSHIP OF RELIGION AND IDENTITYS
REDEFINITION IN LITERARY REPRESENTATION POST 9/11
AMERICA AS SEEN IN LINDA J. KOLOCOTRONIS INNOCENT
PEOPLE (2003): IDENTITY, THE SELF AND AGENCY
(hlm. 206-223)
Santhy Hawanti
University of Muhammadiyah Purwokerto
TEACHERS WAYS OF WORKING WITH
FEEDBACK: PRACTICES IN ELT CLASSROOM IN
PRIMARY SCHOOLS
GIVING
(hlm. 224-239)
Witriani
READING
RELIGION
IN
THE
MOVIES,
THE
CONTESTATION BETWEEN RELIGIOUS IDENTITY AND
CULTURAL BUSINESS
(hlm. 240-253)
Muhammad Hisyam Maliki
Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta, Indonesia
LANGUAGE VARIETIES AND FUNCTIONS ON SYIIR
NGUDI SUSILO BY K.H. MUSTOFA BISRI
(hlm. 254-269)
Khristianto1, Sulasih Nurhayati2, dan Arif Budiman3
1,2 Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto
3Fakultas Adab dan Ilmu Budaya UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta
JAVENESE POETRY AS DAWAH PACKAGING IN THE
BOOK RIAYATAL HIMMAH OF KH AHMAD RIFA'I
(hlm. 270-279)
Rosiana Rizqy Wijayanti
Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta, Indonesia
IMPLICATURE OF HUMOROUS UTTERANCES IN
WIJAYANTOS SERMON
(hlm. 280-298)
Ubaidillah
( )
PORTRAYAL OF PARADISE IN THE QORAN
(Linguistic Behaviorism Analysis)
(hlm. 299-318)
Erna Wardani
Universitas Jenderal Soedirman Purwoerto
MULTILINGUAL LITURGY IN PENTECOSTAL SERVICE
AT JAVANESE CHRISTIAN CHURCH PURWOKERTO
(hlm. 319-332)
Ulyati Retno Sari

SALAHUDDIN AYYUBIS SYMBOL REPRESENTATION

OF ISLAMIC TOLERANCE
IN THE KINGDOM OF HEAVEN MOVIE
(hlm. 333-348)
vi
FOREWORD
We realize that language has a dominant role for
education and social communication including in the religion
domain. Many religious problems in the 21st century come from
the inappropriate use of language. Indonesia as the biggest
moslem country in the world has the responsibility to contribute
towards harmonious and mutual understanding between Eastern
and Western countries to view the world.
State Islamic University (UIN) Sunan Kalijaga as one of the
leading universities in Indonesia always cares about and pays
great attention to interfaith dialogue to reduce social conflicts in
Indonesia. To implement this target, UIN Sunan Kalijaga actively
promotes religious harmony both in local or international level.
One of the ways is by holding special events to discuss the current
issues in religious life, like the upcoming event of International
Conference on Language and Religion (ICLR), which shows the
concern of English Department to realize the vision and mission
of the university.
The papers in this conference hopefully give contribution
how to face the religious life challenges and create inter-religious
harmony. Besides, it aims to formulate the language and literature
contribution in the religious life. By organizing this event, the
English Department of Faculty of Adab and Cultural Sciences
UIN Sunan Kalijaga also makes an effort to realize the vision and
mission of the institution to become the center of culture,
language, and literature development which contributes to
human life.
Yogyakarta, 24th October 2014

Committee
Dwi Margo Yuwono
vii
LANGUAGE APPROACHES
IN THE PUBLIC PRACTICE OF RELIGION
Research Centre for Languages and Cultures
University of South Australia
Abstract
Religious institutions represent a very specific context in
which decisions about language are made because language
plays a role in religion that is different from its role in other
areas of human activity. This difference lies in the ways
particular religious groups understand the nature and
purpose of language and these religious understandings
influences how languages are chosen for religious purposes
and how these purposes are understood. This paper will
examine how religious groups use language in public acts
of worship and the ways that religious views of language
influence language practices. It will argue that there are two
dominant understandings of language that are at play in
religious contexts. The first is the idea of language as a
sacred object. The second is language as a communicative
tool. These two understandings are not mutually exclusive
and both may be present in particular religious practices,
although in some contexts one may predominate over the
other. The paper will examine how these views play out in
different world religions.
A. Language and Religious Observance

The relationship between religion and language planning
and policy (LPP) is complex. Religion may be a factor influencing
language planning in the non-religious domain, it may be a site
for LPP work, and it may be a site where other LPP decisions are
played out in a specific context. This paper will examine the
nature of LPP work in one particular context of religious language
use religious observance. This context already raises
complexities for thinking about LPP because religious observance
is both a public and a private matter and language choices made

may be either individual or collective: that is in religious
observance language has both private and public dimensions. For
this reason, the present paper will focus only on the public
dimension of religious observance as this is the site of language
use where decision-making and established norms and practices
are most obvious and easily studied. In particular, the focus of
this paper will be on the use of languages for liturgical purposes
that is, the language used for the rites and rituals of public
worship.
The use of language is fundamental to the public practice
of religion and different religious groups use languages in
different ways in their public worship. This means that religious
groups are involved in some forms of decision-making about
language use in religious contexts. However, the language of
public religious observances has not been widely considered in
the literature on language policy and planning (examples include
Ferguson, 1982; Liddicoat, 1993, 2012a, 2012b, 2013; Pennycook &
Makoni, 2005; Spolsky, 2003).
B. Approaches to liturgical language
There are a number of different ways in which religious
groups determine the language to be used in their public religious
observance. In some cases, the selection of a liturgical language is
set by precedent: that is it represents the continuation of an
ancient usage. This is the case, for example in the use of Classical
Arabic in Islam, Hebrew in Judaism, Sanskrit in Hinduism, Pali in
Sri Lankan Theravada Buddhism and Latin in Catholicism (until
1970s). In such cases the use of a particular language is dictated by
the practice of the religion not by the languages spoken by the
faithful. It may be case that few worshipers know or can
understand the language in which worship is conducted. It is also
often the case that the languages used for religious observance
may be used primarily or solely for religious purpose, either for
some of for all communities of worshipers. Alternatively, the
choice of liturgical language may be considered as something
which can be legitimately planned by the faithful. This is the case
in many forms of Christianity, such as Protestantism, Traditional
Orthodoxy and Modern Catholicism but is also the case for some
2
Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion
forms of Buddhism and other religions. The possibilities are

associated with two fundamentally different understandings of
the nature and purpose of religious languages sacrality and
comprehensibility (Liddicoat, 2012b, 2013).
The sacrality perspective on language is one that starts
from the idea that particular languages are sacred and therefore
are most fitting for liturgical use. The idea of sacredness may be
the result of a particular theology that associates the language
with a divine use as in the case of Arabic as the language chosen
by God as author of the Quran in Islam or Hebrew as the
language used by God in the creation of the world in Judaism. It
may also result from a long tradition of religious use of a
language by particular institutions, as in the case of Latin as a
sacred language in older forms of Catholicism. When a sacred
language is used for liturgical actions it is used primarily its
purpose is usually the performance of a religious act in a way
which is reverent and mystical. It can also reflect a particular
understanding of the nature of public worship in which the
liturgical act is seen as undertaken between the performer of the
act (for example a priest) and its divine recipient, while the
faithful are secondary participants who witness the liturgical act
or have a limited role in its performance. For example, in
Orthodox Christianity the part of the faithful is performed by a
choir, in traditional Catholicism the role of the faithful was
performed by a server, in spoken services, or by a choir and
servers in sung service or in Islam where the linguistic parts of the
liturgy are performed primarily by the imam, with the faithful
responding. The relationship of the faithful to the liturgy is
therefore primarily one of observer and understanding of the
liturgy by the faithful is not seen as a necessary element of
liturgical practice.
The comprehensibility perspective views the role of liturgical
language as communicative; it has a role in communicating with
the faithful and the force of the liturgy comes from its being
understood. From this perspective liturgical action is seen either
as a collective religious act, as a form of instruction or as a way of
propagating beliefs and the liturgical language needs to permit
participation and allow for access to the liturgical action. This
particular view of language became highly theologised during the
Protestant reformation in Europe when using the language of the

faithful in public worship became a fundamental tenet of belief.
For example Article XXIV (Of speaking in the Congregation in
such a tongue as the people understandeth) of the 1563 Anglican
Articles of Religion states:
It is a thing plainly repugnant to the Word of God, and the
custom of the Primitive Church, to have publick Prayer in
the Church, or to minister the Sacraments in a tongue not
understanded of the people.
The two perspectives relate to two very different

orientations to experiences of the divine. In the sacral view, an
experience of the divine is seen as mysterious, numinous and
transcendent and the worshipper engages with the divine through
mediated, symbolic ritual. In addition, the experience of the
divine orients primarily to the affective domain and is understood
as being primarily an emotional communion not anchored in a
literal understanding of the words of the of the liturgy. The sacral
view may therefore place a very limited emphasis on the language
itself as a constituent part of the liturgy, as in the case in
traditional
Catholic
and
Orthodox
liturgies.
The
comprehensibility view, one the other hand, sees an experience of
the divine as immanent and personal and the worshipper engages
more directly with the divine through collective communication.
This view emphasizes the cognitive dimension: worship is an
intellectual communion oriented to understanding the divine
person or divine acts. Understanding the language is therefore
central to the proper execution of any liturgical act as liturgical
acts have an important propositional dimension. In such a view,
public language is addressed not only to a divine person: the
worshippers themselves are also understood as audience. These
views can be taken as representing poles on a continuum with
various practices located at different points along the continuum.
Moreover, both views may co-exist in understandings of liturgical
languages and the views of a community may shift between
emphasizing sacrality and emphasizing comprehensibility over
time.
C. Effects the two perspectives on language use

These two perspectives have direct consequences for the
ways that religious institutions respond to language issues.
The sacrality perspective is strongly associated with linguistic
conservatism and established or ancient language forms are seen
as being more appropriate for religious use than contemporary
forms. This conservatism can become fundamental to
understandings of language use, as in the case of the decrees of
the Council of Trent promulgated by the Catholic Church as a
response to the Protestant Reformation. In Session 7, Canon 9
states:
Si quis dixerit, ecclesiae Romanae ritum, quo secreto et submissa
voce verba consecrationis proferuntur, damnandum esse,
missamque nonnisi in lingua vulgari celebrari debere ... anathema
sit. [If anyone says that the rite of the Roman Church,
according to which a part of the canon and the words of
consecration are pronounced in a low tone, is to be
condemned; or that the mass ought to be celebrated in the
vernacular tongue only let him be anathema.]
That is the idea that a vernacular language could be a

legitimate language for religious use is seen as sinful and
ultimately leading to damnation.
The comprehensibility perspective is associated with the
adoption of the languages of the local community of the faithful
for religious purposes. This was central to the LPP of the
Protestant Reformation: Luther emphasized the development of a
German language liturgy for reasons of both theology and church
government. One key element of Protestant LPP has therefore
been the development of religious resources in many languages
and the establishment of Bible translation activities. The work of
Protestant missionaries has developed many languages as
liturgical languages, especially in Africa and the Pacific.
There are in fact complex interactions between the two
perspectives over time. The impact of linguistic conservatism can
be seen even in religious traditions which initially adopted a
comprehensibility view of liturgical language. This is the case in
Anglican Protestantism with the retention of the 1662 Book of
Common Prayer in to twentieth century liturgical practice. This is
the case for example in Orthodox Christianity where classical

varieties have been maintained as liturgical languages, Greek and
Armenian Churches. Linguistic conservatism may also lead to a
situation in which a language is maintained for liturgical use long
after the community has ceased to use it for other functions, as in
the case of Old Church Slavonic in Orthodox churches in the
Slavic world, Coptic in Egyptian Christian communities, Geez in
Ethiopian Christianity and Pali in Theravada Buddhism.
Moreover, the emphasis on sacrality may lead to the deliberate
selection of archaic varieties for liturgical use. For example the
1662 version Book of Common Prayer used a more archaic version
of English than those developing the 1552 Anglican Service Book
(Nervalainen, 1991).
Alternatively, religious institutions that had promoted an
ancient language for sacral reasons may change their theological
position in relation to language and adopt a comprehensibility
perspective. This has been the case, for example, for the Catholic
Church, since the Second Vatican Council when a uniform Latin
liturgy, which had long been defended against calls for translation
and vernacularisation, was replaced with a vernacular liturgical
norm that has led to the proliferation of translations into many
languages. While the Catholic Churchs decision to adopt a
vernacular liturgy was a wide theological change of orientation,
such changes may also been seen at local levels. This has often
been the experience of religious organizations in diasporic
contexts relating to migration in which subsequent generations
shift from the language of their ethnic origin to the language of
their host society. This has led for example to some diasporic
Orthodox Churches introducing the language of the host country
into liturgical practice, even though a classical language variety is
maintained as the liturgical norm in their country of origin
(Wigglesworth, 2008). In some cases, religious organizations may
begin as ethnically based institutions but become less ethnically
based over time, either because of changes within the original
group or of diffusion of the religion across ethnic groups. Hatoss
(2012) for example traces a decline in the use of German by the
Lutheran Church in Australia not only because of shift from
German to English among the congregations but also because
Lutheranism has evolved to become a multiethnic denomination
6
in Australia as new patterns of immigration brought into

Australian churches Lutherans from other countries speaking
other languages.
Religious
organizations
with
a comprehensibility
perspective in relation to liturgical language do not, however,
always adopt the language of the faithful as the normal liturgical
language. This has been especially the case in contexts of
colonialism, where the colonizers language has been used as the
liturgical language. In such situations, religious conversion and
thus religious practice becomes closely the colonial project of
imposing the metropolitan language and culture on colonized
societies. In this case, missionary work may involve a
considerable element of language education to prepare new
converts for participation in public worship. For example, in the
South Australian colony, Governor Grey forbade the use of the
Kaurna language in the services of the Lutheran mission in
Adelaide and forcibly relocated the children to the Native School
Establishment (Amery, 2001) and English-only establishment.
Henceforth the religious development of indigenous people was
to be through English not through their own language. Similarly,
the Buddhist Dhammacarik program, established in 1965 to
propagate Buddhism among the animist hill tribes sought to
disseminate religion as a strategy to integrate minorities into the
Thai nation and to establish loyalty to Thailand in precarious
border regions (Platz, 2003). The language of proselytizing chosen
by the Dhammacarik program was Thai the official language, and
this was articulated closely with the desire to use Buddhism as a
vehicle for assimilating hill tribes to the Thai nation. In some
cases, the adopting of a local vernacular as a liturgical language
may become a vehicle for spreading that language to other groups
to create supralocal liturgical languages. This is often the case
where a religious mission is located in a plurilingual area and the
use of a single language is institutionally easier than adopting and
developing multiple languages for religious purposes. Dunn
(2007), for example, reports that in New Georgia (Solomon
Islands) the Methodist mission first developed as Roviana as a
liturgical language for a mission located in a Roviana speaking
area. When the Mission expanded to Touo speaking Ughele
Island, Roviana was used as the liturgical language of both
communities and in the Mission school. Crowley (2000) also

reports the extension of languages as mission lingua francas in
Vanuatu. In these cases, the practices of religious bodies with a
comprehensibility perspective of language use may come to
resemble the practices of bodies that have a sacral view. The
teaching of English to converts to Protestantism in order to enable
them to fulfil their religious obligations may parallel the teaching
of Arabic for similar reasons in Islamic schools in non-Arabicspeaking areas.
The interactions between language practices and language
perspectives are therefore complex. While sacral views of
language and their associated linguistic conservatism may
preserve fixed patterns of language use, comprehensibility
perspectives are often much more complex. In particular, in
comprehensibility views other factors, such as perceptions of
particular registers as most appropriate for religious use, the
impact of tradition, wider language policies and even local
institutional imperatives may influence language use in ways
which seem to compromise the comprehensibility perspective.
D. Influence of perspectives on the reception of language
decisions
It is possible that language perspectives may change
within a particular organization. Where the change is from sacral
language to comprehensible language, the change itself tends to
be sudden, although the change may be preceded by a long
period of debate about language use. The change in the Catholic
Church from Latin to vernacular languages for example was
enacted by the Second Vatican Councils Sacred Constitution on
the Liturgy promulgated in 1963 (Second Vatican Council, 1998)
and this constituted an abrupt change between a Latin only
language policy for the Roman liturgy to one of linguistic
pluralism. However, the debates about the use of the vernacular
date back to the controversy over the Chinese liturgy of the 17th
century (Bontinck, 1962; Liddicoat, 1993). The change from a
comprehensible perspective to sacral one is usually a slow
evolution resulting from developing linguistic conservatism over
time that comes first to preserve a language variety from a
particular time and then asserts this as a linguistic norm. This was
8
the case for example, with the Anglican 1662 Book of Common
Prayer, which itself was based on norms of older prayer books and
Bible translations (Nervalainen, 1991), and remained the liturgical
norm in English-speaking churches for almost three centuries
until the modern English revisions of the 20th century. This
linguistic conservatism existed alongside a prevailing
comprehensibility view that led to the translation of the prayer
book into other modern languages and represents a tension
between sacral and comprehensibility views within Anglicanism.
The movement from a sacral view of language to a
comprehensible view, because it is usually so rapid may be
problematic for religious organization and may lead to resistant to
change, at least among some groups within the organization.
Resistance may be based on perceived attributes of the language,
usually aesthetically attributes, but is most often linked to nonlinguistic arguments about the change (Dinges, 1987). The
substitution for a vernacular language for a sacral language may
for example be seen as theological corruption. One result of this
resistance has been the establishment within religious
organizations of bodies that maintain former language use in the
face of a changed language policy. This is the case, for example, of
the Prayer Book Societies in Anglicanism, which maintain the use
of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, and of the Priestly Fraternity
of St Peter in the Catholic Church. The resistance to language
change in such contexts may even lead to schism in order to
preserve the sacral language. This has been the case in the
Catholic Church, where some Traditional Mass Catholics
(including the Society of St Pius X and Sedevacantist groups such
as the Society of St Pius V) have separated from the Church and
have even declared the Church to be apostate.
E. Hybridity of practice
One consequence of the complexity of the interactions
between sacral and comprehensibility perspectives is that
liturgical practice may in fact be hybridized with some aspects of
public religious observance conducted in different languages. This
hybridity of practice frequently represents different understandings of various components of public worship. Religious
groups which emphasis the comprehensible may use other
languages in their services, as in the case of Latin versions of sung

