LINUX

Types of OS:
1. Single user OS
a. Single Tasking Ex: MS - DOS
b. Multi Tasking Ex: Ms Windows
95/98/me/xp/vista
2. Multi user OS Ex: Unix, Linux
3. Network OS Ex: Windows NT/2000/2003
Linux: linux is a multi user/multi tasking operating
system which is developed by linus trovalds, when he
was a university student. HE made source code available
in internet so that every body can access it with out any
cost.
Features:
Multi User Capability
Multi Tasking
Security
User level
File level
Encryption / decryption
Virus Free
Communication
Scheduling tasks
Terminals:
Dump Terminals
Intelligent Terminals
Dial-Up Terminals
Linux Kernel:

It is heart of Linux OS where each and every

management is taken care by Kernal.
Hardware Management
Disk Management
Process Management
Memory Management
Shell: IT is a user interface to contact linux. This is a
place where user inputs the commands or executes shell
scripts.
Different types of shells:
BORN Shell
Bash shell
CSh
tcsh
KSH
Sh etc.,
Commands:
Creating users:
Syn: useradd [-g <group>] [ -d <path>] <login
name>
Ex: useradd -g DBA -d /home/madhu madhu
Useradd madhu
default group: madhu
default path: /home/madhu
To assign password for the user:
Syn: Passwd <username>
Ex: passwd madhu
New Password: madhu123
Re eneter
: madhu123

clear: to clear screen.

echo: To display text on to the screen. Ex: echo
welcome
who: to display list of users curruntly logged in
whoami: displays details regarding currunt user
cat: 1. Create a file
2. Append to a file
3. displaying file
Syn: 1. cat > filename

appworld

^d
2. cat >> filename

^d
3. cat filename(s)
rose lilly jasmine

cat > hello

Welcome to
KPHB Colony
^d
cat >> hello
Hyderabad
^d
cat hello OR cat

ls:To display list of files.

ls l: Display full listing
ls al: display long listing of all files(includeing hidden
files)
mkdir: To create directory
Syn: mkdir <dir name(s)>
Ex: mkdir max
Mkdir jack lion king
Pwd: Present Working Directory. Shows currunt working
dir.
Ex: pwd
/home/satish


Root
cd: to change directory
Syn: cd <dir name>
Ex: cd max
Pwd
/home/satish/max
cd .. takes back to parent directory
cd to come back to default directory.
cp: 1. to copy files Syn: cp file1 file2
2. to copy files to directory Syn: cp file1 file2 file3
file4 directory.
mv:
1. To rename a file/directory
Ex: mv
oldname newmame
2. To move files into a directory Syn: mv file1
file2 file3 file4 directory.
rm: To remove files.

Syn: rm filename [file2 file3 ]

rmdir: To remove directory. We can delete only empty

directory. Syn: rmdir dirname(s)
rm r: to remove directory even it is not empty.Syn: rm
r dirname
DAY 2:
touch: To create empty files.
Syn: touch <filename(s)>
Ex: touch max jack king

ln: to link files. We can give a new name for exisiting

file. The file can be accessed by both the names.
Advantages:
A single file will have two names.
Memory occupied by both files is same.
If file is deleted, it exisit with second
name.
Syn: ln <file1> <file2>
Ln <file(s)> <dir>
Ex: ln hello rose
cal: To display calender
Syn: cal [[<mm>] <yyyy>]
Ex: cal displays currunt month
cal 2007
cal 09 1977
date: to display system date
Ex: date
Thu Jul 23 10:11:12 IST 2009
Formats:
%d day
%m month
%y year
%H hours
%M minuts
%S sec.
%n new line
date '+ Today is %d'
date '+ %d/%m/%y'
date '+ %d/%m/%y%n%H:%M:%S'
man: displays manual of any command. Ex: man date

bc: Base Calculator

bc
10+20
30
18/2
9
10+58*78/86
62
scale=2 to specify decimal spaces.
10+58*78/86
62.60
^d
expr: Arithmetic Expression solver
Syn: expr <arith opr>
Ex: expr 10 + 20
30
+, -, \*, /, \( \)
WILD CARD Characters:
?
Single Char.
*
More Chars
[ ] Any one among group.
ls l f* displays all files which start with f
ls l ???
ls l s?n
rm *.dat
cp * max
ls l s[o,u]n
ls l [a,e,i,o,u]* all files starting with
a/e/i/o/u

ls l [^a,e,i,o,u]* all files not starting with

a/e/i/o/u
PATHS:

A path is a address of a file. there are two types of paths.

