Carbon steel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Steels and other ironcarbon alloy phases

Ferrite

Austenite

Cementite

Graphite

Martensite
Microstructures

Spheroidite

Pearlite

Bainite

Ledeburite
Tempered martensite

Widmanstatten structures
Classes

Crucible steel

Carbon steel

Spring steel

Alloy steel

Maraging steel

Stainless steel

Weathering steel

Tool steel
Other iron-based materials

Cast iron

Gray iron

White iron

Ductile iron

Malleable iron

Wrought iron

Carbon steel is steel in which the main interstitial alloying constituent is carbon in the range of 0.12
2.0%. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) defines that:
Steel is considered to be carbon steel
when no minimum content is specified or required
for chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, titanium, tungsten,vanadium or zirconiu
m, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect;
when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 percent;
or when the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed
the percentages noted:manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60.
[1]

The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel;
in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels.
As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to
become harder and stronger through heat treating; however, it becomes less ductile.
Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon
steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.
[2]

Contents
[hide]

1 Type
o

1.1 Mild and low-carbon steel

1.2 Higher-carbon steels

2 Types
o

2.1 Low-carbon steel

2.2 Medium-carbon steel

2.3 High-carbon steel (ASTM 304)

2.4 Ultra-high-carbon steel

3 Heat treatment

4 Case hardening

5 Forging temperature of steel

6 See also

7 References

8 Bibliography

Type[edit]
See also: SAE steel grades

Mild and low-carbon steel[edit]

Mild steel
, also known as plain-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel
because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for
many applications. Low-carbon steel contains approximately 0.050.15% carbon making it
malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and
easy to form; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.
[clarification needed]

[1]

[3]

It is often used when large quantities of steel are needed, for example as structural steel.
The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm (7850 kg/m or 0.284 lb/in ) and
the Young's modulus is 210 GPa (30,000,000 psi).
3

3 [4]

[5]

Low-carbon steels suffer from yield-point runout where the material has two yield points. The
first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops
dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point
between the upper and lower yield point then the surface may develop Lder bands. Lowcarbon steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making
them easier to handle.
[6]

[7]

Higher-carbon steels[edit]
Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the
range of 0.301.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can have a
significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular
make the steel red-short, that is, brittle and crumbly at working temperatures. Low-alloy
carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melts around 1,426
1,538 C (2,5992,800 F). Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of lowcarbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low-alloy steel by some definitions,
but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.
[8]

Types[edit]
See also: SAE steel grades
Carbon steel is broken down into four classes based on carbon content:

Low-carbon steel[edit]
0.05-0.25% carbon content.

Medium-carbon steel[edit]
Approximately 0.2500.6% carbon content. Balances ductility and strength and has good
wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components.
[1]

[9][10]

High-carbon steel (ASTM 304)[edit]

Approximately 0.92.5% carbon content. Very strong, used for springs and high-strength
wires.
[1]

[11]

Ultra-high-carbon steel[edit]
Approximately 2.53.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great hardness.
Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles or punches. Most
steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy.
[1]

Heat treatment[edit]

Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the temperature and carbon ranges for certain types of heat treatments.

Main article: Heat treatment

The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel,
usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and
thermal conductivity are only slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for
steel, Young's modulus (elasticity) is unaffected. All treatments of steel trade ductility for
increased strength and vice versa. Iron has a higher solubility for carbon in
the austenite phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process
annealing, start by heating the steel to a temperature at which the austenitic phase can
exist. The steel is then quenched (heat drawn out) at a high rate causing cementite to
precipitate and finally the remaining pure iron to solidify. The rate at which the steel is cooled
through the eutectoidtemperature affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite
and forms cementite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will leave iron carbide finely
dispersed and produce a fine grained pearlite (until the martensite critical temperature is
reached) and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid steel (less
than 0.77 wt% C) results in a lamellar-pearlitic structure of iron carbide layers with ferrite (pure iron) between. If it is hypereutectoid steel (more than 0.77 wt% C) then the
structure is full pearlite with small grains (larger than the pearlite lamella)
of cementite scattered throughout. The relative amounts of constituents are found using
the lever rule. The following is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:

Spheroidizing: Spheroidite forms when carbon steel is heated to approximately 700 C

for over 30 hours. Spheroidite can form at lower temperatures but the time needed
drastically increases, as this is a diffusion-controlled process. The result is a structure of
rods or spheres of cementite within primary structure (ferrite or pearlite, depending on
which side of the eutectoid you are on). The purpose is to soften higher carbon steels
and allow more formability. This is the softest and most ductile form of steel. The image
to the right shows where spheroidizing usually occurs.
[12]

Full annealing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 40 C above Ac3 or Ac1 for 1
hour; this ensures all the ferrite transforms into austenite (although cementite might still
exist if the carbon content is greater than the eutectoid). The steel must then be cooled
slowly, in the realm of 20C (36F) per hour. Usually it is just furnace cooled, where the
furnace is turned off with the steel still inside. This results in a coarse pearlitic structure,
which means the "bands" of pearlite are thick. Fully annealed steel is soft andductile,
with no internal stresses, which is often necessary for cost-effective forming. Only
spheroidized steel is softer and more ductile.
[13]

[14]

Process annealing: A process used to relieve stress in a cold-worked carbon steel with
less than 0.3 wt% C. The steel is usually heated up to 550650 C for 1 hour, but
sometimes temperatures as high as 700 C. The image rightward shows the area where
process annealing occurs.

Isothermal annealing: It is a process in which hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the

upper critical temperature and this temperature is maintained for a time and then the
temperature is brought down below lower critical temperature and is again maintained.
Then finally it is cooled at room temperature. This method rids any temperature
gradient.

Normalizing: Carbon steel is heated to approximately 55 C above Ac3 or Acm for 1

hour; this ensures the steel completely transforms to austenite. The steel is then aircooled, which is a cooling rate of approximately 38 C (100 F) per minute. This results
in a fine pearlitic structure, and a more-uniform structure. Normalized steel has a higher
strength than annealed steel; it has a relatively high strength and hardness.
[15]

Quenching: Carbon steel with at least 0.4 wt% C is heated to normalizing temperatures
and then rapidly cooled (quenched) in water, brine, or oil to the critical temperature. The
critical temperature is dependent on the carbon content, but as a general rule is lower
as the carbon content increases. This results in a martensitic structure; a form of steel
that possesses a super-saturated carbon content in a deformed body-centered cubic
(BCC) crystalline structure, properly termed body-centered tetragonal (BCT), with much
internal stress. Thus quenched steel is extremely hard but brittle, usually too brittle for
practical purposes. These internal stresses cause stress cracks on the surface.
Quenched steel is approximately three to four (with more carbon) fold harder than
normalized steel.
[16]