liturgical texts in otherwise vernacular Anglican or Lutheran
ceremonies. In this case, the texts are regular parts of the liturgical
service and their function can be considered as known by
worshipers that is worshipers are assumed to know the
vernacular language versions of these texts. Moreover, these
elements may be considered as liturgical adornment rather than
as core components of worship, a view that in Western
Christianity is supported by a strong musical tradition of setting
for these texts in which liturgical function is often subordinated to
artistic form. The interventions of a sacral language into an
otherwise comprehensibility-oriented liturgical tradition are
usually limited and reserved for more peripheral aspects of the
public action of the liturgy. In contrast, within sacral perspectives
the use of vernacular languages may relate to core aspects of the
liturgy, where the purpose of the act is related to its
comprehensibility for participants. This applies most commonly
to the language used in sermons, in public devotions of a more
personal nature and in the making of vows, especially marriage
vows.
F. Sermons
In the case of sermons, the comprehensibility view of
language often prevails even in traditions that are otherwise
sacral in their approach. In liturgical traditions with a
comprehensibility view, the choice of language for preaching is
usually the same as the main liturgical language, as both are
chosen for the same reason. Where the liturgical variety is an
older variety of the language spoken in the community, the
sermon typically uses a contemporary language variety, except
where quoting religious texts. This has been the case for example
in the Anglican tradition in which the Book of Common Prayer has
been used.
In liturgies with a sacral orientation to language, a
comprehensibility orientation may govern the choice of language
for the sermon and preaching is done in the local language of the
faithful. In Judaism, the sermon at weekly services is usually
delivered in the language of the community and this practice has
been an element of synagogue worship since its development
10
with preachers using Aramaic in Palestine and Greek in diasporic

communities, and is evidenced in early Talmudic Judaism
(Joseph, 1890). The same is true of the sermon in the Latin-rite
Catholic Church homily. The Carolingian reform synod of 813
required that homilies be delivered in rusticam romanam linguam
aut theotiscam quo facilius cuncti possint intelligere que dicuntur [In
rustic Romance or German so that those present can more easily
understand what is said] (Jungmann, 1986 [1951] I: 458) explicitly
emphasizing the need for comprehensibility. In Islam, similarly,
the Friday sermon is usually delivered in the language of the
congregation, even though the service is conducted in classical
Arabic (Mattock, 2001) and the Pali language liturgy of Sri Lankan
Theravada Buddhism includes a sermon in Sinhala (Coperahewa,
2009). In the case of sermons the communication is between
preacher and people not between people and God so
comprehensibility is central to the purpose of the sermon.
In some cases, however, a sacred language may be used in
sermons even though it is not widely spoken: Although
comprehensibility would seem to be the main consideration for
sermons, there is evidence in some preaching practices for a sacral
orientation to language. For example, in both mediaeval
Catholicism, Latin was used in sermons long after Latin had
ceased to be known by congregations and macaronic sermons,
which mixed Latin and a local vernacular, formed part of
preaching practice (Constable, 1994). Similarly in mediaeval
Judaism, vernacular sermons were often interspersed with biblical
quotations in Hebrew, which preserved the sacred nature of
scripture (Saperstein, 1983). In the early modern period, in many
Jewish communities a tradition of vernacular preaching gave way
to one of preaching in Hebrew. The motivation for this appears to
have been one of identity: Hebrew sermons were considered an
important marker of differentiation for Jews living in
predominantly Christian societies in which vernacular preaching
was the norm (Meyer, 1988).
Preaching is thus a language activity in which the selection
of language orients relatively strongly to a comprehensibility
orientation to language because this accords best with the
function of preaching within a religious context. Nonetheless,
11
other ways of understanding language may influence the actual

practices chosen by individuals and communities.
G. Public devotions
In some cases, religious groups that use a sacred language
for most liturgical functions may use another language for extraliturgical public devotions. For example, traditional Catholicism
has usually used vernacular languages for public prayers, reciting
the rosary, following the Stations of the Cross, etc. These activities
are not the formal, central acts of worship of the institutional
Church but rather pious activities carried out by and for lay
people. In this case, the act of worship is made by individuals
rather than by the institutional church and so participation is
central to the act of worship. As acts of the faithful, it is necessary
for them to be performed in the language of the faithful in order
for them to achieve their devotional purpose.
H. Vows
In some religions, vows are made in the context of a public
ritual. This is especially the case for marriage, but can apply to
other types of vows. Acts of public worship that involve the
making of vows may be done in the vernacular even in religious
traditions that have a sacral view of language. For example, in
traditional Catholicism the marriage vows may be exchanged in
the vernacular, even though the rest of the liturgy is performed in
Latin, although the possibility always exists that vows may be
exchanged in Latin. The renewal of baptismal vows by the faithful
during the Holy Saturday ritual may also be done in the
vernacular. In Judaism the reading of the marriage contract may
be done in the vernacular, or it may be in Aramaic. In this case,
the reading in Aramaic is the fossilization of an earlier vernacular
tradition. In these cases, the vows are a binding public act of the
individuals involved and the individuals themselves require no
particular qualifications for participating in the vows. The focus of
the liturgical action is on a sacred undertaking and this requires
comprehension of the vow itself as a constituent element of the
undertaking. Thus, the possibility of performing the vow in the
vernacular language plays an important role in the
accomplishment of the vow. Some vows however may always be
12
restricted to the sacral language, as in the case of the priestly

ordination vows of the traditional Catholic Church, which were
always performed in Latin. These vows are fundamental to the
sacral role of the priest a role which is performed primarily
through the sacral language. The priest can therefore be
understood as an individual who is considered to be a competent
user of the language and the vow itself is embedded in the sacred
nature of priesthood.
I. Concluding comments
The choice of a liturgical language is not simply the
resolution of a linguistic problem; it is fundamentally connected
to ideas of religious conduct and integrated into the symbolic
systems of the religion. Decisions about liturgical language reflect
understandings of the nature and purpose of liturgy as a
collective action. Such understandings may be codified in some
way within a religious group or they may be worked through
locally by particular groups of worshipers. Language planning for
religious observance is a negotiation between views of language
as a means of communication and as an expression of religious
sentiment. These views of language relate to views of worship: the
immanence of worship as a local linguistic act and the
transcendence of worship as a form of collective religious
expression. Choices of liturgical language therefore encode
aspects of the self-concept of the religious group, not just their
assessment of their linguistic needs.
13
References
Amery, R. (2001). Language planning and language revival.
Current Issues in Language Planning, 2(3-4), 141-221.
Bontinck, F. (1962). La lutte autour de la liturgie chinoise aux XVIIe et
XVIIIe sicles. [The struggle around the chinese liturgy in
the 17th and 18th centuries]. Louvain: Catholic University of
Louvain.
Constable, G. (1994). The language of preaching in the twelfth
century. Viator, 25, 131-152.
Coperahewa, S. (2009). The language planning situation in Sri
Lanka. Current Issues in Language Planning, 10(1), 69-150.
Crowley, T. (2000). The language situation in Vanuatu. Current
Issues in Language Planning, 1(1), 47-132.
Dinges, W. D. (1987). Ritual conflict as social conflict: Liturgical
reform in the Roman Catholic Church. Sociological Analysis,
48(2), 138-157.
Ferguson, C. A. (1982). Religious factors in language spread. In R.
L. Cooper (Ed.), Language spread: Studies in diffusion and
social change. (pp. 95-106). Bloomington IN: Indiana
University Press.
Hatoss, A. (2012). Language, faith and identity: A historical
insight into discourses of language ideology and planning
by the Lutheran Church of Australia. Australian Review of
Applied Linguistics, 35(1), 94-112.
Joseph, M. (1890). About preaching. The Jewish Quarterly Review,
3(1), 120145.
Jungmann, J. A. (1986 [1951]). The Mass of the Roman rite: It origins
and development (Missarum sollemnia).(F. A. Brunner,
Trans.). Allen, Tx: Christian Classics.
Liddicoat, A. J. (1993). Choosing a liturgical language: The
language policy of the Catholic Mass. Australian Review of
Applied Linguistics, 16(2), 123-141.
Liddicoat, A. J. (2012a). Language planning and religion. Current
Issues in Language Planning, 13(2), 73-75.
Liddicoat, A. J. (2012b). Language planning as an element of
religious practice. Current Issues in Language Planning,
13(2), 121-144.
14
Liddicoat, A. J. (2013). Language planning in religious observance.

In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The encyclopedia of applied
linguistics. New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
Mattock, J. N. (2001). Islam in the Near East. In J. F. A. Sawyer & J.
M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), Concise encyclopedia of language and
religion. (Vol. 60-62). Elsevier: Amsterdam.
Meyer, M. A. (1988). Response to modernity: A history of the reform
movement in Judaism. New York: Oxford University Press.
Nervalainen, T. (1991). Motivated archaism: The use of affirmative
periphrastic do in Early Modern English liturgical prose.
In D. Kastovsky (Ed.), Historical English syntax. (pp. 303320). Berlin: de Gruyter.
Pennycook, A., & Makoni, S. (2005). The modern mission: The
language effects of Christianity. Journal of Language,
Identity, and Education, 4(2), 137-155.
Platz, R. (2003). Buddhism and Christianity in competition?
Religious and ethnic identity in Karen communities of
Northern Thailand. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 34(3),
473-490.
Saperstein, M. (1983). The sermon as art form: Structure in
Morteira's Giv'at Sha'ul. Prooftexts, 3(3), 243-261.
Second Vatican Council. (1998). Constitution on the sacred liturgy.
In A. Flannery, OP (Ed.), The conciliar and post-conciliar
documents, Vatican Council II. (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Northport,
NY: Costello.
Spolsky, B. (2003). Religion as a site of language contact. Annual
Review of Applied Linguistics, 23, 81-94.
Wigglesworth, A. E. (2008). The role of language in religion and
ethnic identity: A sudy of liturgical language use in the
Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada. The Canadian
Journal of Orthodox Christianity, 3(2), 33-49.
15
IN SEARCH FOR THE INTEGRATION OF

HERMENEUTICS AND ULUM AL-QURAN
Sahiron Syamsuddin
1. Introduction
One of the controversial issues in the field of the
interpretation of the Quran is whether hermeneutics that is used
for the interpretation of the Bible can be used for the
interpretation of the Quran. Some Muslim scholars point out that
it is impossible, or even not allowed for Muslims, to interpret the
Quran using hermeneutical methods. The most famous reason for
this is that hermeneutics does not match with the nature of the
Quran. Some others tend to see that it can be included into the
Sciences of the Quran (ulum al-Quran). They argue that through
it one can even improve the discipline. This essay will show that
some hermeneutical theories accord with the Quran
interpretation and therefore should be part of the ulum al-Quran.
Before mentioning these theories, it would be to give some
reasons why we need hermeneutics.
2. Hermeneutics
First of all, in terms of the definition of hermeneutics (in a
broad sense) in the Western tradition of thinking, we find four
terms that are related to each other: Hermeneuse, hermeneutics (in
a sense), philosophical hermeneutics and hermeneutical
philosophy. Ben Vedder defines in his work the term Hermeneuse
as die inhaltliche Erklaerung oder Interpretation eines Textes,
Kunstwerkes oder des Verhaltens einer Person (interpretation of a
text, arts or behavior of a person).1 According to this definition,
the term refers to the practice of explaining all things that can be
or must be interpreted. It does not refer to any exegetical
methods. The field that speaks of certain exegetical methods for
the purpose of getting correct and deep understanding of an
1
Ben Vedder, Was ist Hermeneutik? Ein Weg von der Textdeutung zur Interpretation der
Wirklichkeit (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2000), p. 9. See also Matthias Jung, Hermeneutik zur
Einfhrung (Hamburg: Junius, 2001), pp. 19-23.
In Search for the Integration of Hermeneutics and Ulum al-Quràn
object is called hermeneutics.2 In philosophical hermeneutics,

the exegetical methods do not take an important position. It rather
concerns with things that can be regarded as foundations and
requirements of interpretation and its methods. So, its core is to
search for conditions that pave the way for the interpretation.3
Hermeneutical philosophy is meant to be a philosophical branch
that deals with the interpretation, in which human beings are
considered first and foremost as exegetical beings.
Epistemological, ontological, ethical and aesthetical aspects of
human beings are mostly discussed in it. 4
If we look at the Islamic tradition related to the
interpretation (i.e. ulum al-Quran), we will find that out of the
four hermeneutical terms and fields only two terms, namely
Hermeneuse and hermeneutics in the sense of methodical
procedures, are given enough attention by Muslim scholars from
different countries and periods. In terms of Hermeneuse, or
tafsir/tawil in Arabic, they have produced a huge number of tafsirworks, such as Jami al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Quran (by at-Tabari),
Mafatih al-Ghayb (by Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi), al-Manar (by Abduh
and Rashid Rida) and Tafsir al-Mishbah (by Quraish Shihab). To
this field belong also some works that are by intention not
dedicated purely to the interpretation of the Quran, but consist of
the interpretation of several Quranic verses. Preachings in
mosques and other places, in which preachers quote and explain
the meaning of Quranic verses, belong to Hermeneuse as well. In
short, all exegetical practices can be included into this term. As in
relation to Hermeneuse, Muslims have long tradition with Quranic
hermeneutics. This can be seen from the fact that many scholars
(ulama) have written so many books on methods of interpreting
the Quran, such as al-Burhan fi Ulum al-Quran (by az-Zarkashi),
al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Quran (by as-Suyuti), al-Fawz al-Kabir fi Usul atTafsir (by ad-Dihlawi), Mabahith fi Ulum al-Quran (by as-Subhi)
etc. However, it seems that the exegetical methods would not be
improved by the majority of Muslim scholars in the contemporary
2
3
4
See Vedder, Was ist Hermeneutik, p. 9-10; Jung, Hermeneutik zur Einfhrung, p. 9. On
page 20 Jung defines hermeneutics as Methodenlehre der sachgerechten Auslegung
(method of correct interpretation).
See Vedder, Was ist Hermeneutik?, pp. 10-11; Jung, Hermeneutik zur Einfhrung, p. 21-22.
Vedder, Was ist Hermeneutik?, p. 11.
17
Sahiron Syamsuddin
period, in which Western scholars have experienced deeply with

hermeneutical methods in interpreting texts, the methods which
are seen to be more appropriate with modernity and modern
civilization. Only few Muslim scholars, such as Nasr Hamid Abu
Zayd,5 Muhammad Talbi6 and Abdullah Saeed,7 are eager to
develop the Quranic hermeneutics by adopting some
hermeneutical methods embeded in the Western tradition in
order to respond to contemporary challenges.
Unlike
Hermeneuse
and
Quranic
hermeneutics,
philosophical hermeneutics and hermeneutical philosophy have
not yet received enough attention from Muslim scholars. On the
contrary, Western experts of hermeneutics are very familiar with
these two fields. I believe that the embryos of the philosophical
hermeneutics and hermeneutical philosophy were already
proposed by Muslim philosophers and scholars in the past.
However, these are not improved by later Muslim generations. In
order to develop Islamic theories of interpretation, Muslims have
to search for what the Muslim philosophers and scholars
proposed in this field and to learn from Western hermeneutics.
However, this article would focus on what Muslims can learn
from the Western hermeneutics.
3. MuslimThinkers and Hermeneutics
As stated above, few Muslim thinkers are interested in
integrating hermeneutical theories in a broad sense to the ulum alQuran, insofar that they accord with the nature of the Quran as
divine revelation. This can be accepted for some reasons. First, to
adopt knowledge from other cultures was conducted by Muslim
scholars in the past. Such philosophers and theologians as alKindi, al-Farabi and Ibn Rushd learnt Greek philosophy, IndoPersian sciences and technology. Thank to this openness, they
could establish advanced Islamic civilization. Second,
hermeneutic and ulum al-Quran have the same object, i.e. text.
Third, many hermeneutical theories may strengthen what is
found in the ulum al-Quran. Fourth, through hermeneutics (in a
broad sense), the ulum al-Quran can be developed more
5
6
7
18
See Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Ishkaliyyat al-Qiraa wa Aliyyat at-Tawil.

See Muhammad Talbi, Iyal Allah (Tunis: Saras li-l-Nashr, 1992).
See Abdullah Saeed, Interpreting the Quran (London and New York: Routledge, 2006).
sophisticatedly, especially if the field of ulum al-Quran is

combined with philosophical hermeneutics and hermeneutical
philosophy. It will not only represent a pedagogic knowledge of
the interpretative strategies, but also become stronger and more
advanced due to philosophical thoughts. Fifth, the interpretative
product would be more appropriate for contemporary needs, if
one combines between exegetical methods found in the ulum alQuran and those in the hermeneutics.
4. Text and Context: Gracia
Although the usage of hermeneutics in the interpretation
of the Quran is plausible, it does not mean that all hermeneutical
theories can be applied. One should search for some theories that
are in accordance with the nature of the Quran as divine
revelation. One theory that does not accord with its nature is, for
example, that one should go into the psyche of the author in order
to understand correctly a text he composes. The theory that is
proposed by Friedrich Schleiermacher is impossible to be applied
to the Quran, because its author is Allah and no one can go into
His psyche.
However, there are many applicable theories. Here I
would like to give two examples: Jorge J. E. Gracias and HansGeorg Gadamers hermeneutics. Gracia builds a quite
comprehensive concept of hermeneutics. In his book, A Theory of
Textuality, he discusses the fundamental issues on hermeneutics.
He begins his book by proposing the nature of text, which is the
object of his hermeneutics. Having discussed it, he continues to
explore a theory of understanding before focusing on the nature
and method of interpretation. In this article, I outliene explore his
theories of interpretation and how far they can be used for
developing Quranic hermeneutics.
In relation to the concept of text, Gracia defines a text as a
historical entity, in that it is produced by the author or emerges in
a certain time and place for a certain purpose. Thus, it is always
part of the past, and when we interact with it, someone should
play a role as a historian and try to go into the past. The problem
arising is that the interpreter almost does not have direct access to
the meaning of the text. The interpreter only has access to the
entities used by the author of a text in conveying certain message
19
Sahiron Syamsuddin
or meaning. So, an effort to discover the historical meaning is a

fundamental problem in hermeneutics. Gracia tries to propose a
solution to this hermeneutical problem by the development of
textual interpretation whose aim is to bridge the gap between a
situation in which a text was produced and a contemporary one in
which an interpreter who tries to discover the meaning of a
historical text. Before elaborating his thoughts more deeply, his
idea on the nature of interpretation is first explained here.
Gracia explains that interpretation is an English term
from the Latin interpretatio derived from the verb interpres
which etymologically meant to spread abroad. He asserts that
the word interpres also means an agent between two parties, a
broker or negotiator, and an explainer, expounder and translator.
The Latin term interpretatio comes to at least three possible
meaning: (1) meaning, so that to give interpretation is
equivalent to give the meaning of whatever is being interpreted,
(2) translation (a translation of a text from a certain language to
other), and (3) explanation and by this an interpretation is
meant to bring out what is hidden and unclear, to make plain
what is irregular, and to provide an account of something or
other.8 Gracia realizes that the object of interpretation is
essentially not only a text, but also facts, behavior, people, and
even the world. He asserts however that hermeneutics he builds
in his two major books is a textual hermeneutics, in which the
terminological meaning of interpretation is as below.
Gracia states that terminologically, interpretation can be
defined into three meaning. First, an interpretation is the same
thing as an understanding one has of the meaning of a text.9 In
this case, he refers to, for example, Hirsch.10 In some cases,
understanding is indeed only one, for example: 2+2=4. However,
in many cases, interpretation is indicated by two things: (1) a
certain interpretation is not the only possible and valid
understanding of a text, and (2) the interpreters subjectivity plays
9
10
20
See Gracia, A Theory of Textuality: the Logic and Epistemology (Albany: State University of
New York Press, 1995), p. 147.
Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 148.
See E.D. Hirsch, Jr., Three Dimensions of Hermeneutics, New Literary History 3
(1972), p. 246.
significant role in interpretation.11 With regard to to this matter,

