CHAPTER-1.

INTRODUCTION
As the technology progressing, the speed of traveling is also increased. The source to destination
became so closer to each others. The main advancement in the field of the air traveling system
with the help of airplane . This is the major discovery of technology. But as the speed increases,
the horror of air crash also introduced. Because at a height of 2000m and above if a plane
crashes, it will be a terror for any body. So to take the feed back of the various activities happens
in the plane and record them engineers need a mechanism to record such activities .With any
airplane crash, there are many unanswered questions as to what brought the plane down.
Investigators turn to the airplane's flight data recorder (FDR) and cockpit voice recorder (CVR),
also known as "black boxes," for answers. In Flight 261, the FDR contained 48 parameters of
flight data, and the CVR recorded a little more than 30 minute of conversation and other audible
cockpit noises.

Figure1.1 black box

CHAPTER-2. CVR AND FDR

2.1 COCKPIT VOICE RECORDERS

In almost every commercial aircraft, there are several microphones built into the cockpit to track
the conversations of the flight crew. These microphones are also designed to track any ambient
noise in the cockpit, such as switches being thrown or any knocks or thuds. There may be up to
four microphones in the plane's cockpit, each connected to the cockpit voice recorder (CVR).
ANY sound in the cockpit are picked up by these microphones and sent to the CVR, where the
recordings are digitized and stored. There is also another device in the cockpit, called the
associated control unit, that provides pre-amplification for audio going to the CVR.
Here are the positions of the four microphones:

Pilot's headset

Co-pilot's headset

Headset of a third crew member (if there is a third crew member)

Near the center of the cockpit, where it can pick up audio alerts and other sounds

Most magnetic-tape CVRs store the last 30 minutes of sound. They use a continuous loop of tape
that completes a cycle every 30 minutes. As new material is recorded, the oldest material is
replaced. CVRs that used solid-state storage can record two hours of audio. Similar to the
magnetic-tape recorders, solid-state recorders also record over old material.

2.2 FLIGHT DATA RECORDERS

The flight data recorder (FDR) is designed to record the operating data from the plane's systems.
There are sensors that are wired from various areas on the plane to the flight-data acquisition
unit, which is wired to the FDR. When a switch is turned on or off, that operation is recorded by
the FDR.
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In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that commercial airlines
record a minimum of 11 to 29 parameters, depending on the size of the aircraft. Magnetic-tape
recorders have the potential to record up to 100 parameters. Solid-state FDRs can record more
than 700 parameters. On July 17, 1997, the FAA issued a Code of Federal Regulations that
requires the recording of at least 88 parameters on aircraft manufactured after August 19, 2002.
Here are a few of the parameters recorded by most FDRs:

Time

Pressure altitude

Airspeed

Vertical acceleration

Magnetic heading

Control-column position

Rudder-pedal position

Control-wheel position

Horizontal stabilizer

Fuel flow

Solid-state recorders can track more parameters than magnetic tape because they allow for a
faster data flow. Solid-state FDRs can store up to 25 hours of flight data. Each additional
parameter that is recorded by the FDR gives investigators one more clue to look into after a crash
as it is very important to find the proper reason of the crash to prevent it.

CHAPTER-3. RECORDING AND STORAGE

3.1 MAGNETIC TAPE

The Wright Brothers pioneered the use of a device to record propeller rotations, according to
documents provided by L-3 Communications. However, the widespread use of aviation recorders
didn't begin until the post-World War II era. Since then, the recording medium of black boxes has
evolved in order to record much more information about an aircraft's operation.
Although many of the black boxes in use today use magnetic tape, which was first introduced in
the 1960s, airlines are moving to solid-state memory boards, which came along in the 1990s.
Magnetic tape works like any tape recorder. The Mylar tape is pulled across an electromagnetic
head, which leaves a bit of data on the tape.
Black-box manufacturers are no longer making magnetic tape recorders as airlines begin a full
transition to solid-state technology. Let's take a look at solid-state technology.