Martempering (Marquenching): Martempering is not actually a tempering procedure,

hence the term "marquenching". It is a form of isothermal heat treatment applied after
an initial quench of typically in a molten salt bath at a temperature right above the
"martensite start temperature". At this temperature, residual stresses within the material
are relieved and some bainite may be formed from the retained austenite which did not
have time to transform into anything else. In industry, this is a process used to control
the ductility and hardness of a material. With longer marquenching, the ductility
increases with a minimal loss in strength; the steel is held in this solution until the inner
and outer temperatures equalize. Then the steel is cooled at a moderate speed to keep
the temperature gradient minimal. Not only does this process reduce internal stresses
and stress cracks, but it also increases the impact resistance.
[17]

Quench and tempering: This is the most common heat treatment encountered,
because the final properties can be precisely determined by the temperature and time of
the tempering. Tempering involves reheating quenched steel to a temperature below
the eutectoid temperature then cooling. The elevated temperature allows very small
amounts of spheroidite to form, which restores ductility, but reduces hardness. Actual
temperatures and times are carefully chosen for each composition.
[18]

Austempering: The austempering process is the same as martempering, except the

steel is held in the molten salt bath through the bainite transformation temperatures, and
then moderately cooled. The resulting bainite steel has a greater ductility, higher impact

resistance, and less distortion. The disadvantage of austempering is it can only be used
on a few steels, and it requires a special salt bath.
[19]

Case hardening[edit]
Main article: Case hardening
Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear
resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not
very hardenable; therefore thick pieces cannot be through-hardened. Alloy steels have a
better hardenability, so they can through-harden and do not require case hardening. This
property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear
characteristics but leaves the core tough.

Link: wikipedia
Low carbon steel is a type of metal that has an alloying element made up of a relatively low amount of carbon. Typically, it has a
carbon content that ranges between 0.05% and 0.30% and amanganese content that falls between 0.40 and 1.5%. Low carbon
steel is one of the most common types of steel used for general purposes, in part because it is often less expensive than other types
of steel. While the steel contains properties that work well in manufacturing a variety of goods, it is most frequently made into flatrolled sheets or strips of steel.
Items made from low carbon steel compete with products that can be manufactured using stainless steel and aluminum alloy
metals. Low carbon steel can be used to manufacture a wide range of manufactured goods - from home appliances and ship sides
to low carbon steel wire and tin plates. Since it has a low amount of carbon in it, the steel is typically more malleable than other
kinds of steel. As a result, it can be rolled thin into products like car body panels.
Ad
The carbon content for panels that are made of low carbon steel alloy is usually quite low, generally less than 0.10%. The carbon
content for products like rolled steel structural plates, forgings, stampings, or sections is a bit higher, usually up to 0.30%. Pipes are
a common product made from the higher carbon category. Generally, a low carbon steel pipe is used for transmitting substances
such as gas and oil.
The steelmaking process as well as the deoxidation method can influence the properties of low carbon steel. In general, these
properties are comparable to those of iron. Lower carbon steels usually have softer and weaker properties than steels containing
higher carbon content. This can make them easier to weld.
Other types of carbon steel include medium, high, and ultrahigh carbon steels. Medium carbon steel customarily has a carbon
content ranging between 0.30 and 0.60% and a manganese content falling between 0.60 and 1.65%. It is frequently used for
making products like axles, gears, shafts, and rail systems. Often used for making ultra-strength wires or spring materials, high
carbon steel usually has a carbon content ranging between 0.60 and 1.0% and a manganese content ranging between 0.30 to
0.90%. Ultrahigh carbon steel, which can be used for manufacturing items like knives, is thermomechanically processed and
ordinarily has a carbon content of 1.25 to 2.0%.

Link: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-low-carbon-steel.htm

High Carbon Steels

Abstrakti:

Generally, the high carbon steels contain from 0.60 to 1.00% C with manganese contents ranging from 0.30 to
0.90%.
The pearlite has a very fine structure, which makes the steel very hard. Unfortunately this also makes the steel quite
brittle and much less ductile than mild steel.
Medium and high carbon steels are widely used in many common applications. Increasing carbon as the primary alloy for the higher
strength and hardness of steels is usually the most economical approach to improved performance. However, some of the effects of
elevated carbon levels include reduced weldability, ductility and impact toughness. When these reduced properties can be tolerated,

the increased strength and hardness of the higher carbon materials can be used to a significant advantage. Common applications of
higher carbon steels include forging grades, rail steels, spring steels (both flat rolled and round), pre-stressed concrete, wire rope,
tire reinforcement, wear resistant steels (plates and forgings), and high strength bars.
To increase the performance of steels in these applications, it is common to maximize strength and hardness by raising the carbon
level to the highest practical level. The limiting factor to carbon additions will vary depending on the type of applications. For forging
steels and bar products, it may be toughness or weldability. For high strength wire, the limiting factor for carbon addition is generally
the eutectoid carbon level, above which the presence of grain boundary carbides will dramatically reduce drawability.
Generally, the high carbon steels contain from 0.60 to 1.00% C with manganese contents ranging from 0.30 to 0.90%. High carbon
steels are used for spring materials and high-strength wires. Ultrahigh carbon steels are experimental alloys containing
approximately 1.25 to 2.0% C. These steels are thermomechanically processed to produce microstructures that consist of ultrafine,
equiaxed grains of ferrite and a uniform distribution of fine, spherical, discontinuous proeutectoid carbide particles. Such
microstructures in these steels have led to superplastic behavior.

Figure 1: Historical Description of the Fe-C phase diagram

Figure 2: Microstructure of high carbon steel

Figure 2 shows the microstructure of high carbon steel with about 0.8% C by weight, alloyed with iron. The steel has one major
constituent, which is pearlite. It is made up from a fine mixture of ferrite and iron carbide, which can be seen as a "wormy" texture.
The pearlite has a very fine structure, which makes the steel very hard. Unfortunately this also makes the steel quite brittle and
much less ductile than mild steel. The high carbon steel has good wear resistance, and until recently was used for railways. It is also
used for cutting tools, such as chisels and high strength wires. These applications require a much finer microstructure, which
improves the toughness.
The common standards which define high carbon spring steel wire are:
ASTM A-227 Class I/II
ASTM A-417 Class I/II
ASTM A-407 Type A/B/C/D/E/F/G/H
ASTM A-228 Music Wire
Application
High carbon steel is used for applications in which high strength, hardness and wear resistance are necessary, such as wear parts,
knives, saw blades, springs, gear wheels, chains, brackets etc. cold chisels, wrenches, Jaws for vices, pneumatic drill bits, wheels
for railways service, wire for structural work, shear blades, hacksaws

Alloy steel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and 50%
by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down into two groups: lowalloy steels and high-alloy steels. The difference between the two is somewhat arbitrary: Smith
and Hashemi define the difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo, et al., define it at 8.0%. Most
commonly, the phrase "alloy steel" refers to low-alloy steels.
[1][2]

Strictly speaking, every steel is an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy steels". The simplest
steels are iron (Fe) alloyed withcarbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type). However, the
term "alloy steel" is the standard term referring to steels with otheralloying elements added
deliberately in addition to the carbon. Common alloyants include manganese (the most common
one), nickel,chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. Less common alloyants
include aluminum, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium,titanium, tungsten, tin, zinc, lead, and zirconium.
The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels (as compared to carbon
steels): strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, hardenability, and hot
hardness. To achieve some of these improved properties the metal may require heat treating.
Some of these find uses in exotic and highly-demanding applications, such as in the turbine blades
of jet engines, in spacecraft, and in nuclear reactors. Because of the ferromagnetic properties
of iron, some steel alloys find important applications where their responses to magnetism are very
important, including in electric motors and in transformers.

