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Shaft Design
Shaft Design
Shaft Design
Transmission shafts transmit torque from one location to another
Spindles are short shafts
Axles are non-rotating shafts
Figure 9.1 is an example of a shaft with several features. It is a shaft for a Caterpillar tractor transmission
1
.
1 From
9.1
Shaft Loads
9.2
Steps and shoulders are used to locate attachment (gears, sheaves, sprockets)
Keys, snap rings, cross pins (shear pins), tapered pins
Use generous radii to reduce stress concentrations
Clamp collars
Split collar
Press fits and shrink fits
Bearings may be located by the use of snap rings, but only one bearing is fixed
Issues - axial location, disassembly, and element phasing (e.g., alignment of gear teeth for timing)
MACHINE DESIGN
by Robert L. Norton,
Prentice-Hall 2000
snap ring
clamp
collar
taper
pin
key
hub
bearing
hub
shaft
step
bearing
press
fit
step
step
step
press
fit
axial
clearance
frame
frame
sprocket
gear
FIGURE 9-2
Various Methods to Attach Elements to Shafts
9.3
Shaft Materials
sheave
9.3.1
Shaft Power
9.4
(9.1)
9.5
Shaft Stresses
Bending Stress
alt
mean
Ma c
I
Mm c
= kf m
I
= kf
(9.2)
(9.3)
alt
mean
9.5.1
9.6
9.6.1
Ta r
J
Tm r
= kf sm
J
= kf s
(9.4)
(9.5)
Shaft Design
General Considerations
1. To minimize both deflections and stresses, the shaft length should be kept as short as possible and
overhangs minimized.
2. A cantilever beam will have a larger deflection than a simply supported (straddle mounted) one for the
same length, load, and cross section, so straddle mounting should be used unless a cantilever shaft is
dictated by design constraints. (Figure 9-2 shows a situation in which an overhung section is required
for serviceability.)
3. A hollow shaft has a better stiffness/mass ratio (specific stiffness) and higher natural frequencies than
a comparably stiff or strong solid shaft, but will be more expensive and larger in diameter.
4. Try to locate stress-raisers away from regions of large bending moment if possible and minimize their
effects with generous radii and relief.
5. General low carbon steel is just as good as higher strength steels (since deflection is typical the design
limiting issue).
6. Deflections at gears carried on the shaft should not exceed about 0.005 inches and the relative slope
between the gears axes should be less than about 0.03 degrees.
3
MACHINE DESIGN
by Robert L. Norton,
Prentice-Hall 2000
from ref. 2
from ref. 3
a
Se
a
Se
from ref. 3
a
a
S +S =1
e
es
2
m
a
S +S =1
e
ys
a
Ses
m
Sys
(a) Combined stress fatigue-test data for reversed
bending combined with static torsion (from ref. 4)
FIGURE 9-3
Results of Fatigue Tests of Steel Specimens Subjected to Combined Bending and Torsion (From Design of Transmission Shafting,
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, ANSI/ASME Standard B106.1M-1985, with permission)
7. If plain (sleeve) bearings are to be used, the shaft deflection across the bearing length should be less
than the oil-film thickness in the bearing.
8. If non-self-aligning rolling element bearings are used, the shafts slope at the bearings should be kept
to less than about 0.04 degrees.
9. If axial thrust loads are present, they should be taken to ground through a single thrust bearing per
load direction. Do not split axial loads between thrust bearings as thermal expansion of the shaft can
overload the bearings.
10. The first natural frequency of the shaft should be at least three times the highest forcing frequency
expected in service, and preferably much more. (A factor of ten times or more is preferred, but this is
often difficult to achieve).
Designing for Fully Reversed Bending and Steady Torsion
ASME Method (ANSI/ASME Standard for Design of Transmission Shafting B106.1M-1985.
Uses the elliptical curve of Figure 9-3.
Equations 9.5e and 9.6a,b.
9.6 can be applied only for
constant torque
fully reversed moment.
No axial load
v
s
u
u
32Saf
etyF
actor
Ma 2 3 T m 2
3
(kf
) + (
)
d=t
Sf
4 Sy
(9.6)
9.6.2
Shaft Deflection
Deflection is often the more demanding constraint. Many shafts are well within specification for stress but
would exhibit too much deflection to be appropriate.
9.6.3
gear
d
T
a
b
l
FIGURE P9-3
P9-03.pdf
9.6.4
Splines
9.6.5
Interference Fits
Components can be attached to a shaft without a key or spline by using an interference fit.
There are two methods used to assemble these components:
press fit
shrink (and/or expansion) fit
The amount of interference is important
The analysis of interference follows from the equations for pressure on thick-walled cylinders.
A rule of thumb that is used is one to two thousands of diametral interference per unit of shaft diameter,
e.g., a shaft of two inch diameter would have 0.004 inches of interference with an attached gear hub.
Machinists use a simplified approach to this 1/1000 of interference for each inch of diameter.
However, there is a formal approach
Standards have been developed for these fits.
Metric Preferred Metric Limits and Fits ANSI B4.2-1978.