Figure3.1 Magnetic Tape

3.2 SOLID-STATE TECHNOLOGY

Solid-state recorders are considered much more reliable than their magnetic-tape counterparts,
according to Ron Crotty, a spokesperson for Honeywell, a black-box manufacturer. Solid state
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uses stacked arrays of memory chips, so they don't have moving parts. With no moving parts,
there are fewer maintenance issues and a decreased chance of something breaking during a crash.
Data from both the CVR and FDR is stored on stacked memory boards inside the crashsurvivable memory unit (CSMU). In recorders made by L-3 Communications, the CSMU is a
cylindrical compartment on the recorder. The stacked memory boards are about 1.75 inches (4.45
cm) in diameter and 1 inch (2.54 cm) tall. The memory boards have enough digital storage space
to accommodate two hours of audio data for CVRs and 25 hours of flight data for FDRs.
Airplanes are equipped with sensors that gather data. There
are sensors that detect acceleration, airspeed, altitude, flap settings, outside temperature, cabin
temperature and pressure, engine performance and more. Magnetic-tape recorders can track
about 100 parameters, while solid-state recorders can track more than 700 in larger aircraft. All
of the data collected by the airplane's sensors is sent to the flight-data acquisition unit (FDAU) at
the front of the aircraft. This device often is found in the electronic equipment bay under the
cockpit. The flight-data acquisition unit is the middle manager of the entire data-recording
process. It takes the information from the sensors and sends it on to the black boxes. Both black
boxes are powered by one of two power generators that draw their power from the plane's
engines. One generator is a 28-volt DC power source, and the other is a 115-volt, 400-hertz (Hz)
AC power source. These are standard aircraft power supplies, according to Frank Doran, director
of engineering for L-3 Communications Aviation Recorders.

CHAPTER-4. CSMU-BUILT TO SURVIVE

In many airline accidents, the only devices that survive are the crash-survivable memory units
(CSMUs) of the flight data recorders and cockpit voice recorders. Typically, the rest of the
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recorders' chassis and inner components are mangled. The CSMU is a large cylinder that bolts
onto the flat portion of the recorder. This device is engineered to withstand extreme heat, violent
crashes and tons of pressure. In older magnetic-tape recorders, the CSMU is inside a rectangular
box. Using three layers of materials, the CSMU in a solid-state black box insulates and protects
the stack of memory boards that store the digitized information. We will talk more about the
memory and electronics in the next section. Here's a closer look at the materials that provide a
barrier for the memory boards, starting at the innermost barrier and working our way outward:

Aluminum housing - There is a thin layer of aluminum around the stack of memory
cards.

High-temperature insulation - This dry-silica material is 1 inch (2.54 cm) thick and
provides high-temperature thermal protection. This is what keeps the memory boards safe
during post-accident fires.

Stainless-steel shell- The high-temperature insulation material is contained within a

stainless-steel cast shell that is about 0.25 inches (0.64 cm) thick. Titanium can be used to
create this outer armor as well.

4.1 TESTING A CSMU

To ensure the quality and survivability of black boxes, manufacturers thoroughly test the
CSMUs. Remember, only the CSMU has to survive a crash -- if accident investigators have that,
they can retrieve the information they need. In order to test the unit, engineers load data onto the
memory boards inside the CSMU. L-3 Communications uses a random pattern to put data onto
every memory board. This pattern is reviewed on readout to determine if any of the
data has been damaged by crash impact, fires or pressure. There are several tests that make up
the crash-survival sequence:

Crash impact - Researchers shoot the CSMU down an air cannon to create an impact of
3,400 Gs (1 G is the force of Earth's gravity, which determines how much something
weighs). At 3,400 Gs, the CSMU hits an aluminum, honeycomb target at a force equal to
3,400 times its weight. This impact force is equal to or in excess of what a recorder might
experience in an actual crash.
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Pin drop - To test the unit's penetration resistance, researchers drop a 500-pound (227kg) weight with a 0.25-inch steel pin protruding from the bottom onto the CSMU from a
height of 10 feet (3 m). This pin, with 500-pounds behind it, impacts the CSMU
cylinder's most vulnerable axis.

Static crush - For five minutes, researchers apply 5,000 pounds per square-inch (psi) of
crush force to each of the unit's six major axis points.