Gracia states that the truth of interpretation can be plural. Second,
an interpretation is a process or activity whereby one develops an
understanding of a text. In this meaning, an interpretation
involves decoding to the text to understand its meaning, and this
understanding is not to be identical with the meaning itself.12
Third, an interpretation refers to texts which involve the three
things, (1) interpretandum (the text being interpreted), (2) the
interpreter, and (3) interpretans (the commentary added to it).
Interpretandum is a historical text, while interpretans is the
commentary one added by the interpreter, so that interpretandum
is more easily understood.13 Thus, interpretation consists of both
of interpretandum and interpretans.
According to Gracia, the general function of interpretation
is to create in the contemporary audiences mind understanding
to the text being interpreted. He divides it to the three specific
functions, i.e. historical function, meaning function and
implicative function. First, an interpretation functions to produce
in the contemporary audiences the understanding of the author
and historical audiences to a text. This is the historical function.
The second function is to produce in the contemporary audiences
the understanding, in which they can understand the meaning of
the text, whether or not the meaning is intended by the author or
historical audiences or not. The third function is to produce an
understanding so that contemporary audiences can understand
the implication of the meaning of the text being interpreted.14
As stated before, each interpretation, according to Gracia,
must
contain
information/explanation
added
to
the
interpretandum. It then brings out what Gracia called as
interpreters dilemma, especially related to the function of
11
12
13
14
See Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 148. See also Ernst Konrad Specht, LiteraryCritical InterpretationPsychoanalytical Interpretation, translated by John M. Conolly
dan Thomas Keutner, in John M. Conolly dan Thomas Keutner (ed.), Hermeneutics
versus Science? Three German Views (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press,
1988), p. 154.
Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 148-149. The concept of differentiation between
understanding and making understandable found also in Schleiermacher,
Hermeneutics, p. 96. This differention is rejected by Hans Georg Gadamer dalam Truth
and Method, p. 274.
See Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 155-164.
21
Sahiron Syamsuddin
historical interpretation. In one hand, the additional commentary

indicates the distortion of the text being interpreted, and on the
other, without interpretans, the interpretation may be not be able
to make contemporary audiences understand the text being
interpreted for there are cultural and time distance between them
and the text. To solve this problem or dilemma, Gracia proposes
the Principle of Proportional Understanding. This principle
requires that the interpretation must firstly produce the objective
meaning. Gracia argues that the understanding of the
contemporary audiences through interpretation must similar to
that of the author of the text and the historical audiences. Thus,
the main aim of interpretation is:
To create a text that produces in the audience (the contemporary
audience) acts of understandings that are intentionally the same
to those produced by the historical text in the historical author
and the historical audience of the historical text.15
Furthermore, an interpreter has the right to develop

understanding as the continuation of the objective understanding,
so that the text being interpreted has the significance and is
applied in accordance with the time and place in which it is
interpreted. It is this development of the meaning to which Gracia
refers by the meaning and implicative function.
Gracia then divides the interpretation into two categories:
(1) textual interpretation, and (2) non-textual interpretation.
Whether an interpretation is classified to the first or second one
depends on the aim of interpretation. Gracia said that:
A textual interpretation is precisely the sort of interpretation we
have been discussing in this chapter. It is an interpretation of a
text that adds to the text whatever is thought by the interpreter
to be necessary to get certain results in contemporary minds in
relation to the text, when those results are taken in one of three
ways: First, as the re-creation of the acts of understanding of the
historical author and the historical audience, that is, as the
understanding of the meaning the historical author and the
historical audience had; second, as the production of acts of
understanding whereby the meaning of the text, regardless of
what the historical author and historical audience thought, is
15
22
understood by the contemporary audience; and third, as the

production of acts of understanding whereby the implications of
the meaning of the text are understood by the contemporary
audience.16
The definition above shows that textual interpretation is

an effort to grasp the meaning of the text being interpreted
(interpretandum). On the basis of the reality of interpretation,
textual interpretation aims to grasp the original or historical
meaning of interpretandum, as intended by the author and the
historical audiences, to produce a new meaning by the interpreter
assuming that the interpreter has a role in producing the meaning
for the context in which the text is interpreted, and to grasp the
implication of a text. Gracias exploration of the three
interpretative functions and result of interpretation here does not
relate to the concept of interpretive truth, but merely to the reality
of interpretation.
As for the second type of interpretation, i.e. non-textual
interpretation, he defines that it is one that, although it may be
based on a textual interpretation, has something else as its
primary aim even if such an aim involves or is a kind of
understanding.17 To him, this non-textual interpretation does not
function or aim to reveal the meaning of the text and, or the
implication of the meaning of text, as is intended by the textual
interpretation, but to reveal what beyond the textual meaning.
According to Gracia, historical interpretation in broad meaning, in
which an interpreter tries to add some historical accounts that are
not mentioned in the text under interpretation, is one example of
the non-textual interpretation. Historical interpretation does not
only interact with the meaning and implication of the text being
interpreted, or in Amin al-Khullis terms ma fi n-nass (what is
inside the text), but also reveals and explains ma hawla n-nass
(what is surrounding the text).18 Gracias statement below is
interested to be considered:
The ultimate aim of the historian is to produce an account of the
past and that account includes not only textual interpretations,
16
17
18

Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, p. 164-165.
See Amin al-Khuli, Manahij Tajdid fi n-Nahw wa-l-Balaghah wa-t-Tafsir wa-l-Adab (Kairo:
Dar al-Marifah, 1961), p. 312-317.
23
Sahiron Syamsuddin
but also the reconstruction of the larger context in which the text
was produced, the ideas that the historical author did not put
down in writing or express in speech, the relations among
various texts from the same author and from other authors, the
causal connections among texts, and so on. 19
In sum, the historical interpretation and other non-textual

interpretations, such as psychological, philosophical, legal,
scientific, literary, and inspirational interpretations, aim to
produce understanding which involves not only the text being
interpreted, its meaning and implication, but also its relation to
others.
When we carefully look at the theory of the nature of
interpretation proposed by Gracia, we will come to the conclusion
that interpretation, textual or non-textual, is composed of some
other information that is added to the authorial meaning. This is
closely related to the theory of interpretive truth.
For Garcia, the truth value of interpretation can be plural.
The questions arising are what interpretive truth is and whether it
is possible to say that an interpretation is correct or incorrect of
true or false. He insists that it is not easy to determine the truth
value of an interpretation, especially textual interpretation, for, as
it has been mentioned above, it has three functions. Someone who
conducts a historical interpretation claims that her or his
interpretation is true, for he or she has produced in contemporary
audiences an understanding that is the same as what was
understood and intended by the author of a text being
interpreted. One who focuses on the meaning function states that
his or her interpretation is true, for he or she succeeds in
producing in the contemporary audiences an understanding of
the significance of a text being interpreted for contemporary
period. Meanwhile, an interpretation stressing on its implicative
function considers his or her interpretation as true, because it
produces an understanding of the implication of the texts
meaning to contemporary audiences. Accordingly, Gracia says
that it is not relevant to determine whether an interpretation is
correct or false. What is relevant is to say that such interpretation
is more effective or less effective, or more appropriate or less
19
24
appropriate.20 The relativity of exegetical truth here does not tend

to negative relativity, unlimited relativity. This relativity of truth
does not mean that everybody is allowed to interpret a text on the
basis of his or her own willing or subjectivity, unlimitedly. An
interpreter who wants to know the original or historical meaning
of a text should analyze the language used at the time in which it
emerged and pay attention to its historical context. Moreover,
when one is willing to extend the interpretation into its meaning
and implicative, he or she is subjects to a certain rule, so that his
or her explanation still has close connection to the original
meaning.
On the basis of the nature and reality of interpretation
explained above, Gracia argues that interpretive truth is not
monolithic, but plural. The plurality of interpretive truth is not
only related to the non-literal interpretation in which an
interpreter has more roles in determining the meaning, but also to
the textual interpretation. The meaning and implication functions
of the interpretation admit interpretive differences among
interpreters due to the diversity of their horisons. Gracia shows
the example that, in the reality of interpretation, Aristotles works
are interpreted by many people. In this case, Gracia agrees with
Immanuel Kant who argues that we will never reach the final and
definitive descriptions in science and philosophy.21 This
statement is in line with what is said by Issa J. Boullata, an
emeritus professor in McGill University, when he describes the
reality in the Quranic interpretation. He says, Meaning has been
shown to depend on so many elements in the text and its context,
as well as in the relationship of both to other texts and contexts,
that a single interpretation can no longer be considered to be
sufficient or claim finality for itself.22 Jane D McAuliffe says, No
exegetical agenda is ever finally fixed. The last word has yet to be
spoken.23
The plurality of textual interpretation does not mean that
interpretive truth is relative and unlimited, or in Gracias term,
20
21
22
23

Gracia, A Theory of Textuality, pp. 168-169.
Issa J. Boullata, Introduction, in Issa J. Boullata (ed.), Literary Structures of Religious
Meaning in the Quran (Richmond: Curzon Press, 2000), p. xi.
Jane D. McAuliffe, Quranic Christians: an Analysis of Classical and Modern Exegesis
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 292.
25
Sahiron Syamsuddin
infinitive regress, for each interpretation must contain

interpretandum (the text being interpreted) and interpretans
(additional commentary which is still related to interpretandum),24
in which the additional commentary depends on many factors,
such as the expertise of the interpreter and his or her background
and experience. It also does not mean that all interpretations are
true, in the sense that an interpreter interprets according merely
to his or her will. An interpretation will be considered true as long
as the additional commentary (1) explains the intention of the text
being interpreted, and (2) is not contrary in principle with what is
intended by the text.
That an interpretation must be composed of interpretandum
and interpretans indicates that, for Gracia, it must contain
objectivity and subjectivity at the same time. It raises the question
of to what extend the subjectivity of an interpreter and the
objectivity of interpretandum play a significant role in an
interpretation. On that basis, an interpretation will be considered
highly subjective, if an interpreter pays only little attention to the
language of a text being interpreted and its historical factors
having role in determining the meaning of the text. An
interpretation is regarded as highly objective, if in the
interpretation interpretandum and other factors determining the
historical meaning of the text become the priority of an
interpreter.25
5.
Gracias Hermeneutics and Ulum al-Quran

Understanding Gracias hermeneutical theory and
method, I would prove that his thought is beneficial to develop
the Quranic sciences (ulum al-Quran) as well as the exegetical
activity. I would discuss some significance of the integration
between Gracias hermeneutics and Ulum al-Quran. In this
regard, this integration has, at least, two benefits: (1) the
possibility of developing a philosophical theory of the Quran
interpretation, and (2) the strengthening of interpretation ethics.
We acknowledge that it is difficult to find philosophical
works on ulum al-Quran in Islamic world. Only few works
24
25
26

discuss about the subject. On the other, philosophical

hermeneutics, a branch in General hermeneutics which discusses
fundamental issues related to interpretive activity (tafsir, exegesis,
Auslegung; Hermeneuse) and method of interpretation, has rapidly
developed in the West. Such works as Truth and Method by Hans
Georg Gadamer and A Theory of Interpretation by Gracia are just
examples. Further, Western scholars, such as Heidegger in his
Work Sein und Zeit, have achieved what they called hermeneutical
philosophy.
The small number of such works in the Islamic world is
partly caused by a pragmatic factor, in a sense that ulum al-Quran
is merely viewed as the pedagogical aspect in the field of Quranic
interpretation. It only accommodates what are applicable in the
interpretive practice. Scholars of ulum al-Quran do not consider
important the addition of philosophical aspects to this methodical
one. The embryo of philosophical hermeneutics, however, has
been found in some classical works in Islamic history, such as
Qanun al-Tawil by al-Ghazali dan Fashl al-Maqal by Ibn Rusyd.
Nowadays, some works of Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Hasan Hanafi
and Muhammed Abid al-Jabiri can be classified as works on ulum
al-Quran, which have philosophical characteristics. This model
needs to be developed.
To develop ulum al-Quran, Muslim scholars need to study
what have been thought by some Muslim scholars in the past as
well as by scholars of hermeneutics of the Western tradition. To
pay attention to hermeneutical thoughts from the Islamic tradition
is needed, because, in addition to the fact that one would find the
embryo of such philosophical hermeneutics, the thought are
rooted in the same, or similar, theological tradition. The
necessity of taking into account the Western thought on this field
is based on the fact that contemporary scholars of hermeneutics in
the West have succeeded in achieving a huge number of
hermeneutical theories. Moreover, they have come to what they
called hermeneutical philosophy. These are expected to
strengthen the position of ulum al-Quran in the future.
One example of how some aspects of ulum al-Quran can
be developed concerns with the definition of the term tafsir. In the
books of the discipline, the term tafsir, which etymologically
means kasyf (to reveal) and bayan (to explain), is defined as: fahm
27
Sahiron Syamsuddin
kitab Allah al-munazzal ala nabiyyihi Muhammad wa-bayan maanihi

wa-istikhraj ahkamihi wa-hikamihi 26 (to understand the book of
God, to explain its meaning and to extract its laws and wisdom).
The above-mentioned definition of tafsir proposed by Badr al-Din
al-Zarkashi shows us three substantial activities in the
interpretation of the Quran: i.e. (1) to understand (fahm,
verstehen), (2) to explain (bayan, erklaeren) and (3) to extract
(istikhraj, extrahieren). These three components have essentially
covered substantial matters in the activity of interpretation.
However, they are not explained sophisticatedly. The question of
what is the distinction between these three words is not found in
the work of al-Zarkashi.. Probably, he wanted to let his readers to
check them in other works. However, without direct explanation,
the readers may not realize the significant distinction of them. It is
clear that Gracias exploration of the nature of understanding and
interpretation (including the definition and functions of
interpretation) could complete the explanation of the definition of
tafsir. Gracia explores the term understanding deeply. He says:
Understanding is not, however, the same as meaning.
Understanding is a kind of mental act whereby one grasps
something, which in the case of texts is their meaning.27
Understanding is a mental act, an effort to grasp the meaning of
the text. Thus, understanding is psychological and personal, in the
sense that it is on the interpreters mind before he or she expresses
it publicly, in a written or oral form.
Bayan (explanation) is the continuation of fahm
(understanding). After an understanding of a text emerges in the
interpreters mind or soul, he or she continues another activity, i.e.
to explain the meaning of the text by analyzing possible aspects
that are realated to it, such as linguistic and literary ones, in order
to deliver its message to the public through a written or oral form.
This activity is called in Arabic bayan. Unfortunately, al-Zarkasyi
does not deeply explore the term bayan in his definition of tafsir.
Probably he did not need to do it for a certain reason. Therefore, it
is then the responsibility of contemporary scholars to complete
this lack. The theory of the function of interpretation, especially
26
27
28
Badr al-Din al-Zarkasyi, al-Burhan fi Ulum al-Quran (Cairo: Maktabat Dar al-Turath,
n.d.), 1:13.
historical function and meaning one, can help us to explain the

form of bayan. Likewise, the concept istikhraj ahkamihi wa-hikamihi
can be elaborated by the term implicative function of
interpretation. In sum, there should be such explanation of the
definition of tafsir in the Islamic tradition, for it really helps the
readers to understand its aspects. Yet, we are difficult to find
them in the works of ulum al-Quran. By integrating the
hermeneutical theory, in this case the theory of Gracia, into the
Islamic tradition, we can construct a more sophisticated and
deeper definition of tafsir.
The second benefit of the integration of hermeneutics into
the ulum al-Quran is that it may develop the ethics of
interpretation. For example, such theories as those of pluralistic
truth, diversity of interpretative functions and subjectivityobjectivity in the interpretation can play an important role in
avoiding the truth claim. Recently, fundamentalist groups have
emerged in many places in the Islamic world. They consider their
own interpretation of religious texts as the only true. This kind of
view and attitude is contrary to the ethics of interpretation. This
ethic says that an interpreter should not claim that his or her
interpretation is the only true interpretation, for in fact there are
many factors which limit an interpreter to come to the only
exegetical truth. Practically, some earlier scholars had provided us
lessons to avoid the truth claim. Al-Imam al-Syafii, for example,
said: What I think is true, but it is possibly false, while what
others think is false, but it may also be true. His statement
indicates that he did not regard himself as the most correct.
Mutual respect among scholars of Islamic law, sufis, and Muslim
philosophers in the past also showed clearly that they were in the
correct ethic of interpretation. Such ethic should continue to be
strengthened and developed in the current situation, so that we
have tolerant attitude towards different interpretations.
6. Gadamer and Ulum al-Quràn
Another example of hermeneutical theories that might
develop ulum al-Quràn is what Hans-Georg Gadamer mention in
his works. He proposes the theories of historically effected
29
Sahiron Syamsuddin
awareness,28 pre-understanding,29 fusion of horizons30 and

application31 proposed by Hans Georg Gadamer. In short, we
can say that, according to these theories, everyone has his own
horizon of understanding which results from historical situations
in which he lives. This horizon creates pre-understanding,
through which he can understand a text and make dialogue with
it. However, this pre-understanding should not impose on his
understanding of the text in order that he does not misunderstand
it. In reverse, he should let the text speak to him. He should also
be aware that the text has its own horizon. So, if one interprets a
text from the past, he must consider its historicity, meaning that
he must look at its historical situations. In this case, both horizons
have their own position and must be fused in the process of
understanding. The awareness of the historicity of a text can
prevent interpreters from misunderstandings. Thus, the preunderstanding of the interpreter and his/her contemporary
horizons of understanding could impose on the interpretation
without any proper reflection. This was already emphasized by
Gadamer:
Das [d.h. den Text zu verstehen] bedeutet aber, dass die eigenen
Gedanken des Interpreten in die Wiedererweckung des
Textsinnes immer schon mit eingegangen sind. Insofern ist der
eigene Horizont des Interpreten bestimmend, aber auch er nicht
wie ein eigener Standpunkt, den man festhlt oder durchsetzt,
sondern mehr wie eine Meinung und Mglichkeit, die man ins
Spiel bringt und aufs Spiel setzt und die mit dazu hilft, sich
wahrhaft anzuzeigen, was in dem Texte gesagt ist. 32
The interpretation of a text, Gadamer argues, is like a

conversation in which an interviewer tries to understand those
who are being interviewed: Die Auslegung ist wie das Gesprch
28
29
30
31
32
30
Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, pp. 306-307.