* absolute path
* relative path
Absolute Path: The full path of a file is called absolute
path. i.e. a file is represented with its full address from
the root directory.
$ pwd
/home/madhu
$ cat /home/madhu/flowers/trees/rose/r1
$rm /home/madhu/flowers/creepy/lilly/*
$cp /home/madhu/flowers/trees/jasmine/*
/home/madhu/flowers/creepy/lotus
$cp ~/flowers/trees/jasmine/*
~/flowers/creepy/lotus
~ default home directory
Relative Path:

If a file is represented relative to currunt working

directory, it is relative paths.
$pwd
/home/madhu
$cp flowers/trees/jasmine/* flowers/creepy/lotus
$ cd flowers
$ pwd
/home/madhu/flowers
$cp trees/rose/* creepy/lotus/white
$cp ~/* .
$cd trees/rose
$ pwd
/home/madhu/flowers/trees/rose
$ cp * .. [cpoies all files to parent dir]
$cp * ../jasmine [copies all files to jasmine dir.
Present in parent ]
$cd ../..

DAY 3:
VI Editor:
To modify file contents and also used to create files.
Syn: vi <filename>
esc : Comes out of insert mode
:w save the file
:q quit
:wq save and quit
:q! Force quit
There are two types of commands:

 Command mode commands

Xcommand mode commands
Text insertion commands:
i: to Insert text at currunt cursor possition
a: to insert text after currunt cursor possition
I: Inserts text at beginning of line
A: Inserts text at end of line
o (small): To insert new line after cursor position
O : To insert new line before cursor position
Text replace commands:
r: To replace a single character
R: To replace text
Commands to delete text:
x(small): To delete a character at current cursor
position [Works like DEL key]
X (Cap): To delete a character before cursor position
[ works like BACK SPACE key]
dd: TO delete current line
ndd: Deletes n lines. Ex: 3dd delete 3 lines from
cursor position.
dw: To delete a word. Deletes from cursor position
to end of word.
d$: To delete text from cursor position to end of
line
Cursor Movement Commands:
l (small L): Moves cursor right side
h : move cursor left side
j: move cursor to next line
k: move cursor to prev. line

H: Moves to bigging of file

L: Moves to end of file
Yanking(coping) and pasting commands
yy: to copy current line
nyy: To copy n lines. Ex: 4yy
p: to paste lines.
np: pastes n times.

Xcommand Mode commands:

:/<text> to serach for specified text
n Serch of next occurrence
N serach for previous occurrence
:?<text> to serach for text in revrse direction
Wecan use n & N to search text
:[m,n] s/<text>/<repl.text>[/g]
To search and replace text
: s/Rose/Lotus Replaces first occurrence of
Rose with Lotus in currunt line
: s/Rose/Lotus/g Replaces all occurrence of
Rose with Lotus in currunt line. Here g means
globel.
:1, 5 s/Rose/Lotus Replaces first occurrence
of Rose with Lotus in all 1st to 5th lines.
:1, 5 s/Rose/Lotus/g Replaces all occurrence
of Rose with Lotus in all 1st to 5th lines.
. currunt line
$ last line

:1,$ s/Rose/Lotus/g replaces from first line

to last line
: .,$ s/Rose/Lotus/g replaces from currunt
line to last line
Miscellaneous Commands:
~ : To change case
Ctrl + l To redraw the screen
J: To join two lines.
u (small): Undo
U : Undo all operations on same line
chmod: [Change mode]. To change File access
permissions
There two mode of chmod
1. Symbolic Mode
2. Absolute Mode
Symbolic Mode:
Syn: chmod <whome>+/-/=<permission>
<filename>
+ adding
- removing
= assign
Users
Permissions
Owner/user- u
read - r
Group - g
write - w
Others - o
execute - x
All a
Default Permissions for a file: rwr-