Fire test - Researchers place the unit into a propane-source fireball, cooking it using
three burners. The unit sits inside the fire at 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,100 C) for one
hour. The FAA requires that all solid-state recorders be able to survive at least one hour at
this temperature.

Deep-sea submersion - The CSMU is placed into a pressurized tank of salt water for 24
hours.

Salt-water submersion - The CSMU must survive in a salt water tank for 30 days.

Fluid immersion - Various CSMU components are placed into a variety of aviation
fluids, including jet fuel, lubricants and fire-extinguisher chemicals.

During the fire test, the memory interface cable that attaches the memory boards to the circuit
board is burned away. After the unit cools down, researchers take it apart and pull the memory
module out. They restack the memory boards, install a new memory interface cable and attach
the unit to a readout system to verify that all of the preloaded data is accounted for. Black boxes
are usually sold directly to and installed by the airplane manufacturers. Both black boxes are
installed in the tail of the plane -- putting them in the back of the aircraft increases their chances
of survival. The precise location of the recorders depends on the individual plane. Sometimes
they are located in the ceiling of the galley, in the aft cargo hold or in the tail cone that covers the
rear of the aircraft. Typically, the tail of the aircraft is the last portion of the aircraft to impact,"
Doran said.

CHAPTER-5. RETRIEVING INFORMATION

5.1 AFTER A CRASH

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Although they are called "black boxes," aviation recorders are actually painted bright orange.
This distinct color, along with the strips of reflective tape attached to the recorders' exteriors,
help investigators locate the black boxes following an accident. These are especially helpful
when a plane lands in the water. There are two possible origins of the term "black box": Some
believe it is because early recorders were painted black, while others think it refers to the
charring that occurs in post-accident fires.

5.2 UNDERWATER LOCATOR BEACON

In addition to the paint and reflective tape, black boxes are equipped with an underwater locator
beacon (ULB). If you look at the picture of a black box, you will almost always see a small,
cylindrical object attached to one end of the device. While it doubles as a handle for carrying the
black box, this cylinder is actually a beacon. If a plane crashes into the water, this beacon sends
out an ultrasonic pulse that cannot be heard by human ears but is readily detectable by sonar and
acoustical locating equipment. There is a submergence sensor on the side of the beacon that
looks like a bull's-eye. When water touches this sensor, it activates the beacon. The beacon sends
out pulses at 37.5 kilohertz (kHz) and can transmit sound as deep as 14,000 feet (4,267 m). Once
the beacon begins "pinging," it pings once per second for 30 days. This beacon is powered by a
battery that has a shelf life of six years. In rare instances, the beacon may get snapped off during
a high-impact collision. In the United States, when investigators locate a black box it is
transported to the computer labs at the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). Special
care is taken in transporting these devices in order to avoid any (further) damage to the recording
medium. In cases of water accidents, recorders are placed in a cooler of water to keep them from
drying out.
"What they are trying to do is preserve the state of the recorder until they have it in a location
where it can all be properly handled," Doran said. "By keeping the recorder in a bucket of water,
usually it's a cooler, what they are doing is just keeping it in the same environment from which it
was retrieved until it gets to a place where it can be adequately disassembled."

5.3 DATA DECODING

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After finding the black boxes, investigators take the recorders to a lab where they can download
the data from the recorders and attempt to recreate the events of the accident. This process can
take weeks or months to complete. In the United States, black-box manufacturers supply the
NTSB with the readout systems and software needed to do a full analysis of the recorders' stored
data.Of the FDR is not damaged, investigators can simply play it back on the recorder by
connecting it to a readout system. With solid-state recorders, investigators can extract stored data
in a matter of minutes. Very often, recorders retrieved from wreckage are dented or burned. In
these cases, the memory boards are removed, cleaned up and a new memory interface cable is
installed. Then the memory board is connected to a working recorder. This recorder has special
software to facilitate the retrieval of data without the possibility of overwriting any of it.