Gadamer, Das Problem des historischen Bewusstseins, p. 5.
Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, p. 367.
Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode, p. 313; Idem., Text and Interpretation, pp. 393-394.
It [i.e. to understand the text], however, means that the thoughts of the interpreter are
always brought in the reawakening of the meaning of the text. To this extent, the
horizon of the interpreter could be influential, but it is not like a specific position that
must be enforced firmly; it is rather an opinion and a possibility that one brings into
play, and through its help, it is truly shown what is said or meant in the texts. See
ein durch die Dialektik von Frage und Antwort geschlossener

Kreis33 (the interpretation is like the conversation through the
dialectic of question and answer closed circle). This comparison
aims to avoid any misunderstanding of what someone says or
what a text means. In conversation, this avoidance is easier than
that in the interpretation of a text, but the hermeneutical
mechanism is the same. The task of an interpreter resembles the
task of a journalist: to get true information about what happened
and what someone said. In other words, the first task of
interpretation is to find out the original historical meaning which
is in fact something fixed and immutable. The other task of
interpretation is to explain how the Quran can be of importance
for Muslims living in the moment of interpretation (i.e. in the
present and future), in which the challenges and situations are or
will be different from those at the time of the revelation.
In terms of religious and moral texts that should be
implemented in the life, Gadamer adds the theory that these texts
should be reinterpreted by paying more attention to their main
messages (meaningful sense, Sinngem), not to their literal
meaning. This represents balanced hermeneutics that gives fair
position to the objectivity of the text and the subjectivity of the
interpreter. To my mind, these theories are very suitable with the
interpretation of the Quran. They accord, for example, with the
theories of asbab an-nuzul (occasions of revelation), naskh
(abrogation), makki-madani (Meccan and Medinan revelation) etc.
Even, through the hermeneutical explanation these theories of
ulum al-Quran become more elegant and reasonable.
33
31
Sahiron Syamsuddin
References
Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid, Ishkaliyyat al-Qiraa wa Aliyyat at-Tawil.
al-Khuli, Amin, Manahij Tajdid fi n-Nahw wa-l-Balaghah wa-t-Tafsir
wa-l-Adab, Kairo: Dar al-Marifah, 1961.
al-Zarkasyi, Badr al-Din, al-Burhan fi Ulum al-Quran, Cairo:
Maktabat Dar al-Turath, n.d.
Boullata, Issa J., Introduction, in Issa J. Boullata (ed.), Literary
Structures of Religious Meaning in the Quran, Richmond:
Curzon Press, 2000.
Gadamer, Text and Interpretation
Gadamer, Wahrheit und Methode.
Gracia, A Theory of Textuality: the Logic and Epistemology. Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1995.
Hirsch, E.D. Jr., Three Dimensions of Hermeneutics, New
Literary History 3, 1972.
Jung, Matthias, Hermeneutik zur Einfhrung, Hamburg: Junius,
2001.
McAuliffe, Jane D., Quranic Christians: an Analysis of Classical and
Modern Exegesis, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1991.
Saeed, Abdullah, Interpreting the Quran, London and New York:
Routledge, 2006.
Specht, Ernst Konrad, Literary-Critical InterpretationPsychoanalytical Interpretation, translated by John M. Conolly
dan Thomas Keutner, in John M. Conolly dan Thomas
Keutner (ed.), Hermeneutics versus Science? Three German
Views, Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
Talbi, Muhammad, Iyal Allah, Tunis: Saras li-l-Nashr, 1992.
Vedder, Ben, Was ist Hermeneutik? Ein Weg von der Textdeutung zur
Interpretation der Wirklichkeit, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2000.
32
KAJIAN ANTROPOLOGI DAN BAHASA

DI INDONESIA
Antropologi Budaya, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya
Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta Indonesia
1. PENGANTAR
Tidak mudah sebenarnya memetakan kajian-kajian
antropologi dan kajian bahasa di Indonesia, karena adanya
beberapa kendala yang tidak mudah diatasi. Pertama adalah
tidak mudahnya memperoleh informasi mengenai jurnal-jurnal
ilmiah yang me-muat hasil-hasil kajian antropologi dan bahasa di
Indonesia, karena tidak adanya ja-ringan jurnal ilmiah yang
representatif dan mudah diakses. Kedua, sulitnya mendapat-kan
informasi mutakhir mengenai penerbitan hasil kajian antropologi
dan bahasa beru-pa buku-buku karena tidak adanya pusat
informasi mengenai penerbitan buku-buku il-miah di Indonesia.
Ketiga, Tidak adanya pusat informasi perjurnalan dan perbukuan
yang mudah diakses, yang dapat memberikan informasi
mengenai perkembangan mu-takhir jurnal-jurnal dan buku-buku
ilmiah di Indonesia. Oleh karena itu, pemetaan kaji-an
antropologi dan bahasa dalam makalah ini haruslah dipandang
sebagai sebuah upaya awal dari upaya besar melakukan
pemetaan atas hal yang sama di masa-masa yang akan datang.
Mengingat pemahaman saya mengenai antropologi dan
ilmu bahasa (linguistik) ti-dak sama, maka pemetaan kajian
antropologi dan linguistik di sini juga menggunakan perspektif
yang berbeda. Untuk memetakan kajian antropologi, saya
menggunakan perspektif paradigma, sehingga kajian-kajian
antropologi yang saya ketahui kemudian dapat diklasifikasi
berdasarkan atas jenis paradigma yang digunakan dalam
penelitian. Untuk pemetaan kajian bahasa saya menggu-nakan
perspektif permasalahan, sehing-ga kajian-kajian liinguistik yang
saya ketahui dapat dikelompokkan atas dasar hasil yang didapat
oleh kajian-kajian tersebut. Meskipun cara telaah seperti ini akan
mem-buat hasilnya tidak sebanding satu dengan yang lain,

namun hal itu tidak akan mengu-rangi manfaat dari hasil
pemetaan tersebut.
Pemetaan kajian antropologi berdasarkan paradigma akan
menghasilkan peta ten-tang paradigma-paradigma antropologi
yang telah digunakan oleh para peneliti di In-donesia. Atas dasar
peta ini para peneliti kemudian dapat menggunakan paradigmaparadigma antropologi yang belum banyak digunakan di
Indonesia, atau mengem-bangkan lebih lanjut berbagai
paradigma yang telah digunakan. Pemetaan kajian ke-bahasaan
atas dasar masalah akan menghasilkan peta tentang
permasalahan yang telah dikaji oleh para peneliti bahasa di
Indonesia. Dengan demikian para peneliti ke-bahasaan di
Indonesia akan dapat memperdalam meneliti masalah-masalah
yang te-lah dikaji, atau membuka lahan permasalahan baru yang
masih belum dijamah oleh peneliti lain.
Pemetaan kajian-kajian antropologi di sini saya mulai dari
masa
1960an,
ketika
to-koh
antropologi
Indonesia,
Koentjaraningrat, mulai menerbitkan buku-buku hasil penelitiannya. Dengan membandingkan berbagai hasil kajian
antropologi Indonesia di masa itu dengan masa kini, dapat
diketahui perkembangan paradigmatis dari antropologi se-bagai
salah satu cabang ilmu sosial-budaya. Perkembangan baru
terlihat di masa per-tengahan 1980an, ketika buku-buku dan
tulisan antropologi yang lebih teoritis mulai bermunculan, yang
kemudian berpengaruh terhadap corak paradigma yang
digunakan oleh sarjana-sarjana antropologi Indonesia dalam
penelitian-penelitian mereka. Atas dasar inilah paparan mengenai
peta kajian antropologi di Indonesia di sini dibagi da-lam dua
periode besar. Periode pre-1985, dan periode post-1985.
2. PARADIGMA ANTRO-INDONESIA PRA-1985
Pada masa 1960-1985, penelitian-penelitian antropologi di
Indonesia pada umum-nya mengikuti salah satu corak dari tiga
corak penelitian di masa itu, yaitu: (a) peneliti-an deskriptif atau
etnografis, yang tidak sangat analitis; (b) penelitian deskriptif
tipolo-gis; dan (c) penelitian deskriptif mengenai perubahanperubahan masyarakat dan ke-budayaan, yang sedikit lebih
analitis (Ahimsa-Putra, 2007). Kebanyakan penelitian ini
34
Kajian Antropologi dan Bahasa di Indonesia
ditujukan terutama untuk dapat menghasilkan informasi yang

sebaik-baiknya menge-nai masyarakat dan budaya tertentu, yang
akan dapat memberikan pemahaman yang lebih baik pada
pembaca mengenai masyarakat dan kebudayaan di Indonesia.
Etno-grafi ini juga diharapkan akan dapat bermanfaat untuk studi
perbandingan kebudaya-an, yang lebih luas cakupannya.
a. Deskripti-Etnografis
Paradigma deskriptif etnografis dalam antropologi Indonesia terlihat terutama pada berbagai tulisan dari Koentjaraningrat
mengenai suku-suku-bangsa yang telah ditelitinya, baik itu secara
langsung ataupun melalui studi kepusta-kaan. Sebagian dasar
paradigma ini dipaparkan dalam bukunya Atlas Etnografi Sedunia. Dalam hal ini perlu diingat bahwa Koentjaraningrat jarang
sekali untuk tidak me-ngatakan belum pernah- berbicara
mengenai paradigma yang melatarbelakangi tulis-an-tulisannya.
Cap paradigma deskriptif, etnografis adalah istilah yang saya
gunakan untuk menyebut paradigma yang tidak pernah
dinyatakan secara eksplisit oleh Koen-tjaraningrat tersebut.
Hasil dari penggunaan paradigma tersebut dalam studi
kebudayaan adalah kum-pulan deskripsi kebudayaan yang
diteliti. Deskripsi ini dikatakan bersifat etnografis karena
merupakan uraian mengenai unsur-unsur kebudayaan yang
dianggap penting pada semua suku-bangsa di dunia, terutama
matapencaharian dan organisasi sosial. Matapencaharian
mencakup antara lain: pertanian, peternakan, perikanan, berburu
dan meramu, sedang organisasi sosial meliputi antara lain:
kelompok-kelompok keke-rabatan, pola menetap setelah
menikah, perkawinan, istilah kekerabatan, pelapisan sosial dan
integrasi politik dan suksesi (Ahimsa-Putra, 2007).
b. Deskriptif-Tipologis
Paradigma penelitian yang secara tidak begitu disadari diperkenalkan oleh Koentjaraning-rat adalah paradigma deskriptif
tipologis,
yang
terlihat
terutama
dalam
penelitian
Koentjaraningrat serta beberapa ahli antropologi dari gene-rasi
sesudahnya. Ada beberapa ciri utama dari paradigma ini. Salah
satunya adalah adanya tipologisasi atau klasifikasi atas gejala
yang diteliti. Masing-masing tipe ka-dang-kadang diberi nama,
kadang-kadang juga tidak, namun pada setiap tipe atau ke-las
35
ada ciri-ciri yang umum dan menonjol, yang membedakannya

dengan tipe atau ke-las yang lain.
Hasil penelitian dengan paradigma ini terlihat misalnya
pada buku Koentjaraningrat Introduction to Peoples and Cultures of
Indonesia and Malaysia (1975). Dalam buku ini Koentjaraningrat
mengklasifikasi masyarakat Indonesia yang berbagai macam itu
ber-dasarkan atas pola adaptasi mereka, sebagaimana terlihat
pada mata pencaharian mereka. Meskipun Koentjaraningrat
mengatakan bahwa pengelompokkan puluhan ke-budayaan
Indonesia dan Malaysia menjadi empat macam tipe kebudayaan
berdasar-kan atas the number of cultural influences integrated in the
culture, akan tetapi yang kemudian lebih terlihat justru aspek
matapencaharian dan lokasi topografis kebudaya-an tersebut.
Empat tipe kebudayaan yang dikemukakan adalah: (1)
kebudayaan-kebudayaan yang berdasarkan atas perladangan
berpindah, dengan tanam-tanaman seperti ubi talas, ubi jalar, dan
ubi-ubian lainnya; (2) kebudayaan-kebudayaan peda-laman yang
berdasarkan atas pertanian kering dan basah, dengan padi
sebagai ta-naman utamanya; (3) kebudayaan pantai yang
berdasarkan atas pertanian kering dan basah, dengan padi
sebagai tanaman utama; (4) kebudayaan pedalaman berdasarkan
atas pertanian padi basah (1975b: 52-59).
c. Perubahan (Jangka Pendek)
Paradigma perubahan merupakan salah satu paradigma
yang populer di kalangan ahli antropologi,.yang memang
membuat antro-pologi kemudian mirip dengan sejarah. Meskipun
demikian, hasil penelitian dengan perspektif perubahan ini tetap
berbeda dengan hasil penelitian ahli sejarah pada umumnya,
karena dalam hal ini para ahli antropologi jarang meneliti proses
perubahan yang berlangsung dalam waktu yang lama. Jika toh
proses perubahan yang diteliti ter-nyata berlangsung dalam
waktu yang cukup lama, maka strategi penulisan hasil pene-litian
ini kemudian berbeda dengan strategi penulisan ahli sejarah pada
umumnya.
Dalam penelitian dengan paradigma ini ahli antropologi
memusatkan perhatian pa-da perubahan-perubahan masyarakat
dan kebudayaan, atau pada salah satu gejala sosial-budaya
tertentu, bukan pada peristiwa-peristiwa yang khusus. Misalnya
36
saja perubahan pada matapencaharian, pada sistem kepercayaan,

pada sistem kekera-batan, dan seterusnya.
Tiga macam paradigma itulah yang terlihat dalam tulisantulisan etnografi yang muncul di tahun-tahun sebelum 1985.
Sebagian besar tulisan ini muncul dalam bentuk artikel-artikel
yang kemudian dihimpun menjadi sebuah buku dengan editor
Koentjara-ningrat. Para penulisnya adalah sarjana-sarjana
antropologi yang hampir semuanya adalah anak-bimbing
Koentjaraningrat sewaktu mereka mahasiswa (Ahimsa-Putra,
2007)
3. PARADIGMA ANTRO-INDONESIA POST-1985
Periode setelah 1985 yang berlanjut sampai kini -yang
berarti selama kira-kira 20 tahun, merupakan periode ketika
antropologi sebagai sebuah disiplin mengalami per-kembangan
yang pesat di Indonesia. Ini sangat terlihat pada paradigma yang
diguna-kan oleh para ahli antropologi dalam penelitian-penelitian
mereka. Beberapa paradig-ma baru yang muncul dalam
antropologi di Barat terlihat lebih jelas setelah tahun 1985
sementara itu paradigma-paradigma yang sudah muncul
sebelumnya juga tidak meng-hilang, sehingga paradigmaparadigma antropologi di Indonesia menjadi lebih banyak dan
lebih bervariasi.
a. Deskriptif, Tipologis, / Klasifikatoris
Sebagaimana halnya paradigma perban-dingan crosscultural, perkembangan paradigma deskriptif tipologis ini juga
tidak ba-nyak terjadi pada unsur-unsur pemikiran teoritis yang
mendasarinya, tetapi lebih pada datanya. Untuk dapat
melakukan tipologisasi kebudayaan yang cukup komprehensif
diperlukan data etnografi yang cukup banyak dan lengkap
mengenai kebudayaan-ke-budayaan yang ada atau mengenai
gejala kebudayaan yang akan diklasifikasi. Data semacam inilah
yang terlihat bertambah jumlahnya dalam tulisan-tulisan yang
dihasil-kan oleh para ahli antropologi Indonesia, walaupun tidak
semua etnografi tersebut di-tujukan untuk menjadi bahan bagi
pengembangan kajian yang deskriptif tipologis (Ahimsa-Putra,
2007)
37
Sistem taksonomi, tipologi, atau klasifikasi ini memang

sangat diperlukan dalam ke-giatan ilmiah agar data yang begitu
banyak dan bervariasi dapat dikuasai dengan cara tertentu atau
dapat dipahami dari suatu sudut pandang tertentu serta tampak
memiliki keteraturan. Meskipun demikian, perlu diingat di sini
bahwa kategorisasi atau ketera-turan tersebut sebenarnya
merupakan hasil kerja dari pikiran kita, dan tidak inherent
terdapat dalam data yang berhasil dikumpulkan (Ahima-Putra,
2007).
Data etnografi yang telah terkumpul akhirnya
memunculkan suatu kebutuhan untuk memiliki sebuah gambar
yang agak umum mengenai masyarakat dan kebudayaan di
Indonesia. Untuk itu diperlukan sebuah sistem klasifikasi
masyarakat dan kebudayaan di Indonesia yang akan
memungkinkan peneliti memahami variasi tersebut dengan agak
mudah. Klasifikasi ini didasarkan pada kriteria tertentu yang
dapat dipilih oleh se-orang peneliti sesuai dengan kebutuhannya.
Tonggak utama dari kehadiran paradig-ma semacam ini dalam
antropologi Indonesia adalah buku Koentjaraningrat mengenai
masyarakat Indonesia dan Malaysia. Buku ini berada dalam satu
jalur dengan buku dari Hilderd Geertz (19
) yang juga
menampilkan tipe-tipe masyarakat dan kebudaya-an di
Indonesia.
Walaupun paradigma perbandingan ini telah muncul
sebelum tahun 1985, namun pada periode setelah 1985 tetap tidak
terlihat adanya wacana yang lebih teoritis me-ngenai studi
perbandingan kebudayaan ini. Bahkan studi-studi kebudayaan
secara komparatif tidak terasa begitu populer. Yang terlihat pada
masa ini adalah perkemba-ngan yang cukup pesat pada tataran
data etnografinya
b. Fungsionalisme
Fungsionalisme
dalam
antropologi
hadir
ketika
Malinowski da-pat melakukan penelitian lapangan dalam waktu
yang relatif lama di kalangan orang Trobriand. Dengan strategi
ini, ahli antropologi dapat memusatkan perhatiannya pada
peristiwa-peristiwa atau unsur-unsur budaya tertentu dalam
suatu masyarakat, dan menghubungkannya dengan unsur-unsur
yang lain, atau mencoba memahami kebera-daan unsur budaya
38
tersebut dengan memperhatikan fungsi unsur tersebut dalam kebudayaan. Sebagaimana yang terjadi pada aliran fungsional
dalam antropologi di Ing-gris, aliran ini juga muncul di Indonesia
karena fokus studi antropologi yang semakin tajam, yang
didukung dengan penelitian lapangan pada masyarakat tertentu.
Masa setelah 1985 dalam antropologi di Indonesia juga
ditandai oleh semakin po-pulernya paradigma fungsionalismestruktural di kalangan para ahli antropologi Indo-nesia. Dalam
analisis semacam ini peneliti menggunakan model organisme
atau sis-tem untuk memahami masyarakat atau kebudayaan yang
diteliti. Kebudayaan di sini dilihat sebagai suatu kesatuan dari
berbagai elemen yang saling berhubungan atau berkaitan satu
dengan yang lain secara fungsional, dan fungsi tidak lain adalah
sum-bangan atau kontribusi yang diberikan oleh suatu unsur
kepada unsur-unsur yang lain atau kepada bekerjanya
keseluruhan sistem. Dengan digunakannya model sistem ini,
tugas peneliti kemudian adalah menetapkan unsur-unsur apa saja
yang membentuk suatu kebudayaan dan memperlihatkan
hubungan fungsional antar unsur-unsur terse-but, sehingga
kebudayaan tersebut bisa tampil sebagai suatu kesatuan yang
utuh, yang jika salah satu unsurnya mengalami perubahan, maka
unsur-unsur yang lain ju-ga akan mengalami perubahan.
Paradigma fungsional berhasil muncul dalam antropologi
Indonesia ketika generasi antropologi Indonesia yang baru mulai
muncul. Kajian antropologi yang begitu jelas je-jak fungsionalnya
adalah kajian mengenai trah dari Syafri Sairin. Walaupun Syafri
ti-dak sangat sadar akan paradigma fungsional yang
dimanfaatkannya dalam kajian ini terbukti dia tidak berbicara
mengenai fungsionalisme dalam antropologi dalam buku-nya-,
namun dia banyak menggunakan kata fungsi. Keinginan
memahami unsur bu-daya lewat kacamata fungsional ini muncul
karena Syafri tidak lagi memusatkan per-hatian pada kebudayaan
secara umum, dalam hal ini budaya Jawa, tetapi salah satu unsur
budaya Jawa saja, yakni trah atau organisasi sosial yang
didasarkan pada hu-bungan-hubungan kekerabatan. Kajian
fungsional ini semakin populer di kalangan ahli-ahli antropologi
dari angkatan setelah Syafri Sairin, angkatan tahun 1970-1980an,
dan kebanyakan kajian ini adalah mengenai rituil, yang sebagian
39
dimuat dalam buku yang diedit oleh Koentjaraningrat, Ritus