US Customary Preferred Limits and Fits for Cylindrical Parts ANSI B4.1-1967
9.7
9.7.1
9.7.2
IT6
0.006
0.008
0.009
0.011
0.013
0.016
0.019
0.022
0.025
0.029
0.032
0.036
IT7
0.010
0.012
0.015
0.018
0.021
0.025
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.046
0.052
0.057
Tolerance Grades
IT8
IT9
0.014 0.025
0.018 0.030
0.022 0.036
0.027 0.043
0.033 0.052
0.039 0.062
0.046 0.074
0.054 0.087
0.063 0.100
0.072 0.115
0.081 0.130
0.089 0.140
IT10
0.040
0.048
0.058
0.070
0.084
0.100
0.120
0.140
0.160
0.185
0.210
0.230
IT11
0.060
0.075
0.090
0.110
0.130
0.160
0.190
0.220
0.250
0.290
0.320
0.360
9.7.3
These are related to the tolerance grades. See the table below. Capital letters always refer to the hole (or
bore) and lowercase letters are used for the shaft.
9.7.4
Fit Types
Table 9.3 provides a linguistic description for commonly used references to fit types.
9.8
Flywheel Design
One of the biggest issues with regard to flywheels is balancing. Because they are, by intention, devices with
large inertias, balancing them to remove eccentric loading and thus lower the loading on bearings and other
components is very important.
Flywheels develop large stresses at their inter hub connection due to dynamic forces caused by the spinning.
These stresses can lead to failure. Careful design is required to avoid catastrophic failure.
9.9
Critical Speeds
There are three types of vibration that are encountered with shafts:
Clearance
Upper Deviation Letter
c
d
f
g
-0.060 -0.020 -0.006 -0.002
-0.070 -0.030 -0.010 -0.004
-0.080 -0.040 -0.013 -0.005
-0.095 -0.050 -0.016 -0.006
-0.095 -0.050 -0.016 -0.006
-0.110 -0.065 -0.020 -0.007
-0.110 -0.065 -0.020 -0.007
-0.120 -0.080 -0.025 -0.009
-0.130 -0.080 -0.025 -0.009
-0.140 -0.100 -0.030 -0.010
-0.150 -0.100 -0.030 -0.010
-0.170 -0.120 -0.030 -0.012
-0.180 -0.120 -0.036 -0.012
-0.200 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014
-0.210 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014
-0.230 -0.145 -0.043 -0.014
-0.240 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015
-0.260 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015
-0.280 -0.170 -0.050 -0.015
-0.300 -0.190 -0.056 -0.017
-0.330 -0.190 -0.056 -0.017
-0.360 -0.210 -0.062 -0.018
-0.400 -0.210 -0.062 -0.018
h
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Transition
Interference
Lower-Deviation Letter
k
n
p
s
u
0 +0.004 +0.006 +0.014 +0.018
+0.001 +0.008 +0.012 +0.019 +0.023
+0.001 +0.010 +0.015 +0.023 +0.028
+0.001 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033
+0.001 +0.012 +0.018 +0.028 +0.033
+0.002 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.041
+0.002 +0.015 +0.022 +0.035 +0.048
+0.002 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.060
+0.002 +0.017 +0.026 +0.043 +0.070
+0.002 +0.020 +0.032 +0.053 +0.087
+0.002 +0.020 +0.032 +0.059 +0.102
+0.003 +0.023 +0.037 +0.071 +0.124
+0.003 +0.023 +0.037 +0.079 +0.144
+0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.092 +0.170
+0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.100 +0.190
+0.003 +0.027 +0.043 +0.108 +0.210
+0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.122 +0.236
+0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.130 +0.258
+0.004 +0.031 +0.050 +0.140 +0.284
+0.004 +0.034 +0.056 +0.158 +0.315
+0.004 +0.034 +0.056 +0.170 +0.350
+0.004 +0.037 +0.062 +0.190 +0.390
+0.004 +0.037 +0.062 +0.208 +0.435
Type of fit
Clearance
Transition
Interference
Symbol
H11/c11
H9/d9
H8/f8
H7/g6
H7/h6
H7/k6
H7/n6
H7/p6
H7/s6
H7/u6
Lateral vibration
Shaft whirl
Torsional vibration
9.10
Couplings
Many applications require us to connect one shaft to another axially. This is done with the use of couplings.
Note that the possibility of getting the two shafts perfectly aligned (linearly and angularly) is essentially
zero, so couplings are typically designed to accomodate some misalignment. Couplings come in many shapes,
sizes, and degrees of misalignment. One type of coupling you might be familiar with is the universal joint,
see Figure 9.5. A recent inovation used with front wheel drive is the CV (constant velocity) joint.
Another type used widely for connections to electric motors is a flexible coupling, see Figure 9.6.
9.11
Summary
While shafting can be purchased as a stock item, most applications require some customization of the
layout and dimensioning to accommodate the attachment of components and bearings. Almost all shafts are
9
designed for high cycle fatigue (HCF), and are made of steel, since it has an fatigue limit. One is cautioned
to applied the shaft diameter design equations presented in Norton (Equation 9.6 & Equation 9.8) properly
since specific requirements must be met to apply these equations.
Many other factors come into play during the shaft design process. These may include:
keyways and keys
splines
couplings
shaft vibrations and balancing
flywheels
10