CHAPTER-6. BLACK BOX TESTING

Black Box Testing is testing without knowledge of the internal workings of the item being tested.
For example, when black box testing is applied to software engineering, the tester would only
know the legal inputs and what the expected outputs should be, but not how the program
actually arrives at those outputs.It is because of this that black box testing can be considered
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testing with respect to the specifications, no other knowledge of the program is necessary. For
this reason, the tester and the programmer can be independent of one another, avoiding
programmer bias toward his own work. For this testing, test groups are often used, Test groups
are sometimes called professional idiotspeople who are good at designing incorrect data. 1
Also, do to the nature of black box testing, the test planning can begin as soon as the
specifications are written. The opposite of this would be glass box testing, where test data are
derived from direct examination of the code to be tested. For glass box testing, the test cases
cannot be determined until the code has actually been written. Both of these testing techniques
have advantages and disadvantages, but when combined, they help to ensure thorough testing of
the product.

6.1 TESTING STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES

Black box testing should make use of randomly generated inputs (only a test range should
be specified by the tester), to eliminate any guess work by the tester as to the methods of
the function.

Data outside of the specified input range should be tested to check the robustness of the
program.

Boundary cases should be tested (top and bottom of specified range) to make sure the
highest and lowest allowable inputs produce proper output.

The number zero should be tested when numerical data is to be input

Stress testing should be performed (try to overload the program with inputs to see where
it reaches its maximum capacity), especially with real time systems crash testing should
be performed to see what it takes to bring the system down.

Test monitoring tools should be used whenever possible to track which tests have already
been performed and the outputs of these tests to avoid repetition and to aid in the
software maintenance.
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 Other functional testing techniques include: transaction testing, syntax testing, domain
testing, logic testing, and state testing.

Finite state machine models can be used as a guide to design functional tests.

CHAPTER-7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

BLACK BOX

7.1 ADVANTAGES

More Effective On Larger Units Of Code Than Glass Box Testing.

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Tester Needs No KnOwledge Of Implementation, Including Specific Programming

Languages.

Tester And Programmer Are Independent Of Each Other .

Tests Are Done From A Users Point Of View .

Will Help To Expose Any Ambiguities Or Inconsistencies In The Specifications.

Test Cases Can Be Designed As Soon As The Specifications Are Complete .

7.2 DISADVANTAGES

Only A Small Number Of Possible Inputs Can Actually Be Tested, To Test Every Possible
Input Stream Would Take Nearly Forever.

Without Clear And Concise Specifications, Test Cases Are Hard To Design.

There May Be Unnecessary Repetition Of Test Inputs If The Tester Is Not Informed Of
Test Cases The Programmer Has Already Tried.

May Leave Many Program Paths Untested.

Cannot Be Directed Toward Specific Segments Of Code Which May Be Very Complex
(And Therefore More Error Prone).

Most Testing Related Research Has Been Directed Toward Glass Box Testing .

CONCLUSION

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From the study of Black Box we derived a information that how the information about aircraft
mishap is analyzed & unanswered question is answered. In this study we discuss about various
technology various aspects involved in black box. Currently, black boxes aren't just taking flight
-- they're being grounded as well. Several automobile manufacturers are utilizing black box
technology in their automobiles and a few have been doing so for quite some time. According to
an article titled "Black boxes in GM cars increasingly help police after accidents" General
Motors has been using black box technology for over a decade. The manufacturer has been
installing a Sensing and Diagnostic Module (SDM) on thousands of its cars, including the
Corvette. Furthermore, this article reports that "industry insiders say as many as a dozen other
manufacturers install similar technology under different labels."

REFERENCES

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Bowyer,

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(2010),

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Shaping

Ideas

Project:

Black

box

Wordpress.com,wordpress.com/3dprint.html 25th March 2010.

[2] Chua, K. Leong, K. Lim, C. (2003). Rapid Prototyping: Principles and Applications (2nd
edition). World Scientific Publishing Company Singapore, 2003, P124
[3] Jane Bird (2012-08-08). "Exploring the black boxes". The Financial Times. vol. 10, pp. 129140.
[4] Hopkinson, N & Dickens, P 2006, black boxes, in Rapid Manufacturing; An industrial
revolution for the digital age, Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, W. Sussane.

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