Peralihan (19 ).
1) Fungsionalisme-Struktural
Kalau kajian fungsional menekankan pada fungsi-fungsi
dari suatu gejala sosial-budaya tertentu dalam arti yang luas,
telaah fungsional-struktural memusatkan perhatian pada
fungsi dari suatu gejala sosial-budaya terhadap struktur sosial
yang ada dalam suatu masyarakat. Paradigma fungsionalstruktural ter-masuk dalam paradigma dengan epistemologi
positivisme, karena dalam paradigma ini -sebagaimana
dikatakan oleh salah satu tokoh utamanya, A.R.RadcliffeBrown- model yang digunakan untuk memandang gejala
sosial-budaya diambil dari ilmu alam, yakni model organisme.
Dengan kata lain, peneliti yang menggunakan paradigma
fungsional-struktural beranggapan bahwa gejala sosial-budaya
adalah seperti gejala alam. Konsep yang sangat penting dalam
pendekatan ini adalah struktur sosial, yang oleh A.R.RadcliffeBrown
didefinisikan
sebagai
hubungan-hubungan
antarindividu yang dapat diamati dalam kehidupan seharihari (1945).
Kajian fungsional-struktural ini terlihat misalnya dalam
kajian-kajian dari Suparlan (1991), Danandjaja (1989) dan
Ahimsa-Putra (1988). Penelitian Ahimsa-Putra menge-nai
hubungan patron-klien di Sulawesi Selatan -yang diilhami oleh
kajian James C. Scott tentang gejala yang sama di Asia
Tenggara pada umumnya- pada dasarnya mencoba
menunjukkan gejala tersebut sebagai hasil dari kondisi-kondisi
sosio-struk-tural tertentu dalam masyarakat, dalam hal ini
masyarakat Bugis dan Makassar. Ini agak berbeda dengan
kajian Suparlan mengenai hunian liar di Jakarta. Di mata
Supar-lan, hunian liar di Jakarta merupakan unsur yang
terkait dengan unsur-unsur lainnya secara menyeluruh, dan
fungsional dalam tingkat-tingkat tertentu (1991: 11). Kajian
dengan perspektif struktural-fungsional namun tidak sangat
eksplisit misalnya adalah kajian Digdoyo (2004) mengenai
peran warok dalam dalam masyarakat Ponorogo.
40
2) Etnosains (Fenomenologi)
Beberapa penelitian dalam antropologi yang muncul pada
tahun 60an, yang menggunakan paradigma ethnoscience
(etnosains), merupa-kan kajian-kajian yang dekat dengan
pandangan fenomenologi yang berkembang da-lam sosiologi
(lihat Ahimsa-Putra, 1986). Oleh karena itulah, saya memilih
mengguna-kan istilah antropologi fenomenologi, yaitu
antropologi
menggunakan
pandangan-pandangan
epistemologis dari filsafat fenomenologi sebagai landasannya.
Akar dari paradigma fenomenologis atau etnosains dalam
antropologi sebenarnya sudah terlihat dalam buku Malinowski
yang sangat terkenal, The Argonauts of the Western Pacific.
Dalam buku mengenai orang-orang Trobriand ini Malinowski
antara lain mengatakan bahwa tujuan akhir dari seorang
penulis etnografi (baca: ahli antropo-logi) adalah to grasp the
natives point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of his
world" (1961: 25). Dengan kata lain, ahli antropologi harus
dapat memandang dunianya sebagaimana masyarakat yang
ditelitinya memandang dunia tersebut. Ini tentu bukan
pekerjaan yang mudah.
Sebagai sebuah pendekatan yang pada awalnya banyak
memperhatikan sistem klasifikasi manusia mengenai
lingkungan dan hubungannya dengan aktivitas manusia,
pendekatan etnosains dengan sendirinya sangat mudah untuk
dibawa masuk ke bi-dang kajian antropologi ekonomi dan
ekologi, karena pada bidang kajian inilah perila-ku manusia
terhadap lingkungannya merupakan obyek utama penelitian.
Tidak meng-herankan bilamana di Indonesia etnosains ini juga
terlihat pertama-tama dalam kajian antropologi ekonomi dan
kemudian antropologi ekologi. Dalam antropologi ekonomi
pendekatan ini terlihat misalnya dalam kajian Ahimsa-Putra
mengenai penjaja sate da-ri Madura di Yogyakarta (19 ) dan
kajian Destha T.Rahardjana (2003) mengenai pengusaha
pakaian konveksi di Mlangi.
Kajian antropologi fenomenologis yang berusaha
menampilkan pandangan masya-rakat secara umum, dengan
cara pelukisan yang tidak formal, dilakukan misalnya oleh
Pranowo (1985) dan Sasongko (1991). Keduanya membahas
tentang persepsi ma-syarakat yang tinggal di lereng gunung
41
Merapi. Sebelumnya, kajian tentang persepsi penduduk lereng

Merapi ini telah pernah dilakukan oleh Laksono (1985b).
Kajian-kaji-an etnoekologi ini tampaknya bertambah populer
kini di kalangan ahli antropologi Indo-nesia. Beberapa
mahasiswa pascasarjana antropologi telah ada yang mulai
melaku-kan kajian-kajian etnoekologis, seperti misalnya
Amsikan (2000), yang meneliti ten-tang kearifan ekologi orang
Biboki di Timor, dan Lahajir (2001). Kajian dari Lahajir tentang etnoekologi orang Dayak Tunjung Linggang di
Kalimantan Timur juga telah diter-bitkan (2001). Kajian-kajian
yang lain terlihat dalam studi mengenai strategi adaptasi,
seperti misalnya yang dilakukan oleh Arifin (1998) di kalangan
orang Talang di daerah Lampung, oleh Griapon (2005)
mengenai pengetahu-an lokal orang Genyem di Papua dan
perilaku mereka dalam bidang kesehatan (Ahimsa-Putra,
2007).
3) Tafsir Kebudayaam (Hermeneutis)
Menelaah suatu kebudayaan dengan cara menafsir ini dalam
antropologi sudah mulai terlihat dalam hasil-hasil kajian dari
Ruth Benedict (19 ). Meskipun demikian, sebagai sebuah
paradigma sekaligus epistemolo-gi dalam antropologi,
hermeneutik baru mendapat wujudnya yang jelas dan eksplisit
dalam kajian-kajian antropologi yang dikerjakan oleh Clifford
Geertz dan Victor Turner.
Tafsir budaya yang berada dalam jalur Victor Turner
adalah tafsir yang dilakukan oleh Irwan Abdullah (1985; 1986)
mengenai makna simbol-simbol gunungan kakung (laki-laki)
dalam upacara Garebeg di Kraton Yogyakarta. Setahu saya,
inilah analisis yang cukup rinci mengenai unsur-unsur
simbolis dari sebuah rituil di Jawa. Apa yang dilakukan sejalan
dengan yang ditunjukkan oleh Victor Turner dalam
analisisnya ten-tang rituil penyembuh-an di kalangan orang
Ndembu di Afrika. Dengan teliti Abdullah memaparkan
berbagai unsur yang ada pada gunungan dan apa makna
masing-ma-sing unsur ini menurut pandangan pembuatnya,
yakni pihak Kraton (1991).
42
Dari periode tahun 1980an kajian antropologi dengan

perspektif interpretif Geertz sama sekali belum terlihat, namun
mulai tahun 1990an studi ahli antropologi pada jalur ini
semakin lama semakin banyak. Di antaranya adalah kajian
Budi Susanto (1993) mengenai sebuah peristiwa unik di kota
Yogyakarta, analisis Ninuk Kleden atas kese-nian topeng
Betawi (19 ); analisis Irwan Abdullah atas mitos menstruasi
(2002); anali-sis Ahimsa-Putra (2003) atas wacana perdebatan
di sekitar tokoh pencetus ide Se-rangan Oemoem 1 Maret 1949
di kota Yogyakarta, studi dari Wei (2005) mengenai pemaknaan orang Tionghoa di Indonesia terhadap keberadaan
mereka dalam masyara-kat Indonesia, studi Apriyani (2004)
mengenai fenomena kawin-cerai (merarik-bese-ang) di kalangan
orang Sasak di Lombok, kajian dari Damis (1999) mengenai
taptu hi-jrah yang diselenggarakan oleh kaum muda muslim di
kota Manado, kajian dari Brata (2003) mengenai sebuah
peristiwa politik di Yogyakarta, Pisowanan Ageng, yang ter-jadi
pada awal era Reformasi, kajian dari Darmana (2004)
mengenai seni prasa di Ba-li. Budi Susanto (1993) mencoba
menafsir sebuah peristiwa unik di kota Yogyakarta, yang tidak
mendapat liputan pers yang luas. Dari pembacaannya atas
Peristiwa Yogya tersebut Budi Susanto sampai pada
kesimpulan bahwa peristiwa tersebut me-rupakan siasat
kebudayaan politis rakyat Yogya.(Ahimsa-Putra, 2007)
4) Strukturalisme (Lvi-Strauss)
Analisis struktural Lvi-Strauss berangkat dari
pandangan bahwa fenomena sosial-budaya, seperti misalnya
pakaian, menu makan-an, mitos rituil dan sebagainya,
merupakan gejala yang sama dengan gejala kebaha-saan
(seperti kalimat atau teks), karena gejala-gejala tersebut
mempunyai makna tertentu atau diberi makna tertentu. Selain
itu, gejala tersebut menghasilkan makna le-wat suatu
mekanisme artikulasi (Pettit, 1977: 42). Seperti halnya gejala
kebahasaan, maka gejala sosial-budaya juga dapat dipandang
sebagai sign atau tanda, dan seba-gaimana kata de Saussure,
sebuah sign pada dasarnya memiliki dua aspek, signified
(tinanda) dan signifier (penanda). Hubungan antara tinanda
dan penandanya bersifat arbitrair, semena-semena, dan karena
43
itu hanya atas dasar konsensus. Tidak ada hu-bungan intrinsik

antara tinanda dan penandanya.
Di tahun 1990an aliran ini mulai lebih dikenal setelah
adanya kuliah mengenai strukturalisme Lvi-Strauss di
jurusan antropologi UGM yang diberikan oleh P.M.Lak-sono
dan H.S. Ahimsa-Putra. Pada awalnya pengetahuan mengenai
strukturalisme Lvi-Strauss masih terbatas pada pengetahuan
saja, namun setelah munculnya buku Strukturalisme LviStrauss, Mitos dan Karya Sastra, tidak sedikit mahasiswa
antropo-logi yang kemudian mencoba menerapkan cara
analisis struktural ini dalam skripsi dan tesis mereka.
Diilhami oleh cara analisis struktural yang digunakan
oleh Lvi-Strauss ketika menganalisis sebuah mitos Indian,
Ahimsa-Putra menganalisis sebuah mitos yang cu-kup panjang
dari kalangan orang Bajo. Dengan keberhasilannya
menampilkan struktur tertentu yang ada dalam mitos ini,
dibantu dengan data etnografi orang Bajo yang cu-kup
lengkap Ahimsa-Putra sampai pada penafsiran bahwa mitos
Bajo tersebut meru-pakan hasil dari upaya orang Bajo untuk
memahami kontradiksi-kontradiksi empiris yang mereka alami
dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.
Keunggulan analisis struktural untuk mitos dibanding
dengan analisis yang lain ter-lihat kembali ketika AhimsaPutra menerapkan analisis yang sama untuk memahami dua
cerita pendek dan sebuah novel karya-karya Umar Kayam.
Analisis struktural ini telah berhasil menampilkan keterkaitan
antarteks (intertekstualitas) di antara karya-karya sastra
tersebut. Bahkan, lebih dari itu Ahimsa-Putra kemudian
berhasil menam-pilkan transformasi-transformasi yang ada
antara kenyataan empiris dalam masyara-kat Jawa, dengan
ceritera Umar Kayam tentang priyayi Jawa, serta pandangan
hidup orang Jawa (lihat Ahimsa-Putra, 2001).
Paradigma struktural ini kemudian dicoba diterapkan
untuk memahami dan meng-ungkap struktur rumah-rumah
tradisional di Indonesia. Leily (1998) misalnya, mencoba
membandingkan struktur rumah tradisional Jawa (joglo)
dengan rumah Cina. Purwadi (2002) mencoba mengungkap
struktur di balik rumah tradisional Sumba dan menun-jukkan
transformasinya dengan struktur yang ada dalam aspek-aspek
44
budaya lain ma-syarakat Sumba, sedang Dadang (1999)

memilih mengungkap struktur di balik rumah tradisional
Palembang.
4. PENELITIAN BAHASA
Sebagaimana telah saya katakan, pemetaan mengenai
penelitian bahasa di sini berbeda dengan pemetaan penelitian
antropologi, yaitu berdasarkan atas masalah atau hubungan
bahasa dengan fenomena di luarnya, terutama dengan
kebudayaan. Dari sejumlah penelitian yang telah dilakukan,
setidak-tidaknya dapat ditemukan tiga macam penelitian
kebahasaan yang terkait dengan kebudayaan, yakni mengenai (a)
bahasa dan pengetahuan khas; (b) bahasa dan pola pikir; (c)
bahasa dan perasaan, persepsi manusia; dan (d) bahasa, wacana
dan perubahan kebudayaan. Pemetaan ini tentu berbeda dengan
pemetaan yang menggunakan perspektif linguistik
Bahasa dan Pengetahuan Khas. Pengetahuan manusia
merupakan hasil dari proses adaptasi terhadap situasi dan
kondisi lokal. Oleh karena itu khasanah penge-tahuan ini
biasanya bersifat khas. Artinya, pengetahuan yang dimiliki oleh
suatu ke-lompok, komunitas, sukubangsa atau masyarakat
tersebut tidak dimiliki oleh kelom-pok, komunitas, sukubangsa
atau masyarakat yang lain. Seringkali pengetahuan yang sangat
penting dalam suatu masyarakat ini terlihat sangat sepele bagi
masyarakat yang lain, sebagaimana yang terlihat pada kajian
Metzger dan Williams (1966) menge-nai kayu bakar (firewood)
pada masyarakat Indian Tzeltzal.
Bagi masyarakat tertentu, klasifikasi tentang kayu ini
terlihat sangat tidak penting, sehingga kajian antropologi yang
ilmiah atas kategori-kategori berkenaan dengan kayu ini terlihat
sangat tidak penting. Namun, tidak demikian bagi orang Tzeltzal.
Jika ditelu-suri lebih lanjut, akan terlihat bahwa klasifikasi kayu
tersebut merupakan salah satu unsur budaya yang sangat penting
dalam kehidupan orang Tzeltzal, karena mereka ini masih
menggunakan kayu sebagai bahan bakar utamanya. Kehidupan
mereka ternya-ta sangat tergantung pada ketersediaan kayu ini.
Di sinilah pengetahuan mengenai ka-yu menjadi sangat penting
bagi orang Tzeltzal. Dengan pengetahuan mereka menge-nai
kayu dan berbagai jenis serta cirinya, orang Tzeltzal dapat
45
memanfaatkan kayu dengan baik, dengan effisien, sehingga

mereka dapat bertahan hidup di tengah ling-kungan mereka
sekarang (Metzger dan Williams, 1966).
Contoh yang lain dapat kita peroleh dari daerah
Minahasa, yaitu tentang pemanfa-atan pohon enau di kalangan
orang Ratahan, yang diteliti oleh Benny Mogot (1998). Salah satu
kegiatan pemanfaatan yang penting adalah menyadap nira dari
pohon ter-sebut, yang kemudian dapat diubah menjadi tuak
(saguer) untuk diminum, gula merah (untuk campuran minuman
dan makanan) dan cap tikus, sejenis minuman keras. Da-lam
proses penyadapan ini orang Ratahan mengenal beberapa
tahapan atau kegiatan yang tercermin dalam bahasa atau istilahistilah yang mereka gunakan. Pengetahuan mengenai kegiatankegiatan ini merupakan pengetahuan khas yang dimiliki oleh
orang Ratahan, yang tidak dimiliki oleh sukubangsa lain.
Meskipun ada sukubangsa lainnya yang juga mengenal
penyadapan nira dan pembuatan tuak, belum tentu pengetahuan
mereka mengenai kegiatan ini sama.
Orang Ratahan menyebut kegiatan mengambil tuak
/maawey/, yang secara garis besar dibagi menjadi tiga kegiatan,
yaitu mengolah mayang /mamiho? oley/, menya-dap tuak /
manalur / dan memungut tuak /maawey/. Kegiatan
mengolah mayang dapat dibagi lagi menjadi beberapa bidang
kegiatan yang lebih kecil, yaitu member-sihkan mayang
/mamorsi oley/, memukul mayang /manengko oley/,
menggoyang mayang /mularu oley/, memotong mayang
/mamoto? oley/, mengiris mayang /ma-nuwas oley/.
Kegiatan membersihkan mayang terdiri dari beberapa kegiatan
lagi, yai-tu: mengeluarkan ijuk /matas kampuhan/,
memotong pangkal pelepah /matas kalu-pa/, dan mengupas
mayang /mulisi oley/ (Mogot, 1998). Rangkaian kegiatan /maawey/ dapat digambarkan dengan skema seperti pada halaman
berikut. Skema ini sedi-kit berbeda dengan tabel yang disusun
oleh Mogot. Perbedaan terdapat pada kategori /maawey/ yang
menurut saya terdiri dari tiga sub-kategori kegiatan, yaitu
/mamiho? oley/, ?manalur/, dan /maawey/, sedang menurut
Mogot ada dua kategori saja, yaitu /mamiho? oley/ dan
/maawey/.
46
Skema 1. Sistem Klasifikasi Kegiatan Pengambilan Tuak Dalam