Stainless steel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French "inoxydable", is
a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium content by mass.
[1]

Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with water as ordinary steel does. However, it
is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen, high-salinity, or poor air-circulation environments. There are
different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment the alloy must endure.
Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and corrosion resistance are required.
[2]

Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Unprotected carbon
steel rusts readily when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and
accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide; and, because of the greater volume of the iron
oxide, this tends to flake and fall away. Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form
a passive film of chromium oxide, which prevents further surface corrosion by blocking oxygen
diffusion to the steel surface and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure.
Due to the similar size of the steel and oxide ions, they bond very strongly and remain attached to
the surface.
[3]

[citation needed]

Passivation occurs only if the proportion of chromium is high enough and oxygen is present.

Austenitic stainless steel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
This article needs attention from an expert on the subject. (May 2012)
This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2012)

300 Series austenitic stainless steel has austenite as its primary phase (face centered
cubic crystal). These are alloys containing chromium and nickel, and
sometimesmolybdenum and nitrogen, structured around the Type 302 composition of iron, 18%
chromium, and 8% nickel. 200 Series austenitic stainless steels replace the majority of their nickel
content with manganese to reduce cost. Austenitic steels are not hardenable by heat treatment. The

most familiar stainless steel is probably SAE 304 stainless steel, also called 18/8 or A2 stainless
steel. Type 304 surgical stainless steel is an austenitic steel containing 18-20% chromium and 810% nickel.
Alloy 20 (Carpenter 20) is an austenitic stainless steel possessing excellent resistance to hot sulfuric
acid and many other aggressive environments which would readily attack type 316 stainless.This
alloy exhibits superior resistance to stress-corrosion cracking in boiling 20-40% sulfuric acid. Alloy 20
has excellent mechanical properties and the presence of columbium in the alloy minimizes the
precipitation of carbides during welding.
[1]

Austenitic stainless steel can be tested by nondestructive testing using the dye penetrant
inspection method but not the magnetic particle inspection method. Eddy-current testingmay also be
used. It is the primary stainless steel used in aviation construction. Chemical and steel industryapplicable grades are SAE steel grades 308, 308L, 316, 316L, 316LN (nitrogen bearing), 312, 309L,
and 310L. "L" denotes a carbon percentage less than 0.03%, mostly used for corrosion heat
resistance and reducing sensitivity to chromium carbide formation. Another grade, 312, is used for
dissimilar steel welding, also known as universal alloy steel as unknown composition steels can be
welded. For high temperature applications at greater than 600C, grades 309 and 310 are preferred.
Grade 316 is alloyed with molybdenum (~23%) for high-temperature strength, pitting and crevice
corrosion resistance.

Martensitic stainless steel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Martensitic stainless steel is a specific type of stainless steel alloy.

Stainless steels may be classified by their crystalline structure into three main
types: Austenitic, Ferritic and Martensitic. Martensitic stainless steels can be high or are low carbon
steels built around the Type 410 composition of iron, 12% chromium, and 0.12% carbon. They are
usually tempered and hardened. Tempered martensite gives steel good hardness and high
toughness; used largely for medical tools (scalpels, razors and internal clamps). Untempered
martensite is low in toughness and therefore brittle.
[1]

[2]

The characteristic body centered tetragonal martensite microstructure was first observed by German
microscopist Adolf Martens around 1890. In 1912, Elwood Haynes applied for a U.S. patent on
a martensitic stainless steel alloy. This patent was not granted until 1919.
[3]

Martensitic stainless steel can be tested by Nondestructive testing using the Magnetic particle
inspection method, unlike austenitic stainless steel.
Also in 1912, Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, while
seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a
martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915
newspaper article in The New York Times. Brearly applied for a U.S. patent during 1915. This was
later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and was used for the new
entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in 1929 inLondon.
[4]

[5]

Precipitation hardening
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)

Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a heat treatment technique used to
increase the yield strength of malleable materials, including most structural alloys
ofaluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some stainless steels. In superalloys, it is known to
cause yield strength anomaly providing excellent high-temperature strength.
Precipitation hardening relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine particles
of an impurity phase, which impede the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice.
Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden the material.
The impurities play the same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced
composite materials. Just as the formation of ice in air can produce clouds, snow, or hail, depending
upon the thermal history of a given portion of the atmosphere, precipitation in solids can produce
many different sizes of particles, which have radically different properties. Unlike ordinary tempering,
alloys must be kept at elevated temperature for hours to allow precipitation to take place. This time
delay is called "aging". Solution treatment and aging is sometimes abbreviated "STA" in
metals specsand certs.
Note that two different heat treatments involving precipitates can alter the strength of a material:
solution heat treating and precipitation heat treating. Solid solution strengtheninginvolves formation
of a single-phase solid solution via quenching. Precipitation heat treating involves the addition of
impurity particles to increase a material's strength. Precipitation hardening via precipitation heat
treatment is the main topic of discussion in this article.
[1]

Precipitation Hardening of Aluminum Alloys

Abstrakti:

Precipitation hardening, or age hardening, provides one of the most widely used mechanisms for the strengthening of
metal alloys. The strongest aluminum alloys (2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx) are produced by age hardening.
In order for an alloy system to be able to be precipitation-strengthened, there must be a terminal solid solution that
has a decreasing solid solubility as the temperature decreases. The precipitation-hardening process involves three
basic steps: solution treatment, quenching and aging.
Precipitation hardening, or age hardening, provides one of the most widely used mechanisms for the strengthening of metal alloys.
The fundamental understanding and basis for this technique was established in early work at the U. S. Bureau of Standards on
Duralumin.
The importance of theoretical suggestion for the development of new alloys is clear from the historical record. At the end of the 19th
century, cast iron was the only important commercial alloy not already known to western technology at the time of the Romans.
When age hardening of aluminum was discovered accidentally by Wilm, during the years 1903 -1911, it quickly became an
important commercial alloy under the trade name Duralumin.
The strength and hardness of some metal alloys may be enhanced by the formation of extremely small uniformly dispersed secondphase particles within the original phase matrix in a process known as precipitation or age hardening. The precipitate particles act
as obstacles to dislocation movement and thereby strengthen the heat-treated alloys. Many aluminum based alloys, copper-tin,
certain steels, nickel based super-alloys and titanium alloys can be strengthened by age hardening processes.
In order for an alloy system to be able to be precipitation-strengthened, there must be a terminal solid solution that has a decreasing
solid solubility as the temperature decreases. The Al-Cu (Duralumin is an aluminum alloy of 2XXX group) phase diagram shown in
Figure 1 shows this type of decrease along the solvus between the and + regions. Consider a 96wt%Al 4wt%Cu alloy which is
chosen since there is a large degrease in the solid solubility of solid solution in decreasing the temperature from 550C to 75C.