U G O

r--

chmod o+w hello giving write permissions

to others
chmod g+r,g+w,g+x hello
chmod g+rwx hello
chmod g-wx hello
chmod o+rwx hello
chmod o=r hello
chmod ugo+rwx hello OR chmod a+rwx hello
Absolute Mode:
Syn: chmod p1p2p3 <filename>
p1 Permissions for Owner
p2 Permissions for group members
p3 Permissions for Others
r-4 w-2 x-1
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

rwx (4+2+1)
rwr-x
r--wx
-w--x
---

Ex: chmod 777 hello

chmod 700 hello
Note: If directory have execute permissions
then only we can enter into it.
Example program:
$ cat > prg

date
who
cal 09 1977
^d
$ Chmod u+x prg
$ ./prg
Umask: displays umask value or sets umask value. A
umask value represents default permissions to a
directory.
$umask
0002
Default permissions of a dir is total
permissions minus umask value. Ie. 777-002 = 775
$umask 077
Default permissions of new dir is total
permissions minus umask value. Ie. 777077 = 700
$ mkdir bond drwx------

FILTER COMMANDS:
head: To displays specified no. of lines from top of
the file.
Syn: head n filename
Ex: head -5 hello displays first 5 lines from
the file hello
Tail: To display specified no. of last lines.
Syn: tail -/+n filename

Ex: tail -5 hello displays last 5 lines

tail +5 hello displays 5th line to last line
wc: Word Count
Syn: wc [-options] filename
Ex: wc hello
11 27 145 hello
Options:
-l : to display lines count
-w: to display words count
-c: to display chars count
Ex: wc -l hello
DAY 4
sort: To display contents of file in sorted order.
Syn: sort [-options] filename
$cat > emp
madhu 31
kumar
24
aruna
23
jeeva
28
nandu
21
ramana 18
^d
$sort emp
aruna
23
jeeva
28
kumar
24
madhu 31
nandu
21
ramana 18

manager
clerk
typist
CLERK
TYPIST
peon

8000
5000
4000
5500
3500
950

typist
CLERK
clerk
manager
TYPIST
peon

4000
5500
5000
8000
3500
950

Options:
-r: to sort data in reverse order
-km[,n]: Here m & n are numbers. Used to
sort data on specified column.
m to specify filed on which we
want to sort data.
Ex: sort -k3 emp
n: In sorting, if there is equal data in
two rows, it compares the next field
and so on.To specify where sorting
should be stopped we use -n option.
Ex: sort -k3,4 emp
-f : to ignore case wile sorting.
Sort f emp
Sort k3
f r emp
Sort k3 f emp
-n: to sort numbers
Sort k4 n emp
-t: to specify field seperator if other than
TAB is used.
sort k3 t ; emp
grep: [Globel Regular Expression Printer] To search
for specified text and display lines containing the
text.
Syn: grep [-options] text filename
Ex: grep clerk emp
Options:
-v: Displays lines those do not contain
specified text.
-i: TO ignore case
-c: Displays count of lines
-n: Displays lines along wioth line
numbers

cut: To cut fields and columns

Syn: cut [options] filename
Options:
-f: To cut fields
-c: to cut columns[characters]
-d: to specify seperator if other than tab is
used.
Ex:
cut -f1 emp
emp
cut -f1,3 emp
emp
cut -f1,3 -d ";" emp2

cut c1
cur c1,4

paste: to combine more than one file horizontally

Ex: paste emp emp2
Tr: Translate
1. tr chars chars < filename To change one
character to another
2. tr s char < filename to supress repeated
character
3. tr d char < filename to delete a character
Ex: tr a z < emp replaces a with z in the file
emp
tr abc xyz < emp replaces a with x, b
with y, c with z in the file emp.
tr a-z A-Z < emp
Piping(|): used to combine more than one command. i.e.
sends one commands output as input to another
command.

Ex:

grep clerk emp | sort

who | sort
who | grep satish | sort
ls l | more
ls l | sort | more
ls l | grep Jul 25

tee: To get intermediate output into a file

Ex: grep clerk emp | tee hello | sort
Grep commands output will be sent into the
file hello and also sent to sort command.
Redirection Symbols:
>
Output Redirection Symbol
>> Append ,,
,,
<
Input
,,
,,
who > xyz
date > xyz
ls -l >> xyz
cat < xyz
0 standerd input
1 - standerd output
2 standerd error
sort aaa 1> hello 2>hi
DAY 5
find: To search for files including sub directories.
Syn: find <path/pattern> [options]
Ex: find .
find ./m*

find ~/m*
Options:
-mtime n: searches for the files which are last
modified before n*24 hours.
Ex: Display files older than 7 days.
find ~/* -mtime 7
-type: to specify what you want to serach. Ex.
To search files we use f to serach dirs we use
d
Ex: find ~/* -type f
-exec: Used to execute a command based on
the search result.
Ex: find max/* -type f exec rm { } \;
-user: To search files which are owned by a
user. Ie. To search for files which are created
by specified user.
Ex: find ~/* -user root
Sed: 1. To replace a text with another text in a file
2. To delete lines containing specified text
Syn 1: sed s/text/rtext/g <filename>
Ex: sed s/madhu/kumar/g emp
Syn 2:
sed /text/d <filename>
Ex: sed /typist/d emp
awk: pattern scanning and processing language
Syn: awk {commands} filename
Ex:
awk { print $1} emp gets first filed in file
emp and displays them with print command.
awk { print $2 + $4 } emp
awk '{ print "Employee name " $1 }' emp
awk -F: { print $2 + $4 } emp2 [useinf -F we
can specifiy field seperator]

awk { sum+=$4 }; END { print sum } emp

adds all values in $4 field and displays total.
Background Processing:
If a process is running in the background where
user can work with other porcesses in frontground, then
it is called background processing. We can send a
process to background using & symbol at the end of
any command/script.
ps: to show list of processes.
Ex: ps
Shows processes ruinning under
currunt user with PID, TTY, CMD
Options:
-f: shows User Id (UId) and also parent
process id (PPID)
-e: Shows all processes running in linux
server.
Ex: ps f
ps e
ps ef
kill: To kill a proces.
Syn:
kill [-9] <PID>
Ex:
kill 7922
Kill -9 6711
sure kill
Sending a process to background:
$cat > prog
while true
do
echo "xyz" > /dev/null
done

^d
Execute the above scrip as follows:
$ sh prog &
Communication Commands
write:
To write a message on another user
terminal.
Syn: write <username> <terminal>
Ex: write hyma
Message(s)
^d
Write satish pts/4
Message(s)
^d
Mesg: To enab;e/disable/view message status
$ mesg
is y
$mesg n To disable messages
$mesg y To enable messages.
who T: Displays list of user along with
message status. Message status will be either
+ or -. If it is +, mean user have messages
enabled.
mail: To send or view mails.
Syn to Send mail:
$ mail <username>
Sub:
.

Cc:
^d
Syn: To view
$ mail
Scheduling Commands:
at: Used to execute a command/shell script in future
time.
Syn:$ at hh:mm
at> command
at> ^d
Ex: at 17:45
at>cp hello hi
at> ^d
atq: Displays list of jobs pending
atrm: to remove jobs. Ex: atrm 2 here 2 is job id
batch: to execute a batch of commands at system free
times. Executes commands if system load average is
less than 0.8.
Syn:batch
at> command
^d
Ex: batch
cp hello king
^d
crontab: Executes command/shell script at regular
intervals of time.
Syn:

Crontab
Min hours day month weekday
command
^d
Ex:
Crontab
28 12 27 7 * cp
/home/madhu/max/hello /home.madhu/max/hi
^d
Every year on 27th july at 12:28
executes the cp command
Example patterns:
30 10 1 * * command
30 * * * * command
crontab -l: to view list of cron jobs
crontab -e: To edit/add/remove jobs
crontab r: to remove all jobs