Bahasa Ratahan
Pengetahuan yang khas ini seringkali sangat dijaga

dengan sadar kerahasiaannya oleh pemiliknya, karena jika
kelompok lain mengetahuinya penguasaan mereka atas hal-hal
tertentu akan disaingi oleh kelompok lain, dan mereka mungkin
akan kalah da-lam persaingan. Oleh karena itu, ada kelompokkelompok yang kemudian mencipta-kan bahasa rahasia
tertentu yang hanya diketahui oleh anggota kelompok tersebut.
Inilah yang kemudian dikenal sebagai bahasa preman, karena
memang pada mula-nya diciptakan oleh para preman untuk
menjaga kerahasiaan informasi yang mereka miliki, dan untuk
menjaga keamanan mereka. Dengan adanya bahasa rahasia ini
mereka dapat berkomunikasi sesama mereka di tempat terbuka,
di hadapan warga masyarakat yang lain, tanpa takut akan
diketahui oleh orang lain apa yang sedang mereka percakapkan
(Ahimsa-Putra, 2013)
Pada suku-sukubangsa tertentu pengetahuan yang khas
ini juga merupakan kha-sanah pengetahuan yang sangat rinci dan
bervariasi, sehingga merupakan sebuah khasanah pengetahuan
yang sangat berharga tidak hanya bagi masyarakat pemilik-nya,
tetapi juga bagi masyarakat yang lain. Jika pengetahuan seperti
ini hilang maka hilanglah sebuah khasanah pengetahuan yang tak
ada duanya, yang juga merupakan hilangnya sebuah wawasan
kemanusiaan yang dimiliki umat manusia. Oleh karena setiap
bahasa merupakan sebuah kekayaan intelektual yang tidak ada
47
duanya, maka kelestarian setiap bahasa sebenarnya sangat perlu

untuk dipertahankan.
Bahasa dan Pola Pikir, Para ahli antropologi -yang
diawali oleh pandangan dari Edward Sapir dan Benjamin
L.Whorf- telah menunjukkan bahwa bahasa tidak hanya memuat
pengetahuan, tetapi juga memuat suatu logika, suatu cara
berfikir, suatu cara memahami dunia, suatu kecerdasan yang
bersifat khas. Logika atau kecerdasan ini berbeda dengan isi
pengetahuan. Kecerdasan, logika, cara berfikir, merupakan kemampuan untuk menganalisis, memahami dan menjelaskan
gejala-gejala yang diha-dapi lewat sudut pandang tertentu.
Kemampuan ini juga mencakup di dalamnya ke-mampuan untuk
merangkai elemen-elemen pengetahuan tertentu sedemikian rupa
sehingga muncul suatu konfigurasi pengetahuan baru yang khas,
yang memperluas cakrawala pemikiran yang telah ada.
Termasuk dalam logika berfikir adalah patokan-patokan
yang digunakan oleh suatu masyarakat atau kelompok sosial
untuk membedakan sesuatu dengan sesuatu yang lain, atau
menyamakan sesuatu dengan sesuatu yang lain. Inilah yang
dimaksud de-ngan patokan untuk mengklasifikasi, menggolonggolongkan berbagai gejala yang di-hadapi. Sebagai contoh adalah
sistem klasifikasi kayu bakar yang didapat oleh Metz-ger dan
Williams dari kalangan orang Indian Tzeltzal di atas. Berdasarkan
atas penilai-an tertentu orang Tzeltzal membagi kayu bakar pada
umumnya menjadi dua jenis: yang bagus dan yang jelek. Kayu
bakar yang bagus adalah yang memiliki ciri: keras, membakar
dengan kuat, cepat kering, apinya panas, sedang kayu bakar yang
jelek adalah yang: lunak, cepat menyala (cepat habis terbakar),
lambat kering, apinya tidak sangat panas (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013)
Tabel 1. Evaluation of firewood
____________________________________________________________________________
Good
Poor
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.
Hard wood
Soft wood
2.
Burns strongly
Burns quickly
3.
Dries rapidly
Dries slowly
4.
It fire is hot
Its fire is only a little hot
____________________________________________________________________________
Sumber : DAndrade, 1995: 60.

48
Klasifikasi kayu bakar orang Tzeltzal menunjukkan bahwa

mereka memiliki pola pi-kir tertentu berkenaan dengan kayu
tersebut. Penilaian mereka atas kayu bakar dihu-bungkan dengan
ciri-ciri yang ada pada kayu dalam hubungannya dengan
pembakar-an dan api. Di sini klasifikasi atas dasar jenis pohonnya
tidak relevan. Patokan untuk kayu yang berhubungan dengan
pembakaran ada empat yaitu: keras-lunaknya, pem-bakarannya,
cepat-lambatnya mengering, dan [anas api yang dihasilkan.
Patokan ini merupakan salah satu bagian dari pola pikir orang
Tzeltzal dalam memandang ling-kungan fisik/material mereka,
khususnya mengenai kayu (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013).
Klasifikasi kayu pada orang Tzeltzal di atas dapat
dikatakan bersifat ekonomis. Namun demkian, tidak setiap
klasifikasi unsur lingkungan ini selalu berdasarkan pada prinsip
ekonomi. Sebagaimana dikatakan oleh Levi-Strauss (1966),
gejala-gejala em-piris tertentu seringkali mendapat perhatian
besar dari suatu masyarakat bukan karena manfaat praktisnya,
tetapi karena gejala tersebut juga memiliki manfaat teoritisnya.
Artinya, melalui wacana tentang gejala tersebut masyarakat dapat
menyampaikan dan mengembangkan gagasan-gagasan tertentu.
Sistem klasifikasi tidak selalu berdasar-kan prinsip good to eat,
tetapi juga bisa berdasarkan atas good to think (with).
Bahasa, Perasaan dan Persepsi Manusia. Bahasa juga
memengaruhi dunia rasa manusia, karena melalui bahasa
manusia menerima dan memahami situasi, kon-disi tertentu yang
membuat manusia dapat merasa gembira, sedih, marah, dan sebagainya. Tanpa rasa atau perasaan, manusia sebagai mahluk tidak
akan lengkap, bah-kan menjadi lebih rendah daripada hewan,
karena hewan pun masih memiliki rasa. Mengenai rasa ini
ternyata juga banyak variasinya. Masing-masing masyarakat atau
kebudayaan memiliki pandangannya sendiri menge-nai rasa yang
mereka alami. Rasa ini bisa merupakan sesuatu yang dirasakan
pada fisik, bisa juga sesuatu yang tidak bersifat fisik.
Untuk rasa yang berkaitan dengan fisik misalnya, orang
Jawa memiliki istilah se-nep, mules, perih, panas, adem, senut-senut,
cekot-cekot, dan sebagainya, sedang untuk yang non-fisik, yang
lebih berkaitan dengan hati orang Jawa punya istilah ayem, tresna,
seneng (bungah), susah, mangkel, nesu, anyel, dan sebagainya.
Sebagian isti-lah-istilah tentang rasa ini dapat diterjemahkan ke
49
dalam bahasa lain dengan cukup mudah, sebagian lagi tidak. Hal
ini menunjukkan bahwa meskipun secara fisik manu-sia dapat
mengalami rasa yang sama, namun persepsi atau kesadaran
tentang rasa itu bisa berbeda-beda antara masyarakat yang satu
dengan masyarakat yang lain, atau komunitas yang satu dengan
komunitas yang lain.
Selain perasaan, hal lain yang sedikit-banyak berkaitan
dengan rasa adalah per-sepsi manusia, misalnya tentang sesuatu
yang indak atau tidak indah dipandang ma-ta. Ada berbagai kata
yang kita gunakan untuk menyatkan keindahan sekuntum bunga
misalnya Kita bisa mengatakan bunga itu indah, cantik, bagus,
sesuai dengan apa yang kita rasakan melalui penglihatan kita.
Kita bisa mengatakan bunganya bagus, tapi kata ini dirasakan
masih kurang menampilkan kualitas yang lain dari bunga itu, sehingga kita kemudian memilih kata indah. Kata yang indah
mungkin dirasakan masih belum dapat menampilkan kualitas
yang lain lagi dari bunga itu, sehingga kita merasa lebih tepat
kalau bunga tersebut kita katakan cantik. Bagus, indah dan
cantik de-ngan demikian juga merupakan kata-kata yang
menunjukkan kualitas tertentu pada suatu benda atau yang
dibendakan.
Berbagai perasaan manusia tidak akan dapat sepenuhnya
disampaikan tanpa me-lalui bahasa, sehingga bahasa juga
merupakan perangkat simbol yang menyimpan pengetahuan,
pemahaman tentang rasa dan persepsi suatu kolektivitas
manusia. Jika demikian maka kepunahan suatu bahasa adalah
kepunahan sebuah perangkat simbol untuk memahami,
memaknai dan mewujudkan perasaan-perasaan tertentu, dan ini
berarti juga terjadinya pemiskinan atau pendangkalan aspek rasa
dalam kehidupan manusia, yang juga berarti menurunnya
kualitas kemanusiaan itu sendiri.
Jika kita sepakat dengan pandangan bahwa dimensi nonfisik manusia mempunyai dua dimensi lagi, yaitu (a) dimensi
pikiran, pengetahuan atau kognisi (cognition), dan (b) dimensi
perasaan atau afeksi (affection), maka paparan di atas
menunjukkan bah-wa bahasa merupakan wujud empiris, wujud
simbolis dari dua dimensi tersebut. Me-lalui bahasa manusia
mewujudkan, menyatakan gagasan atau pemikirannya. Gagas-an
mengenai dirinya, komunitasnya, masyarakatnya, nenek50
moyangnya, lingkungan alamnya, mengenai dunia spiritualnya.

Melalui bahasa pula manusia mewujudkan pe-rasaannya, sedih
dan gembiranya, kekaguman dan kebenciannya, keluguan dan
ke-canggihannya. Bahasa memang merupakan perangkat simbol
yang mewujudkan dan sekaligus juga membentuk kemanusiaan
kita.
Bahasa, Wacana dan Perubahan Kebudayaan. Hubungan
antara bahasa da-lam arti sebuah perangkat simbol untuk
komunikasi- dan perubahan masyarakat serta kebudayaan di sini
tidak dapat bersifat langsung, karena bahasa di sini merupakan
se-buah sistem yang otonom, yang mempunyai dinamika
internalnya sendiri. Keterkaitan antara bahasa dengan
kebudayaan berlangsung melalui sebuah proses yang biasa disebut wacana atau perbincangan, yang merupakan praktek
kebahasaan. Dalam pro-ses perbincangan inilah bahasa
diaktualisasikan, digunakan untuk menyampaikan pe-san-pesan,
digunakan untuk membangun suatu pemahaman, pengetahuan
atau ideo-logi tertentu, untuk mempengaruhi mereka yang
terlibat dalam proses komunikasi. Oleh karena itu, pemahaman
mengenai perubahan kebudayaan melalui perspektif ke-bahasaan
(linguistik) hanya dapat diperoleh jika kita menganalisis praktekpraktek ke-bahasaan atau proses-proses wacana dan bahasa yang
menjadi sarananya. Itulah mengapa di masa kini analisis wacana
(discourse ana-lysis) menjadi salah satu topik yang sangat diminati
dalam kajian mengenai bahasa dan kebudayaan.
Perubahan kebudayaan dalam arti yang paling luas,
biasanya mencakup paling se-dikit tiga hal, yakni perubahan
masyarakat, perubahan kebudayaan itu sendiri -dalam arti yang
lebih sempit- dan perubahan lingkungan. Meskipun secara
empiris unsur lingkungan ini berada di luar masyarakat dan
kebudayaan, namun dalam wacana per-ubahan kebudayaan
dalam arti yang sangat umum -terutama yang menyangkut hubungan manusia dengan lingkungan-, seringkali unsur
lingkungan juga dibicarakan, karena lingkungan di sini bisa
mencakup unsur-unsur lingkungan yang dibuat oleh ma-nusia.
Selain itu, ketika berhadapan dengan manusia, lingkungan alam
yang tidak di-ciptakan oleh manusia pun lantas menjadi bagian
dari kebudayaan, karena lingkungan alam tersebut dalam
51
pandangan manusia tidak lagi sebagaimana adanya, tetapi

sudah dipahami, dimaknai dengan menggunakan kerangka
berfikir tertentu.
5. PENUTUP
Dalam makalah ini saya mencoba memaparkan secara
singkat pemetaan awal sa-ya atas penelitian-penelitian yang telah
dilakukan oleh ahli antropologi dan ahli linguis-tik di Indonesia.
Pemetaan
penelitian
antropologi
dilakukan
dengan
menggunakan pa-radigma penelitian sebagai patokannya.
Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa penelitian an-tropologi di
Indonesia telah dilakukan dengan menggunakan berbagai
paradigma. Pa-da awalnya paradigma yang banyak digunakan
adalah paradigma yang deskriptif et-nografis dan tipologis.
Namun seiring dengan semakin banyaknya sarjana antropologi
yang melanjutkan studinya ke luar negeri, penelitian antropologi
selanjutnya mulai ba-nyak memanfaatkan paradigma-paradigma
yang
lebih
analitis,
seperti
paradigma
fung-sional,
fungsionalisme-struktural, strukturalisme, dan tafsir kebudayaan.
Sementara
itu
pemetaan
penelitian
kebahasaan
menggunakan kriteria permasa-lahan sebagai dasar pemetaan,
yaitu hubungan antara bahasa dan gejala sosial-buda-ya lainnya.
Hasil pemetaan menunjukkan adanya empat permasalahan yang
telah di-teliti, yaitu masalah (a) bahasa dan pengetahuan khas; (b)
bahasa dan pola pikir; (c) bahasa dan perasaan, persepsi; dan (d)
bahasa, wacana dan perubahan kebudayaan. Sebagai suatu gejala
kebudayaan, bahasa dapat diperlakukan sebagai sebuah sistem
yang otonom, dengan dinamika internalnya sendiri. Namun,
berkenaan dengan kebu-dayaan atau gejala-gejala non-bahasa
dan perubahannya, bahasa hanya dapat dihu-bungkan dengan
gejala tersebut melalui praktek penggunaannya, yang biasa
disebut wacana, perbincangan. Melalui proses perbincangan
inilah bahasa kemudian men-dapatkan dinamikanya, dan bahasa
terkait dengan dunia kehidupan sehari-hari manu-sia
pendukungnya (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013).
Sebagai suatu gejala kebudayaan, suatu bahasa pada
dasarnya adalah sebuah gudang pengetahuan, yang menyimpan
berbagai macam hal yang diketahui oleh ma-syarakat
pendukungnya. Suatu bahasa dengan demikian merupakan harta
52
yang sa-ngat bernilai tidak hanya bagi masyarakat pemiliknya,

tetapi juga bagi masyarakat yang lain, bagi kelompok manusia
yang lain. Suatu bahasa bernilai bagi kemanusiaan itu sendiri.
Melestarikan bahasa atau melindungi suatu bahasa dari
kepunahan adalah melindungi sebuah pengetahuan kolektif,
yang merupakan salah satu harta warisan kebudayaan manusia.
Melestarikan suatu bahasa berarti melestarikan kebudayaan dan
kemanusiaan (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013).
Sehubungan dengan itu, kegiatan pelestarian bahasa perlu
mendapatkan perhatian yang lebih besar, agar upaya tersebut
dapat dilakukan secara sistematis dan effisien, dan hasilnya juga
maksimal. Kepunahan suatu bahasa seringkali adalah sebuah keniscayaan. Untuk mengurangi derajat kehilangan yang
diakibatkan oleh kepunahan tersebut, perlu dilakukan pelestarian
bahasa, meskipun pasif sifatnya. Hal ini setidak-tidaknya akan
menyadarkan kita bahwa setiap bahasa sangat mungkin akan
mengha-dapi nasib yang sama. Oleh karena itu pula, untuk
bahasa-bahasa yang masih hidup, pelestarian aktiflah yang lebih
perlu untuk dilakukan (Ahimsa-Putra, 2013).
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Ahimsa-Putra, H.S. 1997.Etnolinguistik:
Kajian. Widyaparwa 49 (Oktober):1-18.
Beberapa
Bentuk
_________. 2009. Bahasa, Sastra dan Kearifan Lokal di

Indonesia. Mabasan 3 (1): 30-57
_________. 2012. Pelindungan Bahasa dan Sastra : Metode, Teknik dan
Prosedur. Makalah Diskusi Kebahasaan dan Kesastraan
_________.1985. Etnosains dan Etnometodologi: Sebuah
Perbandingan. Masyarakat Indonesia XII (2): 103-133.
_________. 1986. Minawang: Hubungan Patron-Klien di Sulawesi
Selatan. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.
53
_________. 1995. Levi-Strauss di Kalangan Orang Bajo: Analisis

Struktural dan Makna Ceritera Orang Bajo. Kalam 6: 124143.
_________.1996. Sungai dan Air Ciliwung: Sebuah Kajian
Etnoekologi. Prisma:
_________.1997. Antropologi Koentjaraningrat: Sebuah Tafsir
Epistemologis dalam Koentjaraningrat dan Antropologi di
Indonesia, E.K.M.Masinambow (ed.). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor
Indonesia.
_________. 1998.Levi-Strauss, Orang-Orang PKI, Nalar Jawa, dan
Sosok Umar Kayam: Telaah Struktural-Hermeneutik
Dongeng Etnografis Dari Umar Kayam dalam Umar
Kayam dan Jaring Semiotik, A.Salam (ed.). Yogyakarta:
Pustaka Pelajar.
_________.1999. Ekonomika Manusia Jawa: Agama dan Perilaku
Ekonomi Dalam Perspektif Antropologi Struktural.
Gerbang 5 (02): 88-97.
_________.1999b. Struktur Simbolisme Budaya Jawa Kuno: Yang
Meneng dan Yang Malih. Makalah Sarasehan Pembinaan
dan Pengembangan Budaya Jawa. Balai Kajian Sejarah dan
Nilai Tradisional, Yogyakarta.
_________.1999c. Arca Ganesya dan Strukturalisme Levi-Strauss:
Sebuah Analisis Awal dalam Cerlang Budaya, Rahayu S.
(ed.). Jakarta: UI Press.
_________.1999d. Etnografi Kritis: Mungkinkan di Indonesia?.
Jerat Budaya 1:
_________.2000a. Strukturalisme Levi-Strauss Untuk Arkeologi
Semiotik. Humaniora 12: 1-13.
_________.2000b. Wacana Seni Dalam Antropologi Budaya:
Tekstual, Kontekstual dan Post-Modernistik dalam Ketika
54
Orang Jawa Nyeni, H.S.Ahimsa-Putra (ed.). Yogyakarta:

Galang Press.
_________.2002. Tari Srimpi dan Struktur Simbolisme Budaya Jawa.
Makalah seminar.
_________. 2007. Strukturalisme Lvi-Strauss, Mitos dan Karya Sastra.
Yogyakarta: Kepel Press
Bryant, C.G.A. 1985. Positivism in Social Theory and Research. New
York: St.Martins.
Casson, R.W. 1981. Language, Culture and Cognition: Anthropological
Perspectives. New York: MacMillan.
DAndrade, R. 1995. The Development of Cognitive Anthropology.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Daeng, H.J. 1985. Pesta, Persaingan dan Harga Diri Pada
Beberapa Kelompok Etnis Flores daam Peranan
Kebudayaan Tradisional Indonesia Dalam Modernisasi, R.
Dove (ed.). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.
Danandjaja, J..1985. Penelitian Antropologi dan Sosiologi Mengenai
Kebudayaan dan Masyarakat Indonesia. Makalah simposium
kebudayaan Indonesia-Malaysia, tentang peninjauan
kembali teori, pengembangan dan penerapan AntropologiSosiologi.
_________,1989
Press.
Kebudayaan Petani desa Trunyan Bali. Jakarta: UI-
Geertz, C. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic

Books.
Goodenough, W.H. 1964. Cultural Anthropology and
Linguistics dalam Language in Culture and Society,
D.Hymes (ed.). New York: Harper and Row.
55
Hutchins, E. 1981. Reasoning in Trobriand Discourse dalam

Language, Culture and Cognition: Anthropological Perspectives,
R.W. Casson (ed.). New York: Mac Millan.
Irwan Abdullah. 1984. Arti Simbolis Gunungan Kakung Pada
Upacara Garebeg: Suatu Kajian Pandangan Hidup Jawa.
Skripsi Sarjana Muda. Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Gadjah
Mada.
Koentjaraningrat.1961. Some Social-Anthropological Observations on
Gotong-Royong Practices in Two Villages of Central Java.
Ithaca: Cornell University Modern Indonesia Project,
Monograph series.
_________. 1964. Atlas Etnografi Sedunia. Jakarta: Dian Rakjat.
_________.1984. Ciracas dan Cilangkap: Dua Desa di Pasar Rebo,
Selatan Jakarta dalam Masyarakat Desa di Indonesia Masa
Kini. Jakarta: Lembaga Penerbit Fakultas Ekonomi,
Universitas Indonesia.
_________.1993.Masalah Kesukubangsaan dan Integrasi Nasional.
Jakarta: UI-Press.
Kuhn, T. 1962. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.
Laksono, P.M. 1985. Persepsi Setempat dan Nasional Mengenai
Bencana Alam: Sebuah Desa di Gunung Merapi dalam
Peranan Kebudayaan Tradisional Indonesia Dalam Modernisasi,
M.R.Dove (ed.). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia.
Levi-Strauss, C. 1963. Structural Anthropology. New York: Basic
Books.
_________. 1966. The Savage Mind. Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Malinowski, B.1920. Argonauts of the Western Pacific.
56
Mansoben, J.R. 1985. Ritus Kbor dan Arti Simboliknya dalam

Kebudayaan Biak-Numfor, Irian Jaya dalam Ritus
Peralihan di Indonesia, Koentjaraningrat (ed.). Jakarta: Balai
Pustaka.
Marzali, A. 1987. Teori dan Metode Antropologi Turner.
Masyarakat Indonesia 2, Thn. XIV:127-141
Metzger, D. and G.Williams, 1966. Some Procedures and Results
in the Study of Native Categories. American Anthropologist
68: 389-407.
Naroll, R.1970. Epistemology dalam A Handbook of Method in
Cultural Anthropology, R. Naroll dan R.Cohen (eds.). New
York: Columbia University Press.
Mogot, B. 1998. Bahasa Ratahan Dalam Proses Pemanfaatan Pohon
Enau, di Kecamatan Ratahan, Kabupaten Minahasa. Tesis
Pascasarjana Linguistik. Universitas Sam Ratulangi.
Ninuk Kleden-Probonegoro. 1987. Teater Topeng Betawi Sebagai
Teks dan Maknanya: Suatu Tafsiran Antropologi.
Masyarakat Indonesia 2, Thn.XIV: 101-126.
Phillipson, M. 1972. Phenomenological Philosophy and
Sociology dalam New Directions in Sociological Theory,
P.Filmer et al. London: Collier-MacMillan.
Pranowo DS, H.A. 1985. Manusia dan Hutan: Proses Perubahan
Ekologi di Lereng Gunung Merapi. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada
University Press.
Radcliffe-Brown, A.R. 1952. Structure and Function in Primitive
Society. New York: Free Press.
Rossi, I. 1973. Structuralism as Scientific Method dalam The
Unconscious in Culture, I.Rossi (ed.). New York: E.P.Dutton.
57
Saifudin, A.F. 1991. Some Notes on Clifford Geertzs Interpretive

Anthroplogy. Antropologi Indonesia 49, Th.XV: 4-11.
Sairin, S. 1982. Javanese Trah: Kin-Based Organization. Yogyakarta:
Gadjah Mada University Press.
Sasongko Triyoga, L. 1991. Manusia Jawa dan Gunung Merapi:
Persepsi dan Sistem Kepercayaannya. Yogyakarta: Gadjah
Mada University Press.
Sumarauw, E.J. 1985. Lepasi: Upacara Purifikasi dan
Kesejahteraan Umum di Sangir Talaud dalam Ritus
Peralihan di Indonesia, Koentjaraningrat (ed.). Jakarta: Balai
Pustaka.
Suparlan, P. 1991. Struktur Perkotaan dan Kehidupan Hunian
Liar. Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial 1: 6-13.
Turner, V. 1970. The Forest of Symbols. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press.
Wallace, A.C. 1981. Culture and Cognition dalam Language,
Culture and Cognition: Anthropological Perspectives,
R.W.Casson (ed.). New York: MacMillan
58
READING RELIGIOUS PHENOMENON

THROUGH SIGN POWER
Sugeng Sugiyono
A. Exploring Language, Analyzing Meaning
By considering how complicated the relation between
language and religion is, this discussion tries to start with
Wittgesteins statement; religious, ethic, and esthetic are
connected by transcendental value in a thought that lies outside
world entity and hardly can be expressed.1 All those three aspects
cannot be expressed easily by language because they refer to
something that exceeds world boundaries and quit of the
assumption of how hard to reveal the existence of supernatural
aspect through unequal common language.
Islamic culture sets to progress along with the fact of
history of human whom God greets them through His language.
The way of how God reveals the Holy Book is not a simple matter.
It becomes the essence of what it is called by wahy as Gods
word and as a divine discourse which Quran is what Prophet
Muhammad SAW comprehends and delivers it to his people.
Wahy as Gods word is a concept of linguistics. The aspect of
how to comprehend and to deliver the form of its religious
phenomenon and of its performance can be analyzed through the
language. The matter of language from Adam creation itself has
become a never ending topic of debate for theologian,
philosopher, and linguist.
There is no existence of science without language because
it produces meaning, including religious meaning. However,
meaning is a significant representation of sign, though a meaning
sometimes appears based on vague and crucial notion. Sometimes
meaning is viewed as a part of science, not as an element of
religion. Science considers that causality influences to
characteristic of all things whereas religion considers that the
1 Kaelan, Filsafat Analitis Menurut Ludwig Wittgentein, Yogyakarta, Paradigma,

2004, p. 108.
Sugeng Sugiyono
thing which affects the characteristic of all things is the highest

value.
It can be said that meaning can be found without using
religious aspect. But on the broad aspect, especially on the history
of 20s century, culture as a meaning system will always connect to
religion2. However, religion is about meaning, not about causality,
and it is looked for by human.
When Quran is transformed or is revealed through
Arabian language (bi lisan Arabi mubin), there is always question
about how to comprehend it correctly as a way to get the
significant interpretation of verses as the signs. Various ways and
methods are developed continuously, started from self reference
for scholar of The Salaf to hermeneutic method for modern
philosopher. Discourse of Quran is always questioned, but is it
right? Of course, because beside of diachronic facts of Quran, it
always serves synchronized content that is in line with the
importance of guideline for the present of better mankind. When
there is always question about Holy Book (Quran), and
automatically question always appears for science as well,
including language that has more possibility for debate and
discussion. As a science, language has not become a final
postulate yet as well as Albert Einstein who finally comes up with
the theory of relativity and defines that everything is relative. He
gets to the point of conclusion that science and religion must
complete and energize each other.
From the outside form, religion is reflected through the
world of discourse (text) and behaviour. Phenomenally, these
become the things that can be read and be meant by human
language. Beside as medium to express the existence of God,
language exists in every human behaviour in creating
communication with Him in various symbols and signs. There are
spoken language and body language as the personification of
message from heaven. For Gods word (wahy) along with its
conjugation has become technical term in Islamic terminology,
especially when it refers to the communication of divine message
for the prophets.
2 Holmes Roston, Ilmu dan Agama: Sebuah Survai Kritis, Yogyakarta: Islamic
University Sunan Kalijaga, 2006, page. 34.
60
Reading Religious Phenomenon through Sign Power
In Quran, the use of word wahyand its verb conjugation

is not confined to the prophets only, but it is also used generally
to describe the form of communication between God and His
creation, between prophet and his people, and between fellow
being. From History of Islamic Thought perspective, the essence
matter of wahy for either verbal form or idea has become issue
that creates a long debate. As a theological mystery, it is hard to
comprehend it through humand mind because it is a mysterious
thing and because God is the speaker and human as is the hearer.
Moreover, God is not spatiotemporal entity, He is pure
spirit. God exceeds speed or mass and passes over time. After
relativity theory invention, man starts to see at a glance of what is
meant by immortality for God before, while for space and time
are determined only for the creation that is confined to His word
(firman); kun fayakun (His command is Be and it is).
In theory of relativity, there is nothing can get in the way
of signal that is faster than light, indeed is faster than speedy light
and the superluminal process is not a physics as what people
know it is. There is nothing can prevent the reality of deity that
has the comprehensive connection to any kind of way and
determine nature as the hologram that stands outside of human
mind capacity3.
B. Language of Wahy
There are specific characteristics of the three Semitic
religions; Jew, Christianity, and Islam. They are the perspective of
historical source, end of life guarantee, and the truth of religious
exprerience of the faithful that lies on the fact that God by Himself
who has revealed Him to mankind. In Islam, wahy means Allah
words (kalam). He reveals it through language; not a mysterious
language but a clear and understandable human language4.
Semantically Wahy has the same meaning with Allah
word (kalam). Surely because it is Quran, it uses the word
kalam on the process of wahy. Quran clarifies that it is
revealed verbally, although in another way it also emphasizes the
3 Holmes Roston, Ilmu dan Agama: Sebuah Survai Kritis, Yogyakarta: Universitas
Islam Negeri Sunan Kalijaga, 2006, hlm. 95
4 Toshihiko Izutzu, Relasi Tuhan dan Manusia, Pendekatan Semantik terhadap alQuràn, translator. Agus Fahri Husein (Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana, 2003), page. 166
61
Sugeng Sugiyono
intimate relevancy to Prophet Muhammad saw person, heart,

and mind (al-kalm bi al-quwwah). In another word, Allah word
(kalam) was born in the heart and mind of Prophet Muhammad
saw, then its form possibly refer to him (al-kalm bi al-fil). Fazlur
Rahman also concludes that Quran is Allah word in a common
meaning and it is also defined as Prophet Muhammad word 5.
It is hard to deal with the conclusion that Allah word
(kalam) is mysterious thing and different to human language and
behaviour, but because semantically it is word, surely it has all the
main characteristics of human words.
Toshihiko Izutsu differs the use of wahy based on
semantics essential into three categories. First, wahy is the form
of communication that has been done by two persons for the real
actualization of wahy. The process of sending the message from A
to B is not a mutual relationship, but it is a unilateral
communication. Second, wahy should not have verbal
characteristic and does not always have linguistics characteristic.
Third, there are mysterious and personal things between both of
the two persons who involved in it6.
Human thought reaches the perfection of it through
language, and then there are two consequences for it. First,
human language manifests the Holy Book7 or wahy. Second, the
Holy Book should have special characteristics; absolute for the
content and relative for the understanding. This is what is called
by absolute linguistics form (abt an-na) for the text and relative
concept for the understanding.8
In the theory of linguistics that is proposed by Sapir Whorf
and is supported by Humbolt, it is stated that the relative human
language precisely often finds its deep meaning when it is
presented through its connection with God, both for motional
connection and performative connection. Both those two aspects
5 Fazlur Rahmn, Islam, translator. Ahsin Muhammad (Bandung: Pustaka
Publisher), 1984, page. 32.
6 Toshihiko Izutsu, Relasi Tuhan dan Manusia, page. 173. Look at the explanation
of Al-Zarqani in Al-Burhn fi Ulm al-Qur`n, page. l63. It explains about the meaning of
wahy as the form of secret and unusual communication between Allah and His people for
general people
7 Allah words for Prophet Muhammad saw as the last prophet
8 Muhammad Shahrr, Al-Kitb wa al-Qur`n Qiràh Muirah (Kairo: Sina li anNsyr, 1992), page. 46.
62
have the same strong influence in forming the formula of religious

spiritual power that frequently cannot achieve the essence of
various actualizations. It happens because the weakness in
understanding it through language and the failure in getting the
significance toward the signs of God greatness.
There is another factor of failure in experiencing religious
message beside the weakness of language itself that cannot get the
essential meaning of it; it is external experience that hardly can be
explained. If language could express all human experiences
through it, then all what Prophet Muhammad saw experienced in
heaven (Sidratul Muntaha) could be explained through language
and some of the secret of heaven would be known. But in fact it
does not, heaven and hell only can be generalized through
sequence of limited expression.
The basic characteristic and function of proposition are
having literal meaning. But, when it has to give the appropriate
expression related to the fact of language function itself, it needs
metaphor and mysticism. That is why; the existence of God is a
mystical fact that has to be expressed although it hardly can be
told.9
When there is something that cannot be expressed through
poetic language, possibly it needs the use of religious language.
Religious language talks about itself and does not need any
pronoun. It does not take any language theory and explanation. It
becomes unexpressed thing even it contains of something that has
been uttered. Then it comes up as another way for language that
cannot be tied up, but by language itself.10 To the present time,
people have difficulty to translate and find an appropiate shift for
the word of taqwa or of nikah as religious term in another
language. Deity meaning may will be easier to be expressed
through religious behaviour than verbal language.
As well as language that always exists and participates in
wherever people stand and do any activity, religion will always
live in every human act although religious concept and religious
intensity of someone and another are different. It can be known
why atheism, agnosticism, and deism are categorized as religion.
9 George Pitcher, The Philosophy of Wittgenstein, Englewood Cliffs, New Yersey,
1964, page. 100.
10 Kaelan, Filsafat Analitis, page. 111.
63
Sugeng Sugiyono
In the tradition of philosophy and anthropology, not all what is

called and is categorized as religion has to have a holy book and
prophet just like Abrahamic religions.11
C. Two Languages, One Phenomenon
When there is someone waves the hand, he/she talks in
different level. There is subject intention; a dimension that is
completely separated from nerve impulse and empirical muscle
movement. One language gives many causes, while another offers
many reasons. One language becomes objective explanation,
while another comes up as subjective explanation; not only an
explanation about personal experience, but also an explanation
about an experience to face the world.
Therefore, it needs to reconsider when we discuss about
the correlation between language and religion because they are
tightly connected. Moreover, all the Holy Books which have been
revealed on earth have closely similar feature; hidden messages
behind the language. Syrian, Hebrew, and Arabic become the
languages that have a strong religious nuance. Language may
become a function as a medium of religious discourse that surely
may relate to language of any community insofar as it becomes
the way to talk and discuss about religious matter (language and
religion).
There are two phenomena of language that are pre-eminent in
religious discourse.
1. According to Johan Meuleman, language as a form of
Gods utterance in a Holy Book can be recognized through
three aspects. The first aspect, Jews, Christianity, and
Islam as religions stand as the sign, precisely the sign of
Gods Greatness and Gods The One. The second aspect,
the Holy Books that become the base of most religions
stand as a set of sign that indicates particular meaning that
needs deep exploration in the process of its interpretation.
The third aspect is that the text of Holy Book is a set of
sign that delivers Gods message (language in religion). As
well as the second aspect, here language concerns the
11 Komaruddin Hidayat, Memahami Bahasa Agama: Sebuah Kajian Hermeneutik,
Jakarta: Paramadina Publisher, 1996, page.75.
64
matter of connection between informant,

text, and
recipient.
2. Language that touches the symbol of religious behaviour
both performative language and creative language is not
just an act, but it is a discourse that is implemented along
with the act as well as the language of salat (ritual prayers
and actions performed five times daily in Islam) and hajj
ritual. In various observance of religious duty, people use
Liturgy language to deliver particular prayers in spiritual
communication. In another side, there is written text
language on the paper that needs exegesis explanation to
interpret it by using science methodology, especially
language science.
The concept of langue plays the main role of concept
formation of specific verbal language of Quran. At a glance, the
word lisn with its conjugation form in Quran implies one of
possible meanings that Quran is spoken language in its time of
revelation. As well as the other languages in the world, Quran
language passes verbal period before at last it transforms into
written language. The term of lisn in Quran becomes the most
appropriate expression from the space and time perspectives
because it was revealed to Arabians who were generally illiterate
(ummyy)12. In History of Islamic Thought, the idea of the essence
of Quran; is revealed in verbal form or in idea that has become
one of the matters that causes long controversy. While most of
Muslim scholars have a notion that Quran comes up in its
articulation and meaning.13
12 The word of ummyy is unusual word that is used by Arabian in the era of PreIslam. It is unknown for its use of word derivation in literary manuscript of Jahiliah
(ignorance). Quran uses the word ummyy not to show the disgrace or language error of
Arabian, but it is used to differentiate it from the scribe. Allah words in allazna yattabina
ar-rasl al-ummiyya and fa`min billhi wa raslihi an-nabyy al-ummiyy is the form of Allahs
invitation for the scribe of Israeli to right and clarrifie the arrival of a messenger who had
been referred to in their Book though were not from their offspring. Prophet Muhammad
saw was not a scribe and it is a contadiction to the tradition that demands for the specialty
of the scribe for the next prophet as well as what had been revealed to them (Israeli) from
the previous prophets.
13 Al-Zarkasy, Al-Burhn f Ulm al-Qur`n, Mesir: Isa al-Babi al-Halabi, tt page
229.
65
Sugeng Sugiyono
Fazlur Rahman clarifies that another substance through

one way dictates Quran with absolute authority. The voice that
comes from the clear spoken base of life can not be blamed and
importunate for acceptance. It does not only Quran that means
reading text, but the text of Quran itself at some parts declares
that it is revealed not only in the form of meaning or ideas but
also in verbal form. The term of Quran as revelation is wahy
that closely relates to the meaning of inspiration without
ignoring the verbal form14.
D. Language and the Power of Sign (Semiotics)
With the existence of mind, culture and language
potential, mankind is able to manipulate abstract symbol, to
produce tools, to live the culture, and to learn both science and
religion. It becomes historical awareness as per-impossible for
chimpanzee and comes up as a pure nature, although chimpanzee
has similar anatomy of hand and brain with humans.
Semiotics is a science that analyzes the signs in human life.
All the things that exists in life is believed as the sign; something
that has to have meaning. In this understanding, may all people
have the same agreement, but when we have to find the meaning
of sign, various issues emerge15. In its development, semiotics
becomes a set of theory for analyzing human culture, including
religion.
In another side, sign and signification plays the main role
in understanding religion because the word verse (ayah) means
sign. Thereby Quran (from qaraa which means collect as the
root) is a set of signs from Allah which human needs to find the
meaning and to implement it in Muslim life. In one of Quran
verses, it is said sanuriyahum ayatina fi al-afaq wa fi anfusihim hatta
yatabayyana lahum annahu al-haqq which means We will show
you Our signs in firmament and in their soul so it is clear for them
that it (Quran that is revealed to Prophet Muhammad saw) is
true. The word of verse (ayah) is used for the understanding of
bad things in general that is unacceptable for any imlementation
14 Fazlur Rahmn, Islam, terj. Ahsin Mohammad (Bandung: PustakaPublisher,
1984), page 32.
15 Benny H. Hoed, Semiotik dan Dinamikan Sosial Budaya, Edisi Kedua, Depok:
Komunitas Bambu, 2011, page. 3.
66
such as inna fi zalika la ayah li man khafa azab an-nar16 which in this
matter becomes (the punishment from Allah towards deviate
Firaun and his people) an example for those who are afraid of
Allahs torture. Therefore verse is a small unit and a part of
Quran.
The various meanings of the word verse (ayah) in Quran
have the similarity to the various meanings of sign in Bible and
Christian thought. Therefore as well as Bible and Chirtianity, in
principle Quran as the text and Islam as a whole becomes a great
source for semiotics analysis17. The word semio, sema, and semion
have the same philology root with what has been sated in Quran
sm which means sign as in sma hum fi wujhihim min asar assujd which means there is sign in his face for his sujud
(kneeling position and placing the forhead on the floor as a part of
prayer in Islam).
When principally Quran becomes a great source for
semiotics, it does not mean that it has been explored massively.
The modern semiotics analysis has been applied in Cristianity
science since 1970s18. Semiotics analysis of Christianity theology
focuses on the text (Bible) and tries to expand the semiotics
analysis in various aspects of religious practice, especially in the
aspect of liturgy.
Muhammad Arkoun may become the only one Muslim
scholar who starts to enrich Islamic studies through semiotics
development. Although he always encourages Islamic research to
exceed the boundary of study about written texts from classic
experts, but he centralizes his concern to various classical text and
analyzes it with new method.
The significance of semiotics approach is that it views a
text as a whole and as a system of internal connection. This
approach opens a possibility to comprehend many aspects from a
16Quràn,
Surah Hud 103.