Figure 1: The aluminum rich end of the Al-Cu phase diagram showing the three steps in the age-hardening heat treatment and the
microstructures that are produced.
In an attempt to understand the dramatic strengthening of this alloy, Paul D. Merica and his coworkers studied both the effect of
various heat treatments on the hardness of the alloy and the influence of chemical composition on the hardness. Among the most
significant of their findings was the observation that the solubility of CuAl2 in aluminum increased with increasing temperature.
Although the specific phases responsible for the hardening turned out to be too small to be observed directly, optical examination of
the microstructures provided an identification of several of the other phases that were present. The authors proceeded to develop an
insightful explanation for the hardening behavior of Duralumin which rapidly became the model on which innumerable modern highstrength alloys have been developed.
They summarized the four principal features of the original Duralumin theory:

age-hardening is possible because of the solubility-temperature relation of the hardening constituent in aluminum,

the hardening constituent is CuAl2,

hardening is caused by precipitation of the constituent in some form other than that of atomic dispersion, and probably in fine molecular,
colloidal or crystalline form, and

the hardening effect of CuAl2 in aluminum was deemed to be related to its particle size.

The precipitation-hardening process involves three basic steps:

1) Solution Treatment, or Solutionizing, is the first step in the precipitation-hardening process where the alloy is heated above the
solvus temperature and soaked there until a homogeneous solid solution () is produced. The precipitates are dissolved in this
step and any segregation present in the original alloy is reduced.
2) Quenching is the second step where the solid is rapidly cooled forming a supersaturated solid solution of SS which contains
excess copper and is not an equilibrium structure. The atoms do not have time to diffuse to potential nucleation sites and thus
precipitates do not form.
3) Aging is the third step where the supersaturated , SS, is heated below the solvus temperature to produce a finely dispersed
precipitate. Atoms diffuse only short distances at this aging temperature. Because the supersaturated is not stable, the extra
copper atoms diffuse to numerous nucleation sites and precipitates grow. The formation of a finely dispersed precipitate in the alloy
is the objective of the precipitation-hardening process. The fine precipitates in the alloy impede dislocation movement by forcing the
dislocations to either cut through the precipitated particles or go around them. By restricting dislocation movement during
deformation, the alloy is strengthened.
Age Hardening Precipitation. The strongest aluminum alloys (2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx) are produced by age hardening. A fine
dispersion of precipitates can be formed by appropriate heat treatment.

A general model for decomposition is given, followed by details of the precipitation sequences in 4 specific alloy systems: Al-Cu, AlCu-Mg, Al-Mg-Si and Al-Zn-Mg. The Al-Cu system is used as the main example of decomposition, i.e.
a0 (SSSS) GP zones '' '
or, more fully:
a0 (SSSS) 1 + GP zones 2 + '' 3 + ' 4 +
Age Hardening Strengthening. The 3 main mechanisms are:

Coherency strain hardening;

Chemical hardening;

Dispersion hardening

Coherency strain hardening results from the interaction between dislocations and the strain fields surrounding GP zones and/or
coherent precipitates. Chemical hardening results from the increase in applied stress required for a dislocation to cut through a
coherent (or semi-coherent) precipitate. This in turn depends on a number of factors, including:

the extra interfacial area - and hence energy - between precipitate and matrix;

the possible creation of an anti-phase boundary (APB) within an ordered precipitate and

the change in separation distance between dissociated dislocations due to different stacking fault energies of matrix and precipitate.

Dispersion hardening occurs in alloys containing incoherent precipitates or particles - i.e. typically those that have been overaged.
This hardening results from the increased shear stress required for dislocations to by-pass these obstacles.
As mentioned above, the precipitation reactions in Al-Cu are quite complex. The equilibrium phase CuAl 2 is difficult to nucleate so its
formation is preceded by a series of metastable precipitates. Guinier and Preston first discovered many of the age hardening
phenomena. The first two precipitates to form in the sequence are, therefore, known as GP zones. GP1 consists of 10 nm diameter
copper-rich plates on {100}Al planes. These develop into GP2 zones which are also coherent plates 10 nm thick and 150 nm
diameter. These lead to maximum hardening. Theta' /'/ precipitates then replace the GP zones as semi-coherent particles, a stage
known as over-aging because the hardness begins to decrease. The equilibrium phase CuAl 2 has a tetragonal crystal structure and
contributes little to hardness.
In the field of 6000 series precipitation hardening aluminum alloys, for instance, process models have been able to describe the
effect of quench-induced precipitation on structural defects on the hardening potential during isothermal low-temperature aging.
The fracture toughness of 7000 series alloys has been related to some elements of the microstructure resulting from the thermomechanical treatment in phenomenological models. The general strategy of process modeling is to use individual equations which
have been developed for well defined experiments and try to integrate them in an integrated manner for the more complex practical
situations where coupled effects operate.
However, a good description is still lacking when several of these phenomena are simultaneously operative. The understanding of
competitive precipitation of several phases (metastable and stable) on several nucleation sites (e.g. homogeneous and on structural
defects) is very limited, as well as the understanding of the shearing/by-passing transition leading to the maximum strength for
precipitation hardening materials. The strain hardening behavior of materials containing precipitates (and thus necessarily a solid
solution) is poorly understood, and predicting the fracture toughness in cases where several fracture modes are simultaneously
operating is not possible in the present state of the art.

Tool steel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009)

Steels and other ironcarbon alloy phases

Ferrite

Austenite

Cementite

Graphite
Martensite
Microstructures

Spheroidite

Pearlite

Bainite

Ledeburite
Tempered martensite

Widmanstatten structures
Classes

Crucible steel

Carbon steel

Spring steel

Alloy steel

Maraging steel

Stainless steel

Weathering steel

Tool steel
Other iron-based materials

Cast iron

Gray iron

White iron

Ductile iron

Malleable iron

Wrought iron

Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made
into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion and
deformation and their ability to hold a cutting edge at elevated temperatures. As a result tool steels
are suited for their use in the shaping of other materials.
With a carbon content between 0.5% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully
controlled conditions to produce the required quality. The presence of carbides in their matrix plays
the dominant role in the qualities of tool steel. The four major alloying elements in tool steel that form
carbides are: tungsten, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum. The rate of dissolution of the
different carbides into the austenite form of the iron determines the high temperature performance of
steel. Proper heat treatment of these steels is important for adequate performance.

The manganese content is often kept low to minimize the possibility of cracking during
water quenching.
[1]

There are six groups of tool steels: water-hardening, cold-work, shock-resisting, high-speed, hotwork, and special purpose. The choice of group to select depends on, cost, working temperature,
required surface hardness, strength, shock resistance, and toughness requirements. The more
severe the service condition (higher temperature, abrasiveness, corrosiveness, loading), the higher
the alloy content and consequent amount of carbides required for the tool steel.
[2]

Tool steels are used for cutting, pressing, extruding, and coining of metals and other materials. Their
use for applications likeinjection molding due to their the resistance to abrasion is an important
criterion for a mold that will be used to produce hundreds of thousands of parts is essential.
The AISI-SAE grades of tool steel is the most common scale used to identify various grades of tool
steel. Individual alloys within a grade are given a number; for example: A2, O1, etc.
Contents
[hide]

1 Water-hardening group

2 Cold-work group
o

2.1 Oil-hardening

2.2 Air-hardening

2.3 High carbon-chromium, D-type

2.4 1.2767 type

3 Shock-resisting group

4 High speed group

5 Hot-working group

6 Special purpose group

7 Comparison

8 See also

9 References

10 Bibliography

11 External links

Water-hardening group[edit]
W-group tool steel gets its name from its defining property of having to be water quenched. W-grade
steel is essentially high carbon plain-carbon steel. This group of tool steel is the most commonly
used tool steel because of its low cost compared to others. They work well for small parts and
applications where high temperatures are not encountered; above 150 C (302 F) it begins to soften
to a noticeable degree. Its hardenability is low, so W-group tool steels must be subjected to a rapid

quenching, requiring the use of water. These steels can attain high hardness (above HRC 66) and
are rather brittle compared to other tool steels. W-steels are still sold, especially for springs, but are
much less widely used than they were in the 19th and early 20th centuries. This is partly because Wsteels warp and crack much more during quench than oil-quenched or air hardening steels.
The toughness of W-group tool steels are increased by alloying with manganese, silicon and
molybdenum. Up to 0.20% of vanadium is used to retain fine grain sizes during heat treating.
Typical applications for various carbon compositions are for W-steels:

0.600.75% carbon: machine parts, chisels, setscrews; properties include medium hardness
with good toughness and shock resistance.

0.760.90% carbon: forging dies, hammers, and sledges.

0.911.10% carbon: general purpose tooling applications that require a good balance of
wear resistance and toughness, such as rasps, drills, cutters, and shear blades.

1.111.30% carbon: files, small drills, lathe tools, razor blades, and other light-duty
applications where more wear resistance is required without great toughness. Steel of about
0.8% C gets as hard as steel with more carbon, but the free iron carbide particles in 1% or
1.25% carbon steel make it hold an edge better. However, the fine edge probably rusts off faster
than it wears off, if it is used to cut acidic or salty materials.

Cold-work group[edit]
The cold-work tool steels are a group of steels used to cut or form materials that are at low
temperatures. The group consists of three groups of steels: oil-hardening, air-hardening, and high
carbon-chromium. This group possesses high hardenability and wear resistance, and average
toughness and heat softening resistance. They are used in production of larger parts or parts that
require minimal distortion during hardening. The use of oil quenching and air-hardening helps reduce
distortion, avoiding the higher stresses caused by the quicker water quenching. More alloying
elements are used in these steels, as compared to the water-hardening class. These alloys increase
the steels' hardenability, and thus require a less severe quenching process and as a result are less
likely to crack. They have high surface hardness and are often used to make knife blades. The
machinability of the oil hardening grades is high and low for the high carbon-chromium types.

Oil-hardening[edit]
Grad
e

O1

Composition

0.90% C, 1.01.4% Mn, 0.50% Cr,

0.50% W

Notes

It is a very good cold work steel and also makes very good knives and forks. It can be
hardened to about 57-61 HRC.

Air-hardening[edit]
The first air-hardening grade tool steel was mushet steel, which was known as air-hardening steel at
the time.
Modern air-hardening steels are characterized by low distortion during heat treatment because of
their high-chromium content. They also harden in air due to their alloy than oil-hardening grades.

Their machinability is good and they have a balance of wear resistance and toughness (i.e. between
the D- and shock-resistant grades).
[3]

Grad
e

Composition

A2[4]

1.0% C, 1.0% Mn, 5.0% Cr,

0.3% Ni, 1.0% Mo, 0.150.50% V

A3[5]

1.25% C, 0.5% Mn, 5.0% Cr, 0.3%

Ni, 0.91.4% Mo, 0.81.4% V

A4[6]

1.0% C, 2.0% Mn, 1.0% Cr, 0.3%

Ni, 0.91.4% Mo

A6[7]

0.7% C, 1.82.5% Mn, 0.91.2%

Cr, 0.3% Ni, 0.91.4% Mo

A7[8]

2.002.85% C, 0.8% Mn, 5.00

5.75% Cr, 0.3% Ni, 0.91.4% Mo,
3.95.15% V, 0.51.5 W

A8[9]

0.50.6% C, 0.5% Mn, 4.755.50%

Cr, 0.3% Ni, 1.151.65% Mo, 1.0
1.5 W

A9[10]

0.5% C, 0.5% Mn, 0.951.15% Si,

4.755.00% Cr, 1.251.75% Ni,
1.31.8% Mo, 0.81.4% V

A10[11]

1.251.50% C, 1.62.1% Mn, 1.0

1.5% Si, 1.552.05% Ni, 1.25
1.75% Mo

Notes

A common general purpose tool steel; it is the most commonly used variety of air-hardening
steel. It is commonly used for blanking and forming punches, trimming dies, thread rolling
dies, and injection molding dies.[3]

This type of tool steel air-hardens at a relatively low temperature (approximately the same
temperature as oil-hardening types) and is dimensionally stable. Therefore it is commonly
used for dies, forming tools, and gauges that do not require extreme wear resistance but do
need high stability.[3]

This grade contains a uniform distribution of graphite particles to increase machinability and
provide self-lubricating properties. It is commonly used for gauges, arbors, shears, and
punches.[12]

High carbon-chromium, D-type[edit]

The D-type, of the cold-work class of tool steels, contain between 10% and 13% chromium. These
steels retain their hardness up to a temperature of 425 C (797 F). Common applications for these
tool steels include forging dies, die-casting die blocks, and drawing dies. Due to their high chromium
content, certain D-type tool steels are often consideredstainless or semi-stainless, however their
corrosion resistance is very limited due to the precipitation of the majority of their chromium and
carbon constituents as carbides.

Grad
e

D2

Composition

1.5% C, 11.013.0% Cr; additionally

0.45%Mn, 0.030% P, 0.030% S,
1.0% V, 0.9% Mo, 0.30% Si

Notes

D2 is very wear resistant but not as tough as lower alloyed steels. The mechanical
properties of D2 are very sensitive to heat treatment. It is widely used for the production
of shear blades, planer blades and industrial cutting tools; sometimes used for knife
blades.

1.2767 type[edit]
ISO 1.2767, also known as DIN X 45 NiCrMo 4, AISI 6F7, and BS EN 20 B, is an air-hardening tool
steel with a primary alloying element of nickel. It possesses good toughness, stable grains, and is
highly polishable. It is primarily used for dies in plastic injection molding application that involve high
stresses. Other applications include blanking dies, forgingdies, and industrial blades.
[13]

Shock-resisting group[edit]
The high shock resistance and good hardenability are provided by chromium-tungsten, siliconmolybdenum, silicon-manganese alloying. Shock-resisting group tool steels (S) are designed to
resist shock at both low and high temperatures. A low carbon content is required for the necessary
toughness (approximately 0.5% carbon). Carbide-forming alloys provide the necessary abrasion
resistance, hardenability, and hot-work characteristics. This family of steels displays very high impact
toughness and relatively low abrasion resistance and can attain relatively high hardness
(HRC 58/60). In the US, toughness usually derives from 1 to 2% silicon and 0.5-1% molybdenum
content. In Europe, shock steels often contain 0.5-0.6 % carbon and around 3% nickel. 1.75% to
2.75% nickel is still used in some shock resisting and high strength low alloy steels (HSLA), such as
L6, 4340, and Swedish saw steel, but it is relatively expensive. An example of its use is in the
production of jackhammer bits.

High speed group[edit]

Main article: High speed steel

Hot-working group[edit]
Hot-working steels are a group of steel used to cut or shape material at high temperatures. H-group
tool steels were developed for strength and hardness during prolonged exposure to elevated
temperatures. These tool steels are low carbon and moderate to high alloy that provide good hot
hardness and toughness and fair wear resistance due to a substantial amount of carbide. H1 to H19
are based on a chromium content of 5%; H20 to H39 are based on a tungsten content of 9-18% and
a chromium content of 34%; H40 to H59 are molybdenum based.
[1]

Special purpose group[edit]

P-type tool steel is short for plastic mold steels. They are designed to meet the requirements
of zinc die casting and plastic injection molding dies.
L-type tool steel is short for low alloy special purpose tool steel. L6 is extremely tough.

F-type tool steel is water hardened and substantially more wear resistant than W-type tool
steel.

Comparison[edit]
AISI-SAE tool steel grades[14]

Defining property

Water-hardening

Cold-working

Shock resisting

AISI-SAE grade

Significant characteristics

Oil-hardening

Air-hardening; medium alloy

High carbon; high chromium

Tungsten base

Molybdenum base

Hot-working

H1H19: chromium base

H20H39: tungsten base
H40H59: molybdenum base

Plastic mold

High speed

Low alloy

Carbon tungsten

Special purpose

Introduction

AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel has excellent weldability and produces a uniform and harder case and it is considered as
the best steel for carburized parts. AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel offers a good balance of toughness, strength and
ductility. Provided with higher mechanical properties, AISI 1018 hot rolled steel also includes improved machining
characteristics and Brinell hardness.
Specific manufacturing controls are used for surface preparation, chemical composition, rolling and heating processes. All
these processes develop a supreme quality product that are suited to fabrication processes such as welding, forging,
drilling, machining, cold drawing and heat treating.

Chemical Composition
Element

Content

Carbon, C

0.14 - 0.20 %

Iron, Fe

98.81 - 99.26 % (as remainder)

Manganese, Mn

0.60 - 0.90 %

Phosphorous, P

0.040 %

Sulfur, S

0.050 %

Physical Properties
Physical Properties
Density

Metric

Imperial

7.87 g/cc

0.284 lb/in3

Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Properties

Metric

Imperial

Hardness, Brinell

126

126

Hardness, Knoop (Converted from Brinell hardness)

145

145

Hardness, Rockwell B (Converted from Brinell hardness)

71

71

131

131

Tensile Strength, Ultimate

440 MPa

63800 psi

Tensile Strength, Yield

370 MPa

53700 psi

Elongation at Break (In 50 mm)

15.0 %

15.0 %

Reduction of Area

40.0 %

40.0 %

Modulus of Elasticity (Typical for steel)

205 GPa

29700 ksi

Bulk Modulus (Typical for steel)

Hardness, Vickers (Converted from Brinell hardness)

140 GPa

20300 ksi

Poissons Ratio (Typical For Steel)

0.290

0.290

Machinability (Based on AISI 1212 steel. as 100% machinability)

70 %

70 %

80.0 GPa

11600 ksi

Shear Modulus (Typical for steel)

Electrical Properties
Electrical Properties

Metric

English

Comments

Electrical resistivity @0C (32F)

0.0000159 -cm

0.0000159 -cm

annealed condition

@100 C/ 212 F

0.0000219 -cm

0.0000219 -cm

annealed condition

@ 200 C/392 F

0.0000293 -cm

0.0000293 -cm

annealed condition

Machining
The machinability of AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is graded at 78% of B1112.

Weldability
AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel can be instantly welded by all the conventional welding processes. Welding is not
recommended for AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel when it is carbonitrided and carburized.
Low carbon welding electrodes are to be used in the welding procedure, and post-heating and pre-heating are not
necessary. Pre-heating can be performed for sections over 50 mm. Post-weld stress relieving also has its own beneficial
aspects like the pre-heating process.

Heat Treatment
The heat treatment for AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel consists of the following processes:

Normalizing

AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel should be heated at 890C 940C and then cooled in still air.

Forging

This process requires heating between 1150C 1280C and AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is held until the
temperature becomes constant.

900C is the minimum temperature required for the forging process.

The steel is then cooled in air after this process.

Tempering

AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is tempered at between 150C 200C for improvement of case toughness. This
process has little or no effect on hardness.

The occurrence of grinding cracks is reduced when AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is tempered at the above
mentioned temperature.

Annealing

The AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is heated at 870C 910C and allowed to cool in a furnace

Stress Relieving

500C 700C is required to relieve stress in AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel that is later cooled down in still air.

Case Hardening

This process requires heating to be carried out between 780C 820C. AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel is then
quenched in water.

Core Refining

This is an optional process that requires heating at 880C 920C.

AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel after being heated is moistened in oil or water.

Carburizing

Carburizing takes place at 880C 920C.

Applications of AISI 1018 Mild/Low Carbon Steel

It is used in bending, crimping and swaging processes.

Carburized parts that include worms, gears, pins, dowels, non-critical components of tool and die sets, tool
holders, pinions, machine parts, ratchets, dowels and chain pins use AISI 1018 mild/low carbon steel.

It is widely used for fixtures, mounting plates and spacers.

It is suitably used in applications that do not need high strength of alloy steels and high carbon.

It provides high surface hardness and a soft core to parts that include worms, dogs, pins, liners, machinery parts,
special bolts, ratchets, chain pins, oil tool slips, tie rods, anchor pins, studs etc.

It is used to improve drilling, machining, threading and punching processes.

It is used to prevent cracking in severe bends.

Date Added: Jun 28, 2012 | Updated: Jul 13, 2013

Low carbon steels offer many applications. Truck bed floors, automobile doors, domestic appliances, and spare tire tubs are just a
few of the things made with these types of steel. By definition, these steels can contain up to around 0.2 percent carbon by weight.
Some of the more widely used low carbon steels include 1010, 1018, and 1020 steel.
The automobile industry employs a considerable amount of this steel for making parts that require simple bending or moderate
forming. Truck cab backs, tailgate access covers, floor pans, and bed floors are often made of this steel. Roofs, hoods, doors, and
body sides on regular automobiles are also usually made of it. Other automobile parts, such as spare tire tubs and dash panels
feature low carbon steel construction.
Very low carbon steel contains only up to 0.05 percent carbon. Manufacturers often make steel paneling out of very low carbon
steels. These steels are also often used to create non-critical structural shapes for buildings. The carbon content of low carbon steel
varieties generally ranges between 0.05 and 0.2 percent. They are often used to make beams and structural shapes for bridges and
buildings.
The carbon in steel affects the materials ductility and strength; steels with high carbon contents are stronger than steels with lower
carbon contents. Conversely, high carbon steels are less ductile than low carbon steels. High ductility, however, results in
poor machinability. Utilizing higher spindle speeds on machines makes machining these highly ductile steels much easier. In
general, low-quality steels, such as certain low carbon steels with high phosphorous and sulphur contents offer better machinability
than cleaner, higher quality steels.
Low carbon 1010 steel contains 0.10 percent carbon. This steel is low-strength steel but its strength can be increased through
various tempering processes. Certain types of fasteners and bolts feature low carbon 1010 steel. One of the most popular varieties
of low carbon steel is 1018 steel, which is relatively easy to machine, form, and weld. Sprocket assemblies are often made of this
steel.
The carbon content of 1020 steel can reach around 0.2 percent. Low carbon 1020 steel is often used for making bolts and
fasteners. The strength and ductility of this steel contributes to its widespread use. It can also be hardened to increase its
applications. Compared to 1010 steel, 1020 steel offers higher tensile strength and hardness values.

LINK: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-different-uses-of-low-carbon-steel.htm
http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6115

Medium Carbon Steel

The uses for medium-carbon steel are defined by the requirement for a high tensile strength and
ductility that, despite its brittleness when compared to other forms of steel, make it the preferred
choice. Between 0.3 and 0.7 percent carbon is added during the manufacturing process to create a
medium or mid-range steel product. This specific range of carbon is combined with a process of
quenching (i.e., cooling the steel from the outer surface to the inner) and tempering to create a
structure that has a consistent tensile strength (referred to as Martensite) throughout the body.

Shafts and Gearing

Axle shafts, crankshafts and gearing plates are all made from medium-carbon steel. The
ductility of the steel allows it to be formed into thin shafts or toothed plates without losing any of its
tensile strength.

Pressured Structures

The ductility of the medium-carbon steel allows it to be shaped into plates for boilers and other
tanks that have highly pressurized contents. Medium-carbon steel cannot be used for pressurized tank
systems that contain cold liquids or gasses because the Martensite structure of the steel makes it
brittle and susceptible to cold cracking. Stainless steel or other high carbon steels are used for those
types of applications.

Railway Applications

Railway wheels, rails and other steel parts associated with the suspension of rail cars are made
of medium-carbon steel. The high tensile strength is necessary to withstand the changing force of the
rail cars on the rails.

Structural Steel

Structural steel beams, joiner plates and other shapes associated with building require a high
tensile strength to resist the torque and pressure of buildings and bridges. Special care must be taken
to properly insulate the steel to prevent it from being affected by extremes of heat and cold, which can
change the Martensite structure and lessen its structural integrity.

http://www.ehow.com/info_8520946_uses-mediumcarbon-steel.html

Read more : http://www.ehow.com/info_8520946_uses-mediumcarbon-steel.html

The fracture characteristics of steels are strongly influenced by martensite substructure, retained austenite stability, and morphology.
Attractive strength-toughness properties have been attained with Fe-Cr-C-Mn alloys. These alloys, when tested under sliding wear
conditions, also exhibit good wear resistance which compares favorably with that of commercial wear-resistant alloys. The most significant
finding is an apparently strong correlation between sliding wear resistance and retained austenite, which in turn appears to correlate with
Charpy impact properties. Little correlation was observed between hardness and wear resistance for the experimental steels.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0043164882901387

High Carbon Steel Properties & Uses

Steel is one of the most important construction metals in the world. While this is common knowledge,
many people do not understand the difference between high carbon steel and other types of steel. Like
any other specific type of steel, the high carbon version of this medal not only has specific properties
unique to itself, but also boasts both unique advantages and disadvantages when compared to other
types of steel.

Common Properites

High carbon steel will be any type of steel that contains over 0.8% carbon but less than 2.11%
carbon in its composition. The average level of carbon found in this metal usually falls right around the
1.5% mark. High carbon steel has a reputation for being especially hard, but the extra carbon also
makes it more brittle than other types of steel. This type of steel is the most likely to fracture when
misused.

Advantages

Depending on the specific needs of the person using it, high carbon steel can have many
advantages over other options. This type of steel is excellent for making cutting tools or masonry nails.
The hardness levels and metal wear resistance of high carbon steel is also rated very highly. High
carbon steel is also preferred by many manufacturers who create metal cutting tools or press
machinery that must bend and form metal.

Disadvantages

Many disadvantages also come with the use of high carbon steel. This type of steel is not
recommended for any type of welding or welding work. Out of the commonly used types of steel, this
one is the most likely to fracture or break because of extra brittleness. This style of steel doesn't
necessarily hold up to wear as well as other types of specialty steel.

Common Uses

High carbon steel remains popular for a wide variety of uses. This type of steel is preferred in
the manufacturing of many tools such as drill bits, knives, masonry nails, saws, metal cutting tools,
and woodcutting tools.

http://www.ehow.com/list_7596348_high-carbon-steel-properties-uses.html

Stainless steel is usually divided into 5 types:

a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

Ferritic These steels are based on Chromium with small amounts of Carbon usually less than 0.10%.
These steels have a similar microstructure to carbon and low alloy steels. They are usually limited in
use to relatively thin sections due to lack of toughness in welds. However, where welding is not
required they offer a wide range of applications. They cannot be hardened by heat treatment. High
Chromium steels with additions of Molybdenum can be used in quite aggressive conditions such as
sea water. Ferritic steels are also chosen for their resistance to stress corrosion cracking. They are not
as formable as austenitic stainless steels. They are magnetic.
Austenitic - These steels are the most common. Their microstructure is derived from the addition of
Nickel, Manganese and Nitrogen. It is the same structure as occurs in ordinary steels at much higher
temperatures. This structure gives these steels their characteristic combination of weldability and
formability. Corrosion resistance can be enhanced by adding Chromium, Molybdenum and Nitrogen.
They cannot be hardened by heat treatment but have the useful property of being able to be work
hardened to high strength levels whilst retaining a useful level of ductility and toughness. Standard
austenitic steels are vulnerable to stress corrosion cracking. Higher nickel austenitic steels have
increased resistance to stress corrosion cracking. They are nominally non-magnetic but usually exhibit
some magnetic response depending on the composition and the work hardening of the steel.
Martensitic - These steels are similar to ferritic steels in being based on Chromium but have higher
Carbon levels up as high as 1%. This allows them to be hardened and tempered much like carbon and
low-alloy steels. They are used where high strength and moderate corrosion resistance is required.
They are more common in long products than in sheet and plate form. They have generally low
weldability and formability. They are magnetic.
Duplex - These steels have a microstructure which is approximately 50% ferritic and 50% austenitic.
This gives them a higher strength than either ferritic or austenitic steels. They are resistant to stress
corrosion cracking. So called lean duplex steels are formulated to have comparable corrosion
resistance to standard austenitic steels but with enhanced strength and resistance to stress corrosion
cracking. Superduplex steels have enhanced strength and resistance to all forms of corrosion
compared to standard austenitic steels. They are weldable but need care in selection of welding
consumables and heat input. They have moderate formability. They are magnetic but not so much as
the ferritic, martensitic and PH grades due to the 50% austenitic phase.
Precipitation hardening (PH) - These steels can develop very high strength by adding elements such
as Copper, Niobium and Aluminium to the steel. With a suitable aging heat treatment, very fine
particles form in the matrix of the steel which imparts strength. These steels can be machined to quite
intricate shapes requiring good tolerances before the final aging treatment as there is minimal
distortion from the final treatment. This is in contrast to conventional hardening and tempering in
martensitic steels where distortion is more of a problem. Corrosion resistance is comparable to
standard austenitic steels like 1.4301 (304).

LINK: http://www.bssa.org.uk/faq.php?id=10

Steel Corrosion
The corrosion process that takes place on a piece of uncoated steel is very complex. Factors such as variations in
the composition/structure of the steel, presence of impurities due to the higher instance of recycled steel, uneven
internal stress, and/or exposure to non-uniform environment all affect the corrosion process.

It is very easy for microscopic areas of the exposed steel to become relatively anodic or cathodic to one another. A
large number of such areas can develop in a small section of the exposed steel. Further, it is highly possible several
different types of galvanic corrosion cells are present in the same small area of an actively corroding piece of steel.

As the corrosion process progresses, corrosion products tend to build up in certain areas of the metal. These
corrosion products have different elemental compositions than the original state. The new compositions exposed on
the surface lead to changes in the anodic and cathodic areas. As the change in anodic and cathodic areas occur,
previously uncorroded areas of the metal can be attacked and corrode. This will accelerate the overall corrosion of
the steel surface.

Iron and steel, the most commonly used metals, corrode in many media including most outdoor atmospheres. Usually they are selected not for their
corrosion resistance but for such properties as strength, ease of fabrication, and cost. These differences show up in the rate of metal lost due to
rusting. All steels and low-alloy steels rust in moist atmospheres. In some circumstances, the addition of 0.3% copper to carbon steel can reduce the
rate of rusting by one quarter or even by one half. A modern and comprehensive document on the subject is the second edition of the
classic CORROSION BASICS textbook. Some excerpts of that document are used here.

Steel cathodic protection

The elements copper, phosphorus, chromium and nickel have all been shown to improve resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Formation of a dense,
tightly adhering rust scale is a factor in lowering the rate of attack. The improvement may be sufficient to encourage use without protection, and can
also extend paint life by decreasing the amount of corrosion underneath the paint. The rate of rusting will usually be higher in the first year of
atmospheric exposure than in subsequent years, and will increase significantly with the degree of pollution and moisture in the air.
Ordinary steels are essentially alloys of iron and carbon with small additions of elements such as manganese and silicon added to provide the requisite
mechanical properties. The steels are manufactured from a mixture of pig iron and scrap, which is treated in the molten state to remove excess carbon
and other impurities. The steel may be continuously cast into strands or cast into individual ingots. The final product is then produced by rolling,
drawing or forging. During hot rolling and forging the steel surface is oxidized by air and the scale produced, usually termed millscale. In air, the
presence of millscale on the steel may reduce the corrosion rate over comparatively short periods, but over longer periods the rate tends to rise. In
water, severe pitting of the steel may occur if large amounts of millscale are present on the surface.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in passivating environments

Carbon and low alloy steels can suffer from SCC in a wide range of environments that tend to form a protective passivating film of oxide or other
species. Cracking will not normally occur when there is a significant corrosion rate (note that this is not the case for hydrogen embrittlement - see
below). A wide range of environments have been found to cause SCC, including strong caustic solutions, phosphates, nitrates, carbonates, and hot
water. The problems are important for both economic and safety reasons. (reference)

Caustic cracking of steam-generating boilers was a serious problem in the late 19th century (the necessary strong caustic solution was produced by
evaporation of the very dilute solution inside the boiler as it escaped through leaks in the riveted seams) and boiler explosions led to significant loss of
life. More recently gas transmission pipelines have cracked in carbonate solutions produced under protective coatings as a result of cathodic protection
systems. In this case the crack runs along the length of the pipe, and may propagate for very long distances by fast fracture. If the gas cloud that is
released ignites, the resultant fireball is devastating.

Link: http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/MatSelect/corrsteel.htm

The corrosion products of steel are oxide particles and have a distinctive brown/red (rust) color. Just a small amount
of these particles can cause an uncoated steel surface to appear corroded. Steel corrodes naturally when exposed
to the atmosphere, but the corrosion process accelerates when electrochemical corrosion cells are active on the
surface.

LINK: http://www.galvanizeit.org/corrosion/corrosion-process/steel-corrosion

Steel is the World's Most Recycled Material

Steel is the most recycled material on the planet, more than all other materials combined. Steel retains an extremely high overall recycling
rate, which in 2012, stood at 88 percent.
The amazing metallurgical properties of steel allow it to be recycled continually with no degradation in performance, and from one product to
another.
The sources for steel scrap are plentiful, but are classified into three main categories: home scrap, prompt scrap and obsolete scrap.

Home scrap is the scrap that is produced from within the mill itself and is available within weeks. Prompt scrap is scrap that it is produced
from manufacturing products from steel, and is available within months. Obsolete scrap is scrap produced from steel products at the end of
their lives and it may be decades before this scrap is available (example: The Golden Gate Bridge).
Even while two out of every three tons of new steel are produced from old steel, it is still necessary to continue to use some quantities of
virgin materials. This is true because many steel products remain in service as durable goods for decades at a time and demand for steel
around the world continues to grow.
Beyond the steel scrap itself, the steel industry has long recycled its by-products: mill scale, steelmaking slags, water and processing liquids.
Likewise, steelmaking dusts and sludges are processed so that other metals, such as zinc, can be recovered and resused.
Steel is the engine that drives the recycling of many consumer goods as can be seen by the 92.5 percent recycling rate of automobiles, the
90 percent recycling rate of appliances and the 72 percent recycling rate of steel packaging. For more information on the industrys steel
recycling accomplishments, visit the Steel Recycling Institute website at http://www.recycle-steel.org.
Or, for more information on the importance of Reducing, Reusing and Recycling, read this case history from WorldSteel.

Link: https://www.steel.org/Sustainability/Steel
%20Recycling.aspx