Johan Henrik Meuleman,Sumbangan dan Batas Semiotika Dalam Ilmu
Agama dalam Membaca Al-Quràn Bersama Muhammed Arkoun, Yogyakarta LKiS, 2012,
page. 56.
18 In the emerging era of 'linguistic theology' Guttgemans established in
Germany, 'center pour l'analyze du Discours Religieux' in France, Semiotische Analyse
door Nederlandse Theologen in Netherland French and Dutch groups are suspected to
have a relation to AJ Greimas and the 'Flow of Paris' in semiotics while Guttemans stands
beyond the semiotic analysis in the narrow sense that is influenced by Jackues Lacan for
psychoanalysis and ' Jackues Derrida. For grammatology'
17
67
Sugeng Sugiyono
text that hardly can be explored based on an analysis that

contradicts the separated particular element and stands free from
the text. According to Arkoun, another significance of semiotics is
that semiotics analysis leads us to analyze the text without any
previous particular interpretation or any other pre-suspicion19.
E. Reading Liturgy Language
Religious language in all prayer (salat) or hajj movements
does not only focus on spoken performative language along with
verse reading of Quran, but it focuses on mental language of body
movement that is more expressive for expressing feeling and
mind along with act and movement that contain a lot of deeper
meaningful sign.
Standing steadily in prayer (salat) shows the sign of one
that represents God as The One as the most essential base of God
unity. The position of the head portrays human who has
intelligence as a gift that is used to think and to find the meaning
of God creation through science for stronger base of God unity.
For the composition of ruku (bowing deeply from the waist
during prayer ritual) symbolizes the true respect posture of
religious tenet that represents equality, harmonism, integration,
and combination of mind (fikr) element and soul (zikr) element.
The balanced element of mind (fikr) and soul (zikr) keeps
somebody away from the imbalance of religion and avoids
someone from the trap of extremism, exclusiveness, and
primordial concept. In life context, when someone has not been
able to have this ethic, it indicates that he/she has not been able to
appreciate and to respect life. Sujud; kneeling position with
forehead on the floor as a part of prayer ritual becomes a form of
total human defenselessness in front of The Creator where
intelligence is placed in low position, even is lower than heart
position. Body and all the elements attached to it will return
inside of earth, and there is only heart (nafas) as an eternal left
thing. For forty years, Adam had been performing sujud when
he was expelled from heaven until the angel raised him and
teached him how to live and to serve the evanescent life.
19 Ibid. page 62 refer to Muhammed Arkoun. Lecture de la Fatiha in Lecture du

Coran, Paris: Mainsonneuve et Larose, 1982.
68
Hajj journey that starts from miqat illustrates human

authenticity that comes from Kaaba as the centre of hajj ritual
called by bait al-atiq house of indenpence which is free from any
possesion and is free from any possesor and oppressor. Kaaba has
no direction and its directionless concept hardly can be
understand. But in this way, universality and absolutism exist.
God words; wa lillahi al-masyriqu wa al-magribu fa ainama tuwallu
wujuhakum fa samma wajh Allah20 tell that Hajj ritual becomes a
way to commemorate Hajar or move (comes from the root of
hijrah) from bad quality to the better one. Tawaf; ceremony of
circumambulation of the Ka'abah in Mecca seven times is an
example of system based on monotheism idea that touches the
particle of human and Allah stands as the centre of exsistence.
Kaaba is the symbol of immortality that comes up as
centripetal one of tasbih act swim in circle of millions of people
and all His creations indeed. In tawaf act (ceremony of
circumambulation of the Ka'abah in Mecca seven times), tasbih
(glorify or recite repeated chant as the confession of faith)
recitation becomes the prominent element. It is looked like galaxi
movement that symbolizes the essence of monotheism; the flow of
millions of people circumambulate it in rumble with the spotless
white clothes for all. It becomes the immortal movement.
In contrast to tawaf (ceremony of circumambulation of the
Ka'abah in Mecca seven times), sai (ceremony of running between
the hills of Sofa and Marwa during the hajj) is full of struggle for
survival with the spirit of takbir (recitation of Allahu Akbar). Hajar
is the most beautiful creature of Allah on earth. Inside of her,
intellect intelligence, emotional intelligence, spiritual intelligence,
and adversity intelligence21 are collected in one. She is a woman
and a mother at once who struggles to provide all what she and
her son; Ismail need. She has to survive, she has to stand up, she
has to run to find the source of life for pious generation (zurriyyah
tayyibah) in the future. Do we know, what is the source of life? It is
water. Allah says; Wa jaaln min al-mi kulla syaiin hayyi (and)
We create all the living things from water.
Quràn Surah al-Baqarah: 115

Adversity quotion, is the spirit for survival which is in Stolts theory defined as a
special intelligence whose only some people has it
20
21
69
Sugeng Sugiyono
Two third of human body is liquid, two third of earth is

also water, and without it, the life on earth will never exist.
Arafah becomes the peak of hajj ritual (al-hajju arafah)because it
does not only have time and space dimension, but it also has the
dimension of spiritual condition . Someone can not be subtituted
by another one for it because without seeing Arafah, hajj will not
be accepted. Arafah comes from arafa and marifah as the
root which mean know, understand, and science. Then the way of
people go down from Kaaba to Arafah symbolizes the phase of
human creation. The encounter between Adam and Eve then is
followed by knowing and understanding each other. They are
created in different sex although they come from the same
substance for bearing next generation. It is the first sign of science
where the existence of human is as old as the existence of science.
The history of human begins from the science and Allah teaches
Adam about it by Himself. The journey of people who do hajj
from Arafah to Kaaba becomes the journey of people to go back to
their origin. People pass over masyar (a dessert) as a symbol of
awarness and mina (a place for doing Jumrah throwing the
stone to the pillar as a part of hajj ritual) as a symbol of hope,
dream, love, and belief. It symbolizes the journey for going to
God; The Creator of Nature
E. The Most Beautiful Language
Al- Jurjani says that the speaker is the one who does know,
does understand, and do es comprehend for his own utterance
than the other. Jurjanis statement becomes a part of analogy
(kalam nafsy) that views Allah as the only One who knows the
meaning of His word (kalam). Because God stands as the source
of the utterance (kalam) and He plays the role as Mutakallim
(speaker). As mutakallam (hearer) mankind never finds the
deepest essence meaning of kalam because human existence is
tied up by its life, including its language. Being in line with the
theory of de Saussure, basically individual parole (kalam) is the
expression of the speaker that exists as the phenomenon of
psychological mechanism. Therefore, mutakallim interaction with
its product and the beauty of language become his own, not the
others. It is true when Abu Bakar as-Siddiq recites Quran (early
surah Ar-Rum) in front of the unbeliever Quraisy and states that
70
it is neither my word (kalam) nor Muhammads , but it is Allahs

word (kalam) Is there any beautiful language than Allahs?
Definitely there is no. Is there any beautiful language than human
language for God? If any, it is the language of heart.
REFERENCES
Baker, Chris, Cultural Studies, terj. Nurhadi, Yogyakarta: Kreasi
wacana, 2011.
Harb, Ali, Naqd an-Nass, Beirut: al-Markaz as-Saqafi al-Arabi, adDar al-Baida`, 1995.
Hidayat, Komaruddin, Memahami Bahasa Agama: Sebuah Kajian
Hermeneutik, Jakarta: Paramadina Publisher, 1996
Hoed, Benny H., Semiotik dan Dinamikan Sosial Budaya, Second
Edition, Depok: Komunitas Bambu, 2011
Izutzu, Toshihiko, Relasi Tuhan dan Manusia, Pendekatan Semantik
terhadap al-Quràn, translator. Agus Fahri Husein,
Yogyakarta: Tiara Wacana, 2003.
Al-Jurjani, Abd al-Qahir, Dalaìl al-Ijaz fi Ilm al-Maani, ed.
Muhammad Abduh, Mesir: Matbaah al-Mausuah, 1961
Kaelan, Filsafat Analitis Menurut Ludwig Wittgentein, Yogyakarta,
Paradigma, 2004.
Kramsch, Claire, Language and Culture, New York: Oxford
University Press, 2000.
Lehtonen, Mico, The Analysis of Texs, London: Sage Publications,
2000.
Pitcher, George, The Philosophy of Wittgenstein, Englewood Cliffs,
New Yersey, 1964.
71
Sugeng Sugiyono
Meuleman, Johan Henrik,Sumbangan dan Batas Semiotika

Dalam Ilmu Agama dalam Membaca Al-Quràn Bersama
Muhammed Arkoun, Yogyakarta LKiS, 2012
Rahmn, Fazlur, Islam, terj. Ahsin Mohammad Bandung: Pustaka
Publisher, 1984.
Roston, Holmes, Ilmu dan Agama: Sebuah Survai Kritis, Yogyakarta:
State Islamic University, 2006
Shahrr, Muhammad, Al-Kitb wa al-Qur`n Qiràh Muirah
Kairo: Sina li an-Nsyr, 1992.
Syariati, Ali, Hajj, California: Evicena Cultural & Education
Foundation.
Al-Zarkasy, Al-Burhn f Ulm al-Qur`n, Mesir: Isa al-Babi alHalabi, tt.
72

) (
PORTRAYAL OF PARADISE IN THE HOLY QORAN
)(Linguistic Behaviorism Analysis
.

.
.
.
.

.
.

.

.

.
.

.
: .
Ubaidillah

.
.

.
:

)(52:

:

)(71:

.

.

300
)Shurah al-Jannah fi Al-Quran al-Karim (Dirasah Tahliliyyah Sulukiyyah Lisaniyyah

)Potrayal of Paradise in the Holy Qoran (Linguistic Behaviourism Analysis

.

.
(.)mentalism

Watson Bloomfield
Language
.

.

.
()stimulus
( )response
( The Speakers Stimulus
)
The
.Hearer Response :
Harimurti Kridalaksana, Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia, 2008), hlm. 32.
301
Ubaidillah
() ( ) ( )
.
:
()
. []
() .
[]
()
. []

. (linguistic
) form "
"

:
( )
.
( )
.
2 Leonard Bloomfiled, Language. 1st Published. (London & Aylesbury: Great

Britain, 1935), p. 23.
3 Ibid.,p. 22.
302

( )

.
( )4 introspection
4.

.

.

.

.
.

:
Ibid.,p. 139.
Metode Penelitian Bahasa: Tahapan Strategi, Metode dan Tekniknya
(Jakarta: P.T. Grafindo Persada, 2006), p. 102.
6 Michael Quinn Patton, How to Use Qualitative Methodes in Evaluation. (London:
Sage Publication, 1991), p. 16.
4
5Mahsun,
303
Ubaidillah
.
:
.1

.
.
) (
.

.

.
.
( ) :
Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, terj. R. Cecep Lukman Yasin dan Dedi
Slamet Riyadi (Jakarta: Serambi, 2005), hlm. 20-21.
) :
)771187 ..877
7 ) :
7141 ) 187-177 .
304


} (

7
)792:

.

.
.

.
.2

.
.
.

.
77 .
Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, terj. R. Cecep Lukman Yasin dan Dedi
Slamet Riyadi (Jakarta: Serambi, 2005), hlm. 22-23.
11
305
Ubaidillah

.

. :

)(52:

( )86:

.
.

.

.
.3

.

78
306


- " "
""

""

- " :-
:
(
.
( :
:

.
( :

"7 "
hadithsearch.php .8771/77/70
307
http://library.islamweb.net/hadith/
Ubaidillah

.
(

-
""

4.

: .
71 " "
/http://www.alukah.net /social/0/4458 .8771/77/70
308

- - :

: .
- - :

:
:
.

: .

.

.

.
"70 "
hadithsearch.php .8771/77/70
309
http://library.islamweb.net/hadith/
Ubaidillah
( 72:

()25:

()56:

(78.)1 :

.
.

:

74
310


: .
:
" " :
. .

:
. :
):

:
. .
- -
71 ( 87 :
877 .231-232 .
7 " "
( : . 4 .
311
Ubaidillah
- -
.
.

.

.

.
.

.

.
312
Shurah al-Jannah fi Al-Quran al-Karim (Dirasah Tahliliyyah Sulukiyyah Lisaniyyah)

Potrayal of Paradise in the Holy Qoran (Linguistic Behaviourism Analysis)

" "
/ /5 /http://www.alukah.net/social/0/4458
. 5 4
" "
. :
:
. 55

4 4 :
:
.
" "
. 5 4/ /5 hadith/hadithsearch.php
http://library.islamweb.net/

Harimurti Kridalaksana, Kamus Linguistik. Jakarta: PT Gramedia,
2008.
Leonard Bloomfiled, Language. 1st
Aylesbury: Great Britain, 1935.
Published.
London
&
Mahsun, Metode Penelitian Bahasa: Tahapan Strategi, Metode dan

Tekniknya. Jakarta: P.T. Grafindo Persada, 2006.
Michael Quinn Patton, How to Use Qualitative Methodes in
Evaluation. London: Sage Publication, 1991.
Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, terj. R. Cecep Lukman Yasin
dan Dedi Slamet Riyadi. Jakarta: Serambi, 2005.
313
Ubaidillah

80 :
70 :
01 :
07 :
1 :
00 :
88 :
77 :
4 :
08 :
87 :
18 :
- 7:
18
844 :

70 :

7 4

314


315
770

77
7 :

01 :

788 :

78 :

0 :

777 :

1 :

18 :

7 :

Ubaidillah
7 :
0 :
8 :
7 :
7 :
14 :
71 :
8 :
77 :
0 :
87 :
78 :
70 :
316


317
...

....

0 :
71 :
78 :
88 :
78 :
7 :
77 :
77 :
:
Ubaidillah
80 :
70 :
01 :
01:
1 :
17:
8 -88 :
08 :
04 :
318

صورة الجنة في القرآن الكريم PORTRAYAL OF PARADISE IN THE HOLY QORAN (Linguistic Behaviorism Analysis) in Proceeding of International Conference on Language and Religion

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

صورة الجنة في القرآن الكريم PORTRAYAL OF PARADISE IN THE HOLY QORAN (Linguistic Behaviorism Analysis) in Proceeding of International Conference on Language and Religion

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

LANGUAGE AND RELIGION

Friday, 24 October 2014

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL

Quo-Vadis Language and Literature in the Religious Life?

Heddy Shri Ahimsa-Putra

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

Muhammad Zuhri Dj.

International Conference on Language and Religion

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

Ulyati Retno Sari

SALAHUDDIN AYYUBIS SYMBOL REPRESENTATION

International Conference on Language and Religion

Yogyakarta, 24th October 2014

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

A. Language and Religious Observance

is both a public and a private matter and language choices made

International Conference on Language and Religion

Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion

forms of Buddhism and other religions. The possibilities are

Protestant reformation in Europe when using the language of the

The two perspectives relate to two very different

International Conference on Language and Religion

Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion

C. Effects the two perspectives on language use

That is the idea that a vernacular language could be a

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

the case for example in Orthodox Christianity where classical

International Conference on Language and Religion

Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion

in Australia as new patterns of immigration brought into

communities and in the Mission school. Crowley (2000) also

International Conference on Language and Religion

Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion

languages in their services, as in the case of Latin versions of sung

International Conference on Language and Religion

Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion

with preachers using Aramaic in Palestine and Greek in diasporic

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

other ways of understanding language may influence the actual

International Conference on Language and Religion

Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion

restricted to the sacral language, as in the case of the priestly

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

International Conference on Language and Religion

Language Approaches in the Public Practice of Religion

Liddicoat, A. J. (2013). Language planning in religious observance.

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

IN SEARCH FOR THE INTEGRATION OF

In Search for the Integration of Hermeneutics and Ulum al-Qur`an

object is called hermeneutics.2 In philosophical hermeneutics,

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

period, in which Western scholars have experienced deeply with

See Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Ishkaliyyat al-Qiraa wa Aliyyat at-Tawil.

International Conference on Language and Religion

In Search for the Integration of Hermeneutics and Ulum al-Qur`an

sophisticatedly, especially if the field of ulum al-Quran is

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

or meaning. So, an effort to discover the historical meaning is a

International Conference on Language and Religion

In Search for the Integration of Hermeneutics and Ulum al-Qur`an

significant role in interpretation.11 With regard to to this matter,